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Appendix A: Triad Task Protocol
Ok. I'm trying to learn more about how kids think, and I need your help. Thanks for helping me
out. Today we are going to talk about experts. Do you know what an expert is?
(Wait for response.)
(If No, say:)
Would you like me to tell you? An expert is someone who knows a lot about something.
(Once they know what an expert is, say:)
Can you think of some experts?
(Wait for response.)
(If yes,)
What kind of experts are you thinking of?
What do they know a lot about?
(Correct their idea of experts if necessary.)
How about a doctor? A doctor is an expert, right?
What do doctors know all about?
(Correct if necessary.)
Right, doctors know all about how our bodies work, more than we know about how our bodies
work. And they know all about why people get sick, and how to help people feel better.
How about a car mechanic (car fixer, someone who fixes cars)?
Car mechanics (or car fixers) are experts to because they know all about how our cars work.
They know how to fix them if they are not working right.
They are experts too, right?
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Now experts don't know everything, do they?
If your car was making funny noises, you wouldn't take it to the doctor, would you?
And if you broke your arm, you wouldn't go to the car mechanic, would you?
No, of course not. So experts know a lot about something, but they don’t know everything.
So here is what we are going to do. I'm going to tell you about an expert, and then I'm going to
ask you what else you think they know. And I'm going to give you two choices. Let's try two
examples to show you how it will go.
I have a friend named Sue. Sue is an expert because she knows all about numbers. She can add
really fast and knows all about how to add big numbers together.
Does she know more about counting or saying the alphabet?
(If participant answers, Saying the alphabet, ask why, then correct.)
Right, she knows more about counting.
Why does she know more about counting?
Right, She knows about counting because she is an expert about numbers.
Now do you think she knows how to say the alphabet? (intonation indicates "yes")
I'm sure she knows how to say the alphabet, but you are right--she knows more about counting.
Good.
So here's the next example.
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I have another friend named Bill. Bill is an expert because he knows all about drawing with
crayons (even more than you or I know about drawing with crayons). He can draw anything with
crayons.
Does he know more about cooking dinner or painting pictures?
(If participant answers, cooking dinner, ask why, then correct.)
Right, he knows more about painting pictures. Now how did you know that? I didn't say he
knew about painting pictures, but you just figured it out.
Good, you've got the hang of this. Let's get started.
Ok, now these questions may not be as easy as the ones we just did (the examples), but
remember there are no right or wrong answers. I really want to know what you think the answer
is.
And I'm going to show you pictures of the experts or pictures of what the experts know about.
The pictures are supposed to help you remember what we're talking about. They do not have any
clues in them, they do not contain the answers, so you do not have to study them really hard or
anything. They are really just to help your remember.
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Appendix B: Original Triad Stimuli
Condition A
This expert knows all about why it's easier to push an empty shopping cart than a full one
(physics)
Do they know more about why when people get paint on their hands, it dries (chemistry)
Do they know more about why when you throw a ball in the air, it comes back down (physics)
phys
This expert knows all about why people sometimes fall on wet floors (physics) phys
Do they know more about why paper burns quickly when you put a match to it (chemistry)
Do they know more about why yo-yo's come back up after you let them down (physics)
This expert knows all about why a hammer drives a nail better if you swing the hammer faster
(physics)
Do they know more about why salt on people's icy driveways makes the ice melt sooner
(chemistry)
Do they know more about why people who jump harder on a trampoline go higher (physics) phys
This expert knows all about why a big, heavy boat takes a really long time to stop (physics)
Do they know more about why laundry soap cleans kid's dirty clothes (chemistry)
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Do they know more about why you can bounce a basketball better on the street than on grass
(physics)
phys
This expert knows all about why some people act like leaders and some people act like followers
(social psychology)
Do they know more about why people forget things when they get interrupted by the phone
ringing (cog psychology)
Do they know more about why people help each other when they're in trouble (social
psychology)
soc
This expert knows all about why people get angry if someone else is mean to them (social
psychology)
Do they know more about why you can't understand two friends talking at the same time (cog
psychology)
Do they know more about why you like to do some of the same things your friends like to do
(soc psychology)
soc
This expert knows all about why people sometimes fight more when they're tired (social
