Language policy in Ethiopia: History
Getachew A. and Derib Ado
37
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Language Policy in Ethiopia: History and Current Trends
Getachew Anteneh * Derib Ado**
ABSRACT
Ethiopia, as one of the multilingual and multicultural countries, has faced the critical
problem of development and implementation of language use policy that could satisfy the
needs of various societies in question and contribute to their socioeconomic and sociocultural development. The various governments that ruled Ethiopia since the reign of
Emperor Tewodros II followed various language use policies that suit their political
orientation.
The major objective of this paper was to seek answers to the following questions:
a. What type of language policy did Ethiopia have in the past?
b. What is the language policy of the country today?
c. How is Ethiopia implementing its language policy today?
The historical survey of language use policy was made based on the secondary data (i.e.
written documents) from different sources. The study on the implementation of the current
language policy of the country focuses mainly on four regional states, namely Amhara,
Oromiya and SNNP regional states and the Addis Ababa City Administration. Interviews
were conducted with various bodies that are concerned with developing, implementing and
monitoring language use policies, such as the Ethiopian Language Research Center, the
Ministry of Tourism and Culture, the information and education bureaus of three regional
states, namely the Amhara, Oromiya and SNNP regional states to get the necessary data.
The analysis of the data shows that though there had been a change from having no
written policy to a policy that encourages the development and use of all the languages in
the country, the implementation showed a little change in the time from the reign of
Tewodros II up to the end of the Derg. The language policies of Tewodros II, Minilek II,
Hailesellasie I and the Derg regime had been similar on the ground level: they all
implemented a one-language language use policy .The language use policy of the current
government, however, is quite different in its approach and implementation. The
implementation of a multilingual language use policy has served the country both its
blessings and consequences.
__________________________________________________________
* Getachew Anteneh JU Education Faculty Jimma, Ethiopia
** Derib do Education Faculty Jimma Ethiopia
Ethiop. J. Educ. & Sc.
Vol. 2 No. 1 September 2006
38
considered as assets for the speakers.
Every language is used as a means of
I. INTRODUCTION
interaction for the community that
1.
speaks it. Apart from the use of these
Background of the study
languages for communication purposes,
Ethiopia has been labeled possessing a
they have the potential to be used in
long history of three thousand years and
education, administration and the justice
more. At various times, its governors
system of the country.
and rulers had played their roles in
shaping
the
geographical,
cultural,
This paper attempts to look the historical
historical, religious etc. -all aspects of
development of language policy in
the country. As a result most of the
Ethiopia, in other words, it aims at
status quo today is, to a great extent, the
assessing the various language policies
legacy of our past history. Our worries
that have been practiced in Ethiopia for
and challenges, - all, have something to
the past one hundred plus years. It tries
do with the past.
to relate the nature of language policies,
their manifestations and position in the
In the course of its long history, Ethiopia
practical application of language use,
has treated different social and cultural
during different periods in Ethiopia
issues within the boundary. One of the
(from the time of Tewodros II up to
primary issues that concern Ethiopia
now).
today is the question of language. Being
a multilingual and multicultural country,
2. What is language policy?
Ethiopia shares the problem of language
The concept of language policy is
use and language choice for various
mainly
purposes. There are more than 75
regulations and guidelines about the
languages in Ethiopia that can be
status, use, domains and territories of
categorized under different language
language and the rights of speakers
families (i.e. Semitic, Cushitic, Omotic,
under question"1. Calvet says we shall
related
to
Nilotic). These diversified languages are
1
Schiffman 2005
decisions
rules,
Language policy in Ethiopia: History
Getachew A. and Derib Ado
39
treat language policy as the conscious
participation, and provide
choice
of
access to public services,
relationship between language and social
proceedings and documents.3
made
in
the
domain
life as a whole.2
The explanations provided so far clearly
point out that language policy is the
There is also a more specific definition
responsibility
that treats the subject in a better depth.
Scholars such as Columas (1994), and
This
Calvet (1997) also assert that there is a
specific
definition
explains
language policy as:
of
the
government.
need for the possession of authority in
the formulation of language policies.
I.
What
government
does
officially through legislation,
The other point that is explained by the
court
definitions is about the domain of
decisions,
executive
action or other means to:
a.
skills
determine
application
of
policies.
how
Language polices are concerned with
languages are used in
determining the status of languages that
public contexts
implies whether languages should be
b. cultivate language
used as national language, language of
needed
wider communication, official language,
to
national
priorities, or
working
language,
language
of
c. establish the rights
instruction, etc. is decided at government
of individuals or groups to
level by a policy. Language policies are
learn
concerned
use
and
maintain
with
domains
use,
and
languages.
territories of languages also imply that
II. Government regulation of its
which language should be used in
own language including steps
education, administration etc, and to
to
what extent and where should be
facilitate
communication,
clear
train
and
resolved by language policies.
recruit personnel, guarantee
due process, foster political
2
language
Calvet 1997
3
Crawford 2000
Ethiop. J. Educ. & Sc.
Vol. 2 No. 1 September 2006
40
constitutional, administrative and legal
3.
guarantees by providing personal and/ or
Types of language policies
Language policies differ from place to
by specifying the domains of use. By
place and from time to time according to
domains of use, it means whether (a)
the political orientation of governments
language (s) should be used in court,
and the nature of the society that exists.
schools or in the administration, etc.
