Section 1.5 and 1.6 Predicates and Quantifiers Vocabulary • • • • • • • Predicate Domain Universal Quantifier Existential Quantifier Counterexample Free variable Bound variable Activity 1 • Define: – Proposition • A statement that can be identified as true or false but not both. – Predicate • A statement whose truth value is a function of one or more variables. In the first two weeks • So far we have looked at : – the concept of proposition statements – Several common operators/connectives ¬ But that isn’t always enough • We talked about the fact that not all sentences are statements: He is the vice president. x+y>10 • The true or false nature of these sentences depends on which values are bound into the variables (he, x, and y) But that isn’t always enough • Similarly, suppose we know: – Every computer connected to the university network is functioning properly. • No rules of propositional logic allow us to conclude that – This laptop is functioning properly We need more • Thus, the next couple of sections introduce another form (a more powerful form) of logic that helps us with these deficiencies. • This type of logic is called predicate logic and is built on the idea of allowing us to write statements that indicate a quantity. The Logic of Quantified Statements • A predicate is a sentence that contains a finite number of variables and becomes a statement when specific values are substituted for the variables. – “He is the vice president” is a sentence – It becomes a predicate statement when he=Joe Biden or he=Paul Andersen or even he=Ben Schafer The Logic of Quantified Statements • The domain of a predicate variable is the set of all values that may be substituted in place of the variable. • What is the domain of “he” – The domain for he in the sentence “He is the vice president” is the set of all humans. The Logic of Quantified Statements • If P(x) is a predicate and x has domain D, the truth set of P(x) is the set of all elements of D that make P(x) true when they are substituted for x. • The truth set of P(x) is denoted: { x D | P(x) } Activity #2 • Let P(x) denote the statement “x+2>5” – What are the truth values of P(4), P(2) and P(3)? – P(4) means “4+2>5” and that is true – P(2) means “2+2>5” and that is false – P(3) means “3+2>5” and that is false Example • Let P(x) denote the statement “x+2>5” – Let the domain of x be Z (the set of all integers) – Then the truth set is {x Z | x>3 } Questions?? Quantifiers • Quantifiers are words that refer to quantities such as “some” or “all” and tell for how many elements a given predicate is true. • In predicate logic we focus on two quantifiers: The Universal Quantifier • The symbol is read as “for all” • Let Q(x) be a predicate and D the domain of x. A universal statement is a statement of the form – x D, Q(x) • For all x who are human beings, x is mortal. • human beings h, h is vice president. The Universal Quantifier • A universal statement is a statement of the form: – x D, Q(x) • This statement is defined to be true if and only if Q(x) is true for every x. • This statement is defined to be false if for at least one value of x exists such that Q(x) is false. X is then called a counterexample. The Universal Quantifier • Assume that x1, x2, x3… xn are EVERY x in the set D. • Then: • x D, Q(x) • Is the same as saying – Q(x1) Q(x2) Q(x3) … Q(xn) The Existential Quantifier • The symbol is read as “there exists” • Let Q(x) be a predicate and D the domain of x. An existential statement is a statement of the form – x D, Q(x) • There exists an integer x such that x*2 = x. • There exists an integer x such that x+1 = x. The Existential Quantifier • An existential statement is a statement of the form: – x D, Q(x) • This statement is defined to be true if and only if Q(x) is true for at least one value of x in D. • This statement is defined to be false if it is false for all x in D. The Existential Quantifier • Assume that x1, x2, x3… xn are EVERY x in the set D. • Then: – x D, Q(x) • Is the same as saying – Q(x1) Q(x2) Q(x3) … Q(xn) Activity #3 • How would you prove that x D, Q(x) is true x D, Q(x) is false x D, Q(x) is true x D, Q(x) is false Activity #4 • • • • Write down a true universal statement Write down a false universal statement Write down a true existential statement Write down a false existential statement Activity #5 • Assume: – – – – the domain consists of integers O(x) is “x is odd” L(x) is “x < 10” G(x) is “x>9” Activity #5 • Given the prior assumptions, what is the truth value of the following statements. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. x [ O(x) ] x [L(x) O(x) ] x [L(x) ¬ G(x) ] x [L(x) G(x)] x [L(x) G(x) Activity #6 • Assume: – the domain consists of integers – A(x) is “x<5” – B(x) is “x<7” Activity #6 • Given the prior assumptions, what is the truth value of the following statements. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. x [ A(x) ] x [ A(x) B(x)] x [ A(x) B(x)] x [ A(x) B(x) ] x [ B(x) A(x) ]