psychology)
Do they know more about why people make a shopping list when they are going shopping later
(cog psychology)
Do they know more about why people smile at their friends when they see them (social
psychology)
soc
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This expert knows all about why people feel bad if their best friend doesn't play with them
(social psychology)
Do they know more about why two year olds can't count very well (cog psychology)
Do they know more about why grown ups fall in love (social psychology)
soc
This expert knows all about why water is important to help our bodies work (molecular biology)
Do they know more about why giraffes have long necks and lots of spots (evolutionary biology)
Do they know more about why tall parents have tall kids and short parents have short kids
(molecular biology)
mbio
This expert knows all about why identical twins look exactly alike (molecular biology)
Do they know more about why roses have sharp thorns (evolutionary biology)
Do they know more about why drinking milk makes your bones stronger (molecular biology)
This expert knows all about why people get tired if they don't eat (molecular biology)
Do they know more about why polar bears (bears who live in snowy places) have white fur
(evolutionary biology)
ebio
Do they know more about why gasoline is poisonous for you (molecular biology)
This expert knows all about why sugar gives us energy to run around and do things (molecular
biology)
mbio
Do they know more about why birds have feathers (evolutionary biology)
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Do they know more about why bug spray in the water hurts fish (molecular biology)
This expert knows all about why price of a new car usually goes up every year (economics)
Do they know more about why some countries fight more wars than others (political science)
Do they know more about why more people work at hot dog stands at the beach in the summer
(economics)
econ
This expert knows all about why we have banks to put our savings in (economics)
Do they know more about why states can make different speed limits (political science)
Do they know more about why at the store it is hard to find new games for old Nintendo's
(economics)
econ
This expert knows all about why people who make cars could lose their jobs if lots of people ride
the bus (economics
Do they know more about why policemen can't put people in jail without a reason (political
science)
Do they know more about why old bread costs less than fresh bread (economics) econ
This expert knows all about why it is easier to get a job if you stay in school and go to college
(economics)
Do they know more about why people have to be born in the United States to be president
(political science)
Do they know more about why people use money to buy things (economics) econ
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Condition B
This expert knows all about why it's easier to push an empty shopping cart than a full one
(physics)
Do they know more about why people forget things when they get interrupted by the telephone
ringing (cog psych)
Do they know more about why when you throw a ball in the air, it comes back down (physics)
phys
This expert knows all about why people sometimes fall on wet floors (physics)
Do they know more about why two year olds can't count very well (cog psych)
Do they know more about why yo-yo's come back up after you let them down (physics) phys
This expert knows all about why a hammer drives a nail better if you swing the hammer faster
(physics)
Do they know more about why people make a shopping list when they are going shopping later
(cog psych)
Do they know more about why people who jump harder on a trampoline go higher (physics) phys
This expert knows all about why a big, heavy boat takes a really long time to stop (physics)
Do they know more about why you can't understand two friends talking at the same time (cog
psych)
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Do they know more about why you can bounce a basketball better on the street than on grass
(physics)
phys
This expert knows all about why some people act like leaders and some people act like followers
(social psych)
Do they know more about why when people get paint on their hands, it dries (chemistry)
Do they know more about why people help each other when they're in trouble (social psych) soc
This expert knows all about why people get angry if someone else is mean to them (social psych)
Do they know more about why paper burns quickly when you put a match to it (chemistry)
Do they know more about why you like to do some of the same things your friends like to do
(social psych)
soc
This expert knows all about why people sometimes fight more when they're tired (social psych)
Do they know more about why salt on people's icy driveways makes the ice melt sooner
(chemistry)
Do they know more about why people smile at their friends when they see them (social psych)
soc
This expert knows all about why people feel bad if their best friend doesn't play with them
(social psych)
Do they know more about why laundry soap cleans kid's dirty clothes (chemistry)
Do they know more about why grown ups fall in love (social psych) soc
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This expert knows all about why water is important to help our bodies work (molecular biology)