Some governments have clear and
Tolerance policies, on the other hand,
explicit language policies, called overt
allow the use of a particular or several
policies, which have written support in
languages
legal
encouragement of use and development by
documents,
for
instance,
the
constitution. Others prefer to conceal to
but
there
is
no
such
providing financial or personnel support.5
their language policy, and as a result, do
not state their language policies in
The other distinction between language
written legal documents or others. Such
policies is between equalitarian and
policies are referred to as covert
restricted
language
language
policies treat 'even if a very small
policies are also known as de facto,
minority' as always totally equals to any
common law or traditional, and usually
language and place all languages on
it is the linguistic status quo that is taken
equal
policies.
Covert
as the de facto or common low.
4
policies.
footings.
Some
However,
language
restricted
policies as their name imply, are not as
open as equal for all languages.6
Language policies are also classified as
either promotive or tolerance (permissive)
On the other hand, Patten (2001),
depending
and
proposed four models of language
the
policy, based on the usage of language
on
encouragement
the
support
provided
by
government in the use and development of
(s) in a given community. They are
languages. In the case of promotive
a.
policies there is a promotion of one or
several
languages
by
giving
Ibid
or
public,
disengagement:
the
model
some
5
4
disestablishment
6
Schiffman 2005
Ibid
Language policy in Ethiopia: History
which
b.
c.
d.
maintains
that
Getachew A. and Derib Ado
there
whether
it
is
for
41
education,
should be no official publicly
administration,
recognized language (s).
etc. In multilingual nations, however,
official multilingualism: in this
there exists a problem as which language
model there should be the same
to be used for education, administration,
recognition
for
wider communication and so on. Thus,
languages
spoken
the
various
in
the
wider communication
the use of language is usually supported
community.
by
language rationalization: the
multilingual nations.
model which privileged public
This study looks into the language
language by limiting or denying
policies of various governments that
recognition of other languages
ruled in Ethiopia since Tewodros II to
in certain spheres of language
show how Ethiopia dealt with such a
use.
very serious problem and how the
language
maintenance:
the
a
language
policy
in
those
current government is dealing with the
model which aims to make all
same
problem.
Specifically it
languages equally successful in
answer the following questions:
will
their use. 7
All these different types of language

Ethiopia have in the past?
policies, as stated earlier, are the
manifestations
the
government's

language (s) use.
What is the language policy of
the country today?
ideologies in a given country for the
speech community regarding on the
What type of language policy did

How is Ethiopia implementing
its language policy today?
4. What is this study about?
5. Delimitation of the study
In monolingual nations, the use of
This study is limited to describing or
language does not create problems, as
showing the historical development of
there will be no difficulty in choosing
language policy in Ethiopia. The study
the language for various purposes,
will try to investigate the history of
language use policy in Ethiopia since the
7
Patten 2001
regime of Emperor Tewodros II up to
Ethiop. J. Educ. & Sc.
now.
The
Vol. 2 No. 1 September 2006
discussion
of
42
the
implementation of the present language
III.
policy of the country will look at the
Language policy in Ethiopia:
history
case of the Amhara, Oromiya, SNNP
regional states and the Addis Ababa City
3.1 Language policy before the reign
Administration. The rest of the regions,
of Haile Sellasie I
namely Afar, Tigray and Somali are not
included in this later discussion due to
Despite its long history Ethiopia had no
time constraint to conduct interviews
written
and collect the necessary data from these
Sellasie. There are claims that those
regions.
governments used the 'Fetha Negest'
constitution
before
Haile
(Book of Kings) as a basic reference in
II. Methodology
their governance.8 That there was no
This research is a survey that employed
constitution or clearly stated language
a qualitative method. The historical
policy before Haile Sellasie I though,
survey of language use policy was made
does not mean there was no language
based on the secondary data (i.e. written
policy at all. The prevailing linguistic
documents) from different sources. The
status quo can be taken as the implicit
information on the implementation of
language policy.9 In order to assess the
the current language policy of the
language
country was gathered through interview
governments, however, we need to look
with various bodies that are concerned
at the subdivisions of the era.
with
developing
monitoring
namely
the
implementing
language
use
Ethiopian
policies
of
the
then
and
policies,
Language
3.1.1 Language Policy before Haile
Sellaise I
Research Center, the Ministry of Youth,
Before the reign of Emperor Tewodros
Sports, and Culture,the information and
(1855), Ethiopia was under the hands of
education bureaus of the four regional
different regional lords. Assessing the
states, namely the Amhara, Oromiya ,
Addis Ababa administrative State and
8
SNNP regional States.
9
Cooper 1976a
Schiffman 2005
Language policy in Ethiopia: History
Getachew A. and Derib Ado
43
language policies of these rulers require
The next emperor, Yohanes IV, a
a detailed study of the era, and it is
Tigrinya speaker himself, did not try to
beyond the scope of this paper.
alter the history by adopting Tigrinya for
official purposes. He promoted the same
The reign of Tewodros II was cited as
language as Tewodros did in his quest
the beginning of the history of modern
for national unification of his empire.
Ethiopia by many people.
10
The major
Since
hefollowed
we
the
can
footsteps
thus,
put
of
contribution of Tewodros was that he
Tewodros,
his
tried to unify Ethiopia under one empire.
contribution in similar category with
Though his objective to unity the
Tewodros.
country was not successful for various
reasons, he laid the foundation for the
The third period, the reign of Minilik,
coming rulers who followed in his foot
can also be considered the continuation
steps.
promotive
of the second period with relative
language policy that encouraged the use
modernization and expansion. In terms
of Amharic. The main and noted
of unifying the country it can be said
contribution of Tewodros nevertheless,
that Minilik II finished what Tewodros
was his attempt to make Amharic a
had
literary language. He changed the trend
monolingual language policy, namely
of using Geez to write the Royal
the promotion of Amharic, continued
Chronicles into using Amharic.11 In his
covering a very wide area. By the time
reign, Amharic got the momentum to
of
move one step up from a mere lingua
premises
franca to a literary language.
administrative
Tewodros
had
a
The
started.
