Argument Analysis
An argument is a set of assertions, one of
which is intended to follow from or be
supported by the other(s).
 Since the pursuit of happiness requires health
and knowledge, and the pursuit of happiness
is a Constitutional right, access to health care
and education is a constitutional right.

Identifying Arguments

A passage contains
an argument when
there is an attempt
to establish that a
claim is true by
offering reasons or
evidence for its
truth.

Every argument
contains both a
factual claim (or
claims, the premises)
and an inferential
claim (a claim about
what the facts imply,
the conclusion).
Argument or non-argument?
 The
fool has said in his heart, there is no
God. (Psalms 14.1)
 If God does not exist, everything is
permitted. (