Do they know more about why people have to be born in the United States to be president
(political science)
Do they know more about why tall parents have tall kids and short parents have short kids
(molecular biology)
mbio
This expert knows all about why identical twins look exactly alike (molecular biology)
Do they know more about why some countries fight more wars than others (political science)
Do they know more about why drinking milk makes your bones stronger (molecular biology)
This expert knows all about why people get tired if they don't eat (molecular biology)
Do they know more about why states can make different speed limits (political science)
Do they know more about why gasoline is poisonous for you (molecular biology)
This expert knows all about why sugar gives us energy to run around and do things (molecular
biology)
Do they know more about why policemen can't put people in jail without a reason (political
science)
Do they know more about why bug spray in the water hurts fish (molecular biology) mbio
This expert knows all about why price of a new car usually goes up every year (economics)
Do they know more about why giraffes have long necks and lots of spots (evolutionary biology)
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Do they know more about why more people work at hot dog stands at the beach in the summer
(economics)
econ
This expert knows all about why we have banks to put our savings in (economics)
Do they know more about why birds have feathers (evolutionary biology)
Do they know more about why at the store it is hard to find new games for old Nintendo's
(economics)
econ
This expert knows all about why people who make cars could lose their jobs if lots of people ride
the bus (economics
Do they know more about why polar bears (bears who live in snowy places) have white fur
(evolutionary biology)
Do they know more about why old bread costs less than fresh bread (economics) econ
This expert knows all about why it is easier to get a job if you stay in school and go to college
(economics)
Do they know more about why roses have sharp thorns (evolutionary biology)
Do they know more about why people use money to buy things (economics) econ
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Appendix C: Reverse Triad Stimuli
Condition A
This expert knows all about why people have to be born in the United States to be president
(political science)
Do they know more about why every car has to have a license plate (political science)
Do they know more about why it is easier to get a job if you stay in school and go to college
(economics)
This expert knows all about why states can make different speed limits (political science)
Do they know more about why we have elections (political science)
Do they know more about why we have banks to put our savings in (economics)
This expert knows all about why policemen can't put people in jail without a reason (political
science)
Do they know more about why people who make cars could lose their jobs if lots of people ride
the bus (economics)
Do they know more about why courts have judges (political science)
This expert knows all about why some countries fight more wars than others (political science)
Do they know more about why price of a new car goes up every year (economics)
Do they know more about why we have a vice president (political science)
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This expert knows all about why people make a shopping list when they are going shopping later
(cog psychology)
Do they know more about why you can't remember things from when you were a baby (cog
psychology)
Do they know more about why a big, heavy boat takes a really long time to stop (physics)
This expert knows all about why people forget things when they get interrupted by the phone
ringing (cog psych)
Do they know more about why it's easier to push an empty shopping cart than a full one
(physics)
Do they know more about why it's hard to understand someone speaking a different language
(cog psychology)
This expert knows all about why you can't understand two friends talking at the same time (cog
psychology)
Do they know more about why it's easier to learn a poem when you say it many times (cog
psychology)
Do they know more about why a hammer drives a nail better if you swing the hammer faster
(physics)
This expert knows all about why two year olds can't count very well (cog psychology)
Do they know more about why people sometimes fall on wet floors (physics)
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Do they know more about why it's hard to say a sentence backwards (cog psychology)
This expert knows all about why paper burns quickly when you put a match to it (chemistry)
Do they know more about why glue makes your fingers stick together (chemistry)
Do they know more about why people sometimes fight more when they're tired (social
psychology)
This expert knows all about why salt on people's icy driveways makes the ice melt sooner
(chemistry)
Do they know more about why metal nails get rusty when they sit outside for too long
(chemistry)
Do they know more about why some people act like leaders and some people act like followers
(social psychology)
This expert knows all about why laundry soap cleans kid's dirty clothes (chemistry)
Do they know more about why people get angry if someone else is mean to them (social
psychology)