Minilik,
of
The
promotion
Amharic
of
a
reached
the
local
elites
and
offices
where
the
language policy that Tewodros followed
language had never spoken before-to the
was a covert one as it was not supported
south, east and west part of Ethiopia.
by
any
legal
constitution.
document
like
a
With regard to Minilik’s language
policy, Cohen notes that it focused
mainly on incorporating local elites.
10
McNabb 1989
11
Bahru 1991
Amharic then, got the chance to be
considered the language of the rulers.
Ethiop. J. Educ. & Sc.
Vol. 2 No. 1 September 2006
44
Every local rulers, as a result had to
As Cohen states it, there was a
speak Amharic in addition to other
comprehensive
religious and cultural adaptations. He
language policy which was incorporated
also states that the roles played by the
in the bigger policy of what is called
soldiers,
northern
‘Ethiopianization
Ethiopian settlers together with the
‘Ethiopianization’
incorporation of local elites by providing
Minilik incorporated local elites the
them
and
‘Ethiopianization’ during Emperor Haile
establishing
Sellasie aimed to encompass the general
intermarriage between the families of the
population.13 The major rational behind
royal group and the local elites) helped,
such a move was also explained by the
among other things, the implementation
government’s
of a covert language policy promoting
unification and ease of communication
one language.
among
the
with
recognition
church
local
(even
and
authority
by
and
‘12.
While
during
quest
different
premeditated
for
people.
the
Emperor
national
Cohen
concludes “in pursuance of a policy of
3.1.2 Language policy during the reign
national unification, the government
of Haile Sellasie I
sought to establish a national religion
Haile Sellasie’s government had a
unique history from its predecessors
with regard to language policy. It had a
We prefer the term ‘Ethiopianization’
instead of the term
‘Amharization’which is used by most
foreign writers because we feel that
the rulers were always referring to
themselves as rulers of Ethiopia and
their actions were justified in unifying
the country-creating an Ethiopian
culture. Note that Darkwah (1975)
argues that Minilik a systematic way
of assigning and controlling local
rulers have a full control over them.
He also states that Minilik has
assigned Muslim rulers in the eastern
part of the country for economic and
political reasons.
13
Cohn 2000
12
well established language policy in a
written constitution. The first ever
constitution was provided in August
1930 on the coronation of Ras Teferi as
Emperor of Ethiopia by the name Haile
Sellasie I. This constitution, however,
does not mention any thing about the
official language or any other use of
language while it itself was written in
Amharic.
Language policy in Ethiopia: History
culture
and
language
for
Getachew A. and Derib Ado
all
Ethiopians.”14
45
activities in education sector. It states
that Amharic shall be the general
language of instruction in Ethiopia, and
Though it seems more of hypothetical
missionaries are expected to comply
and it did not have such a profound
with it by learning Amharic and teaching
effect on the country's language policy,
via Amharic.16
there was a brief departure from
promoting a single language during the
The implementation of a single language
five year (1935-41). During this period,
policy was more prevalent in the area of
the Italians helped introduce local
administration, judiciary and education
languages even as media of instruction
sectors. Even before the re-integration of
at primary school level. Scholars explain
Eritrea with Ethiopia, the government
that the changes that Italy introduced
had replaced Tigrigna and Arabic by
was part of their divide and rule policy,
Amharic as a medium of instruction.17
which McNabb considers as Italy’
Later Amharic became a full-fledged
attempt
“nationalist
medium of instruction at primary school
sentiments” and Tekeste calls (it the
level throughout the country following
attempt
the official declaration of the position of
to
of
apartheid”)
combat
“passivization
of
Amharic as the official language of the
“passivization througe apartheid“ the use
country in the revised constitution of
of
1955.18
languages
as
the
through
as
the
attempt
medium
of
instruction and other administrational
purpose.15
Haile
Selasie's
promotive
language
policy of a single language was not
After Haile Sellasie regained power in
limited in the education sector. Amharic
1941,
was the legitimate language to be used in
government
language
policy
started to come out more clearly. In
all
1944, for instance, there came out a clear
publications and announcements were
official
functions:
government
directive to control the missionary
16
14
Cohn 2000:30
15
Tekeste 1986 in McNabb 1989
Cooper 1976a in Bender 1976a
McNabb 1989
18
McNabb 1988
17
Ethiop. J. Educ. & Sc.
Vol. 2 No. 1 September 2006
46
all made in Amharic. A language survey
as the time allotted for the broadcasting
made by Cooper showed that Amharic
of other Ethiopian languages , i.e.
dominated the use of other languages in
Tigrinya, Somali, Tigre and Afar. 21
the judiciary system.19
McNabb argues that the establishment of
It could be concluded that, in general
the National Academy of the Amharic
during Haile Sellasie's government there
Language in June 1972 had strengthened
was
the
development
position
of
Amharic
and
by
very
little
of
concern
other
for
the
Ethiopian
implication, the implementation of a
languages. The course that Haile Sellasie
monolingual language policy. This claim
followed was in line with the prevailing
is asserted by the nature of the objectives
global assumption that the use of one
set for the national academy. i.e,
language is useful in bringing about
1.
2.
To foster the growth of the
national unification, which he sought
Amharic language
very badly.22
To encourage the development
of Amharic literature.20
Quite contrary to the discussion so far,
there was a final, but unsuccessful
A further evidence for the nature of the
attempt that was made during the very
language policy during the reign of
final days of the emperor. The August
Emperor Haile Sellasie comes from the
1974 draft constitution, Article 45 states
language use of the government in the
that, "With out violating all those
media. No newspaper was published in
statements in other articles of the
any other Ethiopian language, except for
constitution,
one daily Tigrigna news paper, while
nationalities shall enjoy the right to
there were two daily and four weekly
maintain and develop their language and
newspapers in Amharic. In addition to
culture."23
this,
the
time
that
Amharic
21
and
Tesfaye 1971 in McNabb 1989
Cohen 2000
23
A translation by the authors from the
Draft Constitution of Ethiopia
Presented to the High Constitution
22
20
tribes
was
broadcasted on the radio twice as large
19
Ethiopian
Cooper 1976b in Bender et al 1976
Negarit Gazeta 1987
Language policy in Ethiopia: History
Getachew A. and Derib Ado
The attempt to endorse such statements
environments,
it
in the constitution did not become
nationality) has the right
successful because the revolution took
to determine the contents
over the ratification of the constitution ,
of its political, economic
and this final sympathetic attempt to
and social life, use its own
follow a tolerance language policy
language and elect its own
remained unheard of.
leaders
47
(each
and
administrators to head its
general organs.24
3.1.3 Language policy during the Derg
Following the revolution in 1974, the
Derg took power and adopted a socialist
The first attempt, it could also be called
ideology in the government of the
the only one as well, in implementing
country. As a result of the ideology
such a language policy which recognized
which
other Ethiopian languages, was the
applauds
the
necessity
for
respecting nationalities’ rights, the Derg
introduction
pronounced that there came the time for
languages (including Amharic) in the
all nations, nationalities and ethnicities
national literacy campaign. The fifteen
to enjoy the freedom of maintaining,
languages
using and developing their language
language survey made earlier by Bender
together
with
selected
fifteen
based
Ethiopian
on
the
political
and
and others were Amharic, Afan Oromo,
The
1976
Wolayta, Somali, Hadiya, Kembata,
document of the government as quoted
Tigrinya, Tigre, Sidama, Gedeo, Afar,
by McNabb states that,
Kafa-Mochinga, Saho, Kunama and
economical
many
of
benefits.
Given
existing
Ethiopia’s
situation
the
Silti. These languages were said to
represent about 90% of the population.25
problem of nationalities
can be resolved if each
There were some shortcomings of the
nationality
national literally campaign of the Derg.
full
right
is
accorded
to
self
government …. wit in its
Conference in Inter Africa Group
1993
24
Ethiopian Government 1976
25
McNabb 1989
Ethiop. J. Educ. & Sc.
Vol. 2 No. 1 September 2006
48
be
languages,29 practically, there was no
transcribed in the Ethiopic(Geez) script
other Ethiopian language given any
and were made to use the 'fidel' which
official status nor
was proved to be inadequate, not only
implication in the constitution, that other
for the Cushitic and others but also for
Ethiopian languages could be used for
All
languages
were
made
to
the Semitic language themselves.
26
In
there
was any
official purposes.
addition, the teachers were, almost all,
Amharic speakers, who did not speak the
If we examine the Derg's language
local languages spoken in the area they
policy critically it seems that it was a
went to teach. McNabb summarizes the
continuation of the previous language
effect of this campaign saying that, "The
policy in a slightly different form. As it
literacy campaign although through the
was stated so far, Amharic remained the
media
main language that was used in the
of
nationality
languages,
[brought] more adults into contact with
formal
speakers
administration and the media.
of
Amharic.”
27
the
official
language,
education,
judiciary,
Hoben also arrives at
similar conclusions by pointing out that
3.2 The Ethiopian language policy:
lack of resources infrastructure and
current trends
proper
the
literally
In May 1991, the Derg was over thrown
other
policies
by the EPRDF. The new government,
remained
named the Transitional Government,
consultation,
campaign
and
regarding
all
language
first developed the charter which mainly
imposition.28
focused on the rights of nations and
Though,
Article
2.5
constitution
states,
Democratic
Republic
ensures
the
of
of
1980
"The
peoples
of
Ethiopia
equality,
development
the
the
respect
nationalities. The second article of the
charter states,
Nations,
Nationalities
and
nationality
29
26
Cohen 2000
27
McNabb 1989
28
Hoben 1994
and
A translation by the authors from The
Decree of the Constitution of the
Ethipipian Peoples Democratic
republic in Inter Africa group 1993
Language policy in Ethiopia: History
Getachew A. and Derib Ado
peoples have the right
3.
Members of the Federation
to self determination.
may
Accordingly
respective languages.31
nation,
each
49
determine
their
nationality
and people has the
Meles
right to preserve and
aggressively promoted the use of local
guard
identity,
languages for official, administrative,
culture
judiciary and educational purposes. As a
and history and use
result of such a language policy, regional
develop
its
its
its own language.
30
Zenawi's
government
states have chosen their respective
official languages for various purposes.
The
consequent
reformation,
which
geopolitical
introduced
Today, in addition to Amharic, which is
the
used as the working language of the
federal system of administration and the
federal government and the official
ratification of the 1994 constitution,
working language of four regional states
changed the history of the country with
plus the federal cities Addis Ababa and
regard to language policy. In the
Dire Dawa, Afan Oromo in Oromia,
constitution, Article 5 reads,
Tigrinya in Tigray, Harari (Aderi) in
Harari, Afar in Afar, and Somali in
1.