Do they know more about why you have to lick stamps to make them stick (chemistry)
This expert knows all about why when people get paint on their hands, it dries (chemistry)
Do they know more about why people feel bad if their best friend doesn't play with them (social
psychology)
Do they know more about why oil and water do not mix (chemistry)
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This expert knows all about why polar bears (bears who live in snowy places) have white fur
(evolutionary biology)
Do they know more about why water is important to help our bodies work (molecular biology)
Do they know more about why mushrooms are poisonous if you eat them (evolutionary biology)
This expert knows all about why birds have feathers (evolutionary biology)
Do they know more about why people get tired if they don't eat (molecular biology)
Do they know more about why desert cactus store water (evolutionary biology)
This expert knows all about why giraffes have long necks and lots of spots (evolutionary
biology)
Do they know more about why flowers smell sweet (evolutionary biology)
Do they know more about why sugar gives us energy to run around and do things (molecular
biology)
This expert knows all about why roses have sharp thorns (evolutionary biology)
Do they know more about why turtles have shells (evolutionary biology)
Do they know more about why identical twins look exactly alike (molecular biology)
Condition B
This expert knows all about why laundry soap cleans kid's dirty clothes (chemistry)
Do they know more about why you have to lick stamps to make them stick (chemistry)
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Do they know more about why it's easier to push an empty shopping cart than a full one (physics)
This expert knows all about why when people get paint on their hands, it dries (chemistry)
Do they know more about why oil and water do not mix (chemistry)
Do they know more about why a hammer drives a nail better if you swing the hammer faster
(physics)
This expert knows all about why paper burns quickly when you put a match to it (chemistry)
Do they know more about why people sometimes fall on wet floors (physics)
Do they know more about why glue makes your fingers stick together (chemistry)
This expert knows all about why salt on people's icy driveways makes the ice melt sooner
(chemistry)
Do they know more about why a big, heavy boat takes a really long time to stop (physics)
Do they know more about why metal nails get rusty (chemistry)
This expert knows all about why polar bears (bears who live in snowy places) have white fur
(evolutionary biology)
Do they know more about why mushrooms are poisonous if you eat them (evolutionary biology)
Do they know more about why people who make cars could lose their jobs if lots of people ride
the bus (economics)
This expert knows all about why roses have sharp thorns (evolutionary biology)
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Do they know more about why we have banks to put our savings in (economics)
Do they know more about why turtles have shells (evolutionary biology)
This expert knows all about why giraffes have long necks and lots of spots (evolutionary
biology)
Do they know more about why it is easier to get a job if you stay in school and go to college
(economics)
Do they know more about why flowers smell sweet (evolutionary biology)
This expert knows all about why birds have feathers (evolutionary biology)
Do they know more about why desert cactus store water (evolutionary biology)
Do they know more about why price of a new car goes up every year (economics)
This expert knows all about why some countries fight more wars than others (political science)
Do they know more about why we have a vice president (political science)
Do they know more about why people get tired if they don't eat (molecular biology)
This expert knows all about why people have to be born in the United States to be president
(political science)
Do they know more about why sugar gives us energy to run around and do things (molecular
biology)
Do they know more about why courts have judges (political science)
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This expert knows all about why states can make different speed limits (political science)
Do they know more about why identical twins look exactly alike (molecular biology)
Do they know more about why we have elections (political science)
This expert knows all about why policemen can't put people in jail without a reason (political
science)
Do they know more about why every car has to have a license plate (political science)
Do they know more about why water is important to help our bodies work (molecular biology)
This expert knows all about why two year olds can't count very well (cog psychology)
Do they know more about why it's hard to say a sentence backwards (cog psychology)
Do they know more about why people sometimes fight more when they're tired (social
psychology)
This expert knows all about why people make a shopping list when they are going shopping later
(cog psychology)
Do they know more about why people feel bad if their best friend doesn't play with them (social
psychology)
Do they know more about why you can't remember things from when you were a baby (cog
psychology)
This expert knows all about why people forget things when they get interrupted by the phone
ringing (cog psych)