2.
All Ethiopian languages shall
Somali serve as regional languages.
enjoy
There are also many languages used as
equal
state
of
recognition.
official languages at zonal and wereda
Amharic shall be the working
levels, especially, in the SNNPR.
language
of
the
Federal
Government.
Probably the strongest manifestation of
the new government's language policy is
seen in the education system of the
country than in the other areas. Section
30
A translation by the authors from
Ethiopian Transitional Government
Charter in Inter Africa Group 1993.
31
The Constitution of The Federal
democratic republic Of Ethiopia
Ethiop. J. Educ. & Sc.
Vol. 2 No. 1 September 2006
50
3.5.1 of the Education and Training
As a result of this policy, there are
Policy (1994) reads
twenty
"Cognizant
of
the
one
languages,
excluding
Amharic, which are currently used as
pedagogical
media of instruction at primary school
advantage of the child
level. These languages are Tigrinya,
in learning in mother
Afan Oromo, Awigni, Xahmta, Somali,
tongue and the rights
Afar, Aderi(Harari), Anywak, Nuer,
of
Majang,
nationalities
to
Sidama,
Gedeo,
Wolayta,
promote the use of
Gamo ,Goffa, Dawro, Kambata, Silti,
their
Kafa,
languages,
Konta,
Hadiya.
All
these
primary education will
languages are also given as separate
be given in nationality
subjects in the primary education. In
languages".32
addition to the primary education,
Amharic, Afan Oromo, and Tigrinya are
The government strongly argues that
being
people should learn in their own mother
postgraduate level. Several languages
tongue because,
including
a) language is the basis for
taught
as
Afan
subjects
Oromo,
upto
Tigrinya,
Wolayta, Gamo, Sidama, Kafa, are used
to train primary school teachers.
identity
b) pedagogically it is more
The current government has made clear
advantageous
c)
It
gives
people
psychological satisfaction
and helps them develop
positive self esteem.33
that it works towards the development of
all the Ethiopian languages for various
purposes. The cultural policy of Ethiopia
states that the policy ensures
1. [all] the languages,…,
32
Ministry of Education 1994:
A translation by the authors from
Education Policy in Ministry of
Education 2002
literature
…
of
the
nations,
nationalities,
and peoples of Ethiopia
33
receive
equal
Language policy in Ethiopia: History
Getachew A. and Derib Ado
51
recognition, respect and
Addis Ababa, Amhara, Oromiya and the
chance to development.
SNNPR.
2. creating
a
favorable 3.2.1
situation to carry out
The implementation of language
policy in Addis Ababa
scientific research and
inventory
of
the
languages
,
oral
literature.
…of
the
nations,
nationalities,
and peoples of Ethiopia
and make them useful in
development endeavour
Addis Ababa is the seat of all nations,
nationalities and peoples from all over
the country. From the point of view of
implementing the multilingual language
policy, it poses a serious problem
because almost all languages in the
country are spoken in the city. The
government has decided that Amharic
3. providing the necessary
shall be the working language of the
assistance
city’s administration as it is the capital
to the various nations,
of the federal government. On the other
nationalities and peoples
hand,. The city’s charter, all official
while
communications, newspapers, radio and
professional
making
their
choice of language 34
TV programs are presented in Amharic.
First cycle primary education is given in
The choice of languages to be used at
Amharic and second cycle primary
regional state level seems to be settled,
education is offered in English. Amharic
but still there is a need to choose
is given as a separate subject from grade
languages for medium of instruction,
one.
administration and justice at various
levels in different parts of the country. In
Actually, implementing a multilingual
the following sections we will try to look
language policy that allows the use of 75
at
are
or more languages in the city would be
implemented in four regional states:
quite impractical. Yet Addis Ababa is
how
language
policies
not the seat of the federal government
34
The Ministry of Youth, Sports and
Culture 2003
only, but the seat of the Oromiya
National Regional State as well.
Ethiop. J. Educ. & Sc.
Considering
Vol. 2 No. 1 September 2006
52
the special interest the
are used in the primary education, the
regional state has in Addis Ababa, the
first two up to second cycle while the
choice of language use seem to be still
last two at the first cycle primary
unsettled as there is a plan to open 10
education level. Amharic is given as a
schools
a
separate subject in all the educational
10
levels, while Awngi and Xamta are
that use Afan Oromo as
medium of instruction in the
subccities of Addis Ababa
given as subjects from grades 1-8. Afan
Oromo is used as both medium of
3.2.2 The implementation of language
policy
in
the
Amhara
National
Regional State
instruction and administration in the
Oromiya zone of the region.
Besides
these languages, English is given as
Article 5 of the constitution of the
Amhara Regional State provides that
asubject from grade 1 and is used as a
medium
of
instruction
in
all
the
secondary schools of the region.
1.
all
languages
throughout
the
spoken
regional
state shall enjoy equal
recognition on the part of
As to the script selection, Amharic,
Awngi and Xamta use the Ethiopic
script while Afan Oromo uses the Latin
script. The selection of the script for
the state
Awngi and Xamta was made by the
2.
Amharic should be the
government
official working language
selection for Afan Oromo was made by
of the national regional
the Oromiya National Regional State.
state 35
officials.
The
script
Radio broadcast is made in all the four
policy
languages stated, but the TV broadcast is
seemed to be straightforward in the
only in Amharic. But people in Afan
education sector in the region. So far, of
Oromo zone enjoy the TV program
Amharic, Afan Oromo, Awngi, Xamta
broadcasted
The
implementation
of
the
Reginal
35
The Amhara National Regional State
2001
state
newspapers,
by
Oromya
wihin
Etv.
magazines
National
All
and
the
other
Language policy in Ethiopia: History
Getachew A. and Derib Ado
the
preparation
of
53
supplementary materials for education)
Therefore,
the
are produced in Amharic. 36
textbooks was made by translating the
textbooks prepared in Amharic to the
The Argoba language did not get any
other languages. This in turn was very
attention by the regional government
problematic
until the establishment of the Argoba
manpower in the region.
Special Woreda this year because it was
problem seen was shortage of teachers,
believed that the Argobas live in
especially those who can teach those
neighbouring Afar Regional State.
37
due
to
shortage
of
The other
who can speak Xamta. The regional state
There is no clear indication as to
used priests and other local people who
whether the region will endorse the use
were educated up to grades 8 or 6. 38
of the Argoba language for education
3.2.3
and other purposes.
The
implementation
of
language policy in Oromiya
As to an official from the education
National Regional State
bureau, except for Amharic, all the other
languages were made to be medium of
The Oromiya National Regional State
instruction in haste. There was no survey
recognizes that all languages have equal
made to check whether the concerned
recognition by the state. The official
people wanted the languages to be the
language of the state is Afan Oromo.
medium of instructions. As a result there
Afan Oromo is used in education,
was a resistance to the use of Awngi and
administration, justice and the media
Xamta as a medium of instruction at the
apart from being the lingua franca in the
beginning. With regard to textbooks,
vast wide areas in the country.
there
were
beforehand
no
in
textbooks
these
prepared
languages.
In Education, Afan Oromo is used as a
medium of instruction in informal
36
Information on languages on for
education and the media was provided
by Ato Tamirat Sisay , Head of the
Radio Division, Amhara Mass
Coomunication Agency.
37
Interview with Ato Fanta Moges ,
Deputy Head, the Education Bureau of
the Amhara National Regional State.
education, primary education (up to 2nd
cycle), and in the colleges of primary
38
Interview with Ato Tekil Wolde
Kidan, Head, Educational programs,
Education Bureau, Amhara National
Regional State.
Ethiop. J. Educ. & Sc.
Vol. 2 No. 1 September 2006
54
school teachers education at 10+1, 10+3
that both cycles of primary education be
levels. It is also offered as a subject from
given in Afan Oromo. 39
grade one up to postgraduate level.
Currently there are first degree programs
All the newspapers, magazines, brief
in Afan Oromo, at Jimma University and
communications, the regional state’s
Haromaya (Alemaya) University and
constitution and legal documents are
Afan Oromo minor programs at Addis
produced in Afan Oromo, which makes
Ababa Unversity and Mekele University.
use of the Latin script. The region has a
Primary
TV and radio programs in Afan Oromo.
school
education
is
also
available in Amharic in most of the
towns in the Oromiya National Regional
3.2.4
Nations,
speaking nationalities.
Bureau,
Nationalities
and
are
More than 70% of the languages in
underway to offer primary education in
Ethiopia are spoken in the South
Somali in cooperation with the Somali
Nations,
National Regional state in the boarder
Regional State. The Regional State
areas of Oromiya that are close the
recognizes that there are about 56
Somali
State.
nations, nationalities and peoples and
According to the same official, the
more than this number of languages in
suggestion by the federal government to
the state.
National
efforts
of
Peoples Regional State
According to an official in the Oromiya
Educational
implementation
language policy in the South
State to satisfy the needs of the nonAfan Oromo
The
Regional
Nationalities
and
Peoples
offer 2nd cycle primary education in
English, which is now the medium of
The amended constitution of the state, in
instruction at secondary schools and
Article 5, states that
given as a separate subject at all levels
from grade one, was rejected as a survey
made by the region in cooperation with
the Addis Ababa University showed that
there is a great demand for the society
39
Information on the use of language in
education, specially in primary
education and related issues is
gathered from Ato Dagne Bulcha,
Head of the Curriculum Division,
Oromiya Education Bureau.
Language policy in Ethiopia: History
1.
Getachew A. and Derib Ado
55
all languages in the region
the rest of the languages are written in
shall enjoy equal state
the Latin script.
recognition
A dozen of languages are also employed
2.
Amharic should be the
in the education area in the SNNPR.
official working language
Currently,
of the regional state
languages are used as medium of
including
Amharic,
12
instruction at primary schools from
3. zones and special woredas
may determine their respective
working languages in their own
grades 1-4. The languages are Sidama,
Gedeo, Wolayta, Gamo, Gofa, Dawro,
Konta, Kafa, Silti, Kambata and Hadiya.
Amharic is used in towns and cities as
councils.40
an alternative for those who do not speak
federal
the languages that are used in education
government has been translated into
in their area. All the languages that are
Sidama,
Kambata,
used as media of instruction at primary
Wogagoda, Kafa, Kistane and Silti. The
school (1st cycle) are offered as separate
four languages that made up the
subjects
Wogagoda (Wolayta, Gamo, Gofa and
languages are also used in the teacher
Dawro) and the rest of the languages that
training institutions in the region.41
The
constitution
Gedeo,
of
the
Hadiya,
from
grads
1-8.