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Do they know more about why it's hard to understand someone speaking a different language
(cog psychology)
Do they know more about why some people act like leaders and some people act like followers
(social psychology)
This expert knows all about why you can't understand two friends talking at the same time (cog
psychology)
Do they know more about why people get angry if someone else is mean to them (social
psychology)
Do they know more about why it's easier to learn a poem when you say it many times (cog
psychology)
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Appendix D: Schema Task Stimuli
Evolutionary Biology
This expert knows all about why giraffes have long necks and lots of spots (+schema,
+discipline)
Do they know more about why people will pay more to see lions than squirrels (+s, -d)
Do they know more about why some birds have tails so long they can't fly (-s, +d)
This expert knows all about why roses have sharp thorns (+s, +d)
Do they know more about why all animals have two eyes (-s, +d)
Do they know more about why Chihuahuas cost more in Alaska than in Mexico (+s, -d)
This expert knows all about why birds have feathers (+s, +d)
Do they know more about why trees have smaller leaves on the top than on the bottom (-s, +d)
Do they know more about why people won’t pay as much for a campsite surrounded by poison
ivy (+s, -d)
This expert knows all about why polar bears have white fur (+s, +d)
Do they know more about why you have to pay people more to pick thorny roses (+s, -d)
Do they know more about why pine trees have needles and oak trees have leaves (-s, +d)
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Physics
This expert knows all about why when you throw a ball in the air, it comes back down (+s, +d)
Do they know more about why a person driving fast and talking on a cell phone might drive off
the road (+s, -d)
Do they know more about why it's easier to open a soda bottle if the opener has a longer handle
(-s, +d)
This expert knows all about why a big, heavy boat takes a long time to stop (+s, +d)
Do they know more about why construction cranes get skinnier at the top (-s, +d)
Do they know more about why it's hard to count falling snowflakes (+s, -d)
This expert knows all about why a hammer drives a nail better if you swing the hammer faster
(+s, +d)
Do they know more about why you need two kids on the end of a seesaw if there's an adult on
the other end (-s, +d)
Do they know more about why people do better catching a ball with two eyes open instead of one
(+s, -d)
This expert knows all about why it's easier to push an empty shopping cart than a full one (+s,
+d)
Do they know more about why people can't see a bullet going by (+s, -d)
Do they know more about why big bridges need really big supports (-s, +d)
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Molecular Biology
This expert knows all about why sugar gives us energy to run around and do things (+s, +d)
Do they know more about why you never used to have to put labels on poison bottles, but now
you do (+s, -d)
Do they know more about why people at the beach can get sunburn if they stay out in the sun too
long (-s, +d)
This expert knows all about why drinking milk makes your bones stronger (+s, +d)
Do they know more about why you can't sell drugs that don't make people better (+s, -d)
Do they know more about why you get blisters if you touch something hot (-s, +d)
This expert knows all about why water is important to help our body's work (+s, +d)
Do they know more about why some people have blue eyes and some have brown eyes (-s, +d)
Do they know more about why policeman can put you in jail if you are driving drunk, but your
friends can't (+s, -d)
This expert knows all about why people get tired if they don't eat (+s, +d)
Do they know more about why hair turns gray when you get older but skin doesn't (-s, +d)
Do they know more about why if the president gets sick the vice president takes over (+s, -d)
Social Psychology
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This expert knows all about why some people act like leaders and some people act like followers
(+s, +d)
Do they know more about why if kids fall playing tag, laundry soap cleans their clothes (+s, -d)
Do they know more about why people who buy lotto tickets hope to win lots of money (-s, +d)
This expert knows all about why people get angry if someone else is mean to them (+s, +d)
Do they know more about why kids like to listen to music while doing boring tasks (-s, +d)
Do they know more about why when you walk to the beach with your friends your ice cream
melts (+s, -d)
This expert knows all about why you like to do some of the same things your friends like to do
(+s, +d)
Do they know more about why your friends work harder when they think they are doing well (-s,
+d)
Do they know more about why peanut butter is the best way to get gum out of your friend's hair
(+s, -d)
This expert knows all about why people fight more when they are tired (+s, +d)
Do they know more about why when you toast a marshmallow with your buddies it gets soft (+s,
-d)
Do they know more about why many kids think four leaf clovers are lucky (-s, +d)
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Appendix E: Levels of Categorization Stimuli
Jeff knows a lot about animals (dolphins). Which would he know more about?
Why dolphins are in an exhibit in Sea World?
Why dolphins need to have hearts to keep them alive?
Kerry knows a lot about plants (apples). Which would she know more about?
Why apples have computers named after them?
Why apple trees have flowers?
Susan knows a lot about metals (gold). Which would she know more about?
Why gold looks pretty with purple?
Why gold doesn't react with water?
Sally knows a lot about toy poodles (animals). Which would she know more about?
Why toy poodles win the most prizes at dog shows?
Why toy poodles have brains?
Jan knows a lot about oak trees (plants). Which would she know more about?
Why oak trees have leaves?
Why oak trees often have people's names carved in them?
Rob knows a lot about silver (metals). Which would he know more about?
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Division of Cognitive Labor
Why silver's is called plata in Spain?
Why silver is hard to melt?
Steve knows a lot about Persian cats (animal). Which would he know more about?
Why Persian cats need to drink water?
Why Persian cats are found in big houses?
Laura knows a lot about plants (clovers). Which would she know more about?
Why clovers have roots under the ground?
Why clovers with four leaves are supposed to be good luck?
Jen knows a lot about pumpkins (plants). Which would she know more about?
Why pumpkins always have seeds?
Why pumpkins were first carved at Halloween?
Phil knows a lot about animals (turkeys). Which would he know more about?
Why turkeys have to eat to stay alive?
Why turkeys are served on Thanksgiving?
Sue knows a lot about aluminum (metals). Which would she know more about?
Why aluminum is made in the United States more so than anywhere else?
Why aluminum never rusts?
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Division of Cognitive Labor
Patty knows a lot about ducks (animals). Which would she know more about?
Why ducks need to sleep?
Why ducks are in a lot of cartoons?
Chris knows a lot about metals (copper). Which would he know more about?
Why copper is used in pennies?
Why copper bends so easily?
Paul knows a lot about strawberries (plants). Which would he know more about?
Why strawberries have seeds?
Why strawberries are celebrated at festivals?
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Appendix F: Relational Context Stimuli
Training items:
1. Nick knows all about where to buy snakes. Think about that: Where would he buy snakes?
Would he know more about where to buy crocodiles or where to buy puppies?
2. Steph knows all about what chickens are made up of. Think about that: What are chickens
made up of? Would she know more about what pigs are made up of or what robins are
made up of?
Joe knows all about where to buy horses. Would he know more about where to buy turkeys or
where to buy giraffes?
Jenny knows all about what sheep are made up of. Would she know more about what deer are
made up of or what chicks are made up of?
Julie knows all about where to buy bunnies. Would she know more about where to buy
goldfish or where to buy raccoons?
John knows all about what goats are made up of. Would he know more about what antelopes are
made up of or what geese are made up of?
Jill knows all about where to buy roosters. Does she know more about where to buy eagles or
where to buy lambs?
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James knows all about what poodles are made up of. Would he know more about what coyotes
are made up of or what gerbils are made up of?
Jan knows all about what parakeets are made up of. Would she know more about what swans
are made up of or what rabbits are made up of?
Fred knows all about where to buy cows. Would he know more about where to buy moose or
where to buy chickens?
Andrea knows all about what lizards are made up of. Does she know more about what guinea
pigs are made up of or what alligators are made up of?
Marty knows all about what donkeys are made up of. Does he know more about what ducks are
made up of or what zebras are made up of?
Andrew knows all about where to buy kittens. Would he know more about where to buy lions
or where to buy collies?
Jessica knows all about where to buy hamsters. Does she know more about where to buy turtles
or where to buy skunks?
Danny knows all about what dogs are made up of. Does he know more about what parrots are
made up of or what foxes are made up of?
Francis knows all about where to buy hens. Would she know more about where to buy ponies
or where to buy hawks?