These
are mentioned earlier are used in the
justice system in the zones and woredas
they are spoken. Any one in the region
has the right to use Amharic or get a
translator if he/she does not speak the
languages that are used in the justice or
An attempt to use Kebena and Koorete
as media of instruction at 1st cycle
primary schools failed mainly because of
printing cost and shortage of skilled
human power. In the weredas where
the administration. Of these languages
only Kistane and Silti, which are Semitic
languages use the Ethiopic script, while
40
The SNNPR 2001.
41
Due to the small number of the
Konta trainees, however, Konta
would be teachers are trained in
Wolayta with Wolayta would be
teachers. The training of teachers
in Gamo and Gofa also takes place
in one institute or in the institute.
Ethiop. J. Educ. & Sc.
Kebena
and
Vol. 2 No. 1 September 2006
Koorete
are
spoken,
According to
the
officials in
56
the
Amharic is used as per the decision of
Education Bureau of the SNNPR State,
the respective woreda councils. The
the serious problems that the region
region
faced during the implementation of the
states
underway
to
that
offer
preparations
primary
are
school
education in other languages such as
multilingual language policy include
a.
Bench and Sheka.
a
problem
of
choice
of
languages in areas where there
are societies that speak two or
The language that is used as a medium
more languages and in boarder
of instruction at 2nd cycle primary school
(grades 5-8) is English since September
areas
b.
2005 per the decision of the regional
their children learn in their
council. Before 2005, all primary school
education was given either in the local
mother tongue
c.
languages which are now used at 1st
number of copies needed in
The implementation of the multilingual
each languages is small
d.
problem in the SNNPR than in other
regional states, specifically in the area of
education. This is mainly due to small
high cost of printing textbooks
in each language because the
cycle primary school or in Amharic.
language policy has faced a very serious
unwillingness of people to send
presence of many languages in
a very small area
e.
confusion between dialects and
languages
number of speakers for the majority of
the languages. At the beginning, the
problem was in preparing textbooks in
the various mother tongues. There was
accurate shortage of skilled human
power to prepare the texts, and as a
result the texts for first cycle primary
education were first prepared in Amharic
and then translated into the mother
tongues by teachers who speak them.
Among these problems, the ones that are
stated in (c) and (d) arose mainly due to
the absence of routine practices that
should be done in language planning.
First of all the people were not asked
whether they needed education in their
mother tongues or not. In other words,
the first step in language planning, i.e.
need assessment was overlooked in
Language policy in Ethiopia: History
favor
of
political
57
Some
The four languages that make up the
minority societies were forced to educate
Weogagoda are highly intelligible, and
their children in a language that is
can be considered as a dialect of one
neither their mother tongue nor the
language. However the speakers of these
default
As
languages identify themselves as a
McNabb (1989) puts it, there was some
separate ethnic group or nationality, and
form of imposition on these minority
hence any ‘foreign’ sound or word was
groups.
considered
alternative
decisions.
Getachew A. and Derib Ado
(Amharic).
identity.
The absence of conscious language
planning also made the region pay a
huge cost. A political decision to form a
blended
language
called
Wogagoda
an
invasion
into
their
In the areas where these
languages are spoken, despite linguistic
similarity,
the
social
definition
of
language dominated, mainly due to the
contemporary political thinking.
(from Wolayta, Gamo, Gofa and Dawro)
and introduce it into the primary school
Immediately
education
of
Wolayta on one hand and Gamo, Gofa
textbooks worth 40 million birr, death of
and Dawro, all three as one language, on
seven people, transfer of hundreds of
the other hand continued to be the
teachers, and chaos that resulted in the
medium
demolition of infrastructures and even
schools in the then North Omo Zone.
42
resulted
in
burning
of
after
the
instruction
opposition,
at
primary
These problems could have
Currently, all the four languages are
been avoided easily, as a chief in Dorze
used separately in the zones they are
put it, if the government asked whether
spoken, though Gamo and Gofa still use
the people needed education in such a
the same material.
hotels.
language or not.43
In very pluralist societies like the
The confusion between languages and
SNNPR,
given
the
countries’
dialects, which contributed a great deal
socioeconomic development, it would be
to the introduction of the Wogagoda,
quite impossible to implement the
was also a major problem in the region.
multilingual language policy and satisfy
the society at the individual level.
42
43
Daniel Abera 2001
Ifoyta November-December 1992
Choosing one language over the other,
Ethiop. J. Educ. & Sc.
Vol. 2 No. 1 September 2006
58
thus, is inevitable. Clear criteria for
about 5 languages in addition to
selection of languages, need assessments
Amharic (Afar, Aderi(Harari), Afan
conscious language planning in general
Oromo, Tigrignya and Somali) are used
would help reduce such problems to a
as official languages at regional level.
great extent.
There are also about (Sidama, Kambata,
Kafa, Hadiya, Gamo, Gofa, Wolayta,
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Dawro, Silti, Gedeo) languages that are
It is clear that Ethiopia has showed a
significant
change
in
terms
of
developing and implementing language
policy from the reign of Tewodros to
date. The covert language policies that
were implemented by Tewodros II,
Minilik II, Haile Sellasie I and the Derg
all promoted the use of one language. At
paper level, though it was late in the
reign of Haile Sellasie I that a clear
language policy came out. The language
policy that the Derg developed seemed
to give a hope for the development of
many Ethiopian languages, but ended up
in vain as the implementation was just a
continuation of the use of one language.
A
movement
implementation
towards
of
a
the
multilingual
language policy came into the scene in
Ethiopia since 1994 with the rule of the
EPRDF
(the
Ethiopian
Peoples
Revolutionary Democratic Forces) after
the downfall of the Derg. Currently
used as official languages at zone and
woreda level. Primary education is
available in more than 20 languages.
Books, newspapers and radio broadcasts
are available in a lot of languages as
well. In general, there is a possibility for
the society to appreciate and use the
language it chooses for any purpose.
Despite
the
achievements
implementation
of
the
in
the
multilingual
language policy, the current practice is
not
totally
acceptance
righteous.
and
Patterns
recognition
of
of
the
language policy has been evidenced in
many parts of the country. In very
pluralist societies like the SNNPR, there
is a need to follow a conscious language
planning practice if the policy is to
succeed and produce the desirable
results. So far it seems that political
decision
planning
took
and
over
the
conscious
consultation
with
professionals. The implementation of a
Language policy in Ethiopia: History
Getachew A. and Derib Ado
59
multilingual language policy without
Oxford: Oxford University
careful planning would result in a
Press.
disaster as seen in the case of the
________ 1976 "Language in the court."
introduction of the Wogagoda.
In Bender, ML, JD Bowen,
CA
Cooper,
and
Ferguson.
Ethiopia.
Press.
Modern Ethiopia. 1855-1974 London:
________
Janes Curry.
in
Oxford: Oxford University
Bahiru Zewdie. (1991). A History of
1976
"The
Spread
of
Amharic. " In Bender, ML,
Calvet, L-J. (1998). Language Wars
Politics.
JD Bowen, CA Cooper,
Oxford: Oxford University
and CA Ferguson. (Eds.).
Press,
Language
and Linguistics
Translated
by
Ethiopia.
Press.
Cohen, G.P.E (2000) "Identity and
Opportunity:
The
Implication
in
Oxford: Oxford University
Michel Petheram.
of
Local
Crawford,
J.W.
(2000)
policy”.
“Language
Retrieved
on
Languages in the Primary
September 16, 2005 from
Education
Language Policy Website
System
SNNPR".
of
Unpublished
at
London:
http://ourworld.compuserv
School of African and
e.com/homepages/JWCraw
Oriental Studies.
ford/langpol.htm
PhD
Cooper,
(Eds.).
Language
REFERENCE
CA
R.L
Thesis
(1976).
.
"Government
Daniel Abera. (2001). “Language (Wo-
In
ga-go-da) caused conflict
Bender, ML, JD Bowen,
in North Omo Zone: a
CA
lesson
language
policy."
Cooper,
Ferguson.
Language
and
CA
(Eds.).
in
Ethiopia.
towards
future
policy implementations.” A
paper
presented
at
the
second annual workshop of
OSSREA held from 8-9
Ethiop. J. Educ. & Sc.
June
Darkwah,
Vol. 2 No. 1 September 2006
2001
at
Imperial
the
Eighth
60
International
Hotel. Addis Ababa.
Conference
R.H.K.
Shewa,
Studies (Vol. 1. pp. 715-
Minilik and the Ethiopian
728). Addis Ababa: Institute
Empire:
of Ethiopian Studies, Addis
(1975).
1813-1889.
London: Heinemann
in
Ethiopian
Ababa University.
Hoben, J.S. (1994). "The language of
education
of
Ethiopia:
________ 1989. Language Policy and
Language
Practice:
empowerment or imposition?"
Implementation Dilemmas
In Marcus Harold and Grover
in Ethiopia. Ph D thesis:
Hudson.(Eds.) New Trends in
Stockholm:
Ethiopian Studies, Papers of
International Education.
the
12th
Conference
International
of
Ethiopian
Studies. (pp. 182-197).
New
Jersey: The Red Sea Press
Political
policy:
University Press. )
“From Traditional
Practice to current policy:
of
Language use in Ethiopian
In
Theory
In
29(5),
Schiffman, Harod . (2005). “Language
Addis Ababa: Addis Ababa
Education.’’
policy."
691-715
1930-1991.
pattern
Federal
Democratic Republic of
language
Ethiopian
change
The
Patten, A. (2001). "Political theory and
ø_e (Inter Africa Group.
The
(2003).
Selam Printing Enterprize.
›uv: ›Ç=e ›uv ¿”y`c=+
McNabb, C. 1988.
Ministry of Youth, Sports and Culture.
Addis Ababa: Birhanena
S”Óeƒ 1923-1983 ›Ç=e
Constitution
of
Etiopia Cultural Policy.
›=”}` ›õ]" Ó\ø. (1993). ¾›=ƒ¿åÁ IÑ
(1993).
Institue
Tadesse
Beyene (Ed.) Proceeding of
remarks”
introductory
retrieved
on
September 18, 2005 from
Ling 504 Website
at
http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/~
haroldfs/540/polintro/polin
tro.html.
Language policy in Ethiopia: History
ƒUI`ƒ T>’>c‚`' 2002. ¾ƒUI`ƒ YMÖ“
Getachew A. and Derib Ado
61
ªKM˜ w`G’. (1999) ¾cT@” *V ƒŸ<dƒ.
þK=c=“ ›}Ñvu\. ›Ç=e ›uv
•öÕ
T@Ò ›X•T>. (Ministry of
(Waleleign Berhne. (1999).
Education.
“Norrth
(2002).
Education Policy and Its
Implementation.
Addis
Ababa: Mega Publishing
Enterprise.)
8(3-4),
Om
o’s
Ifoyta 8(3-4), 6-11.)
6-11.
Fever.”
Ethiop. J. Educ. & Sc.
Vol. 2 No. 1 September 2006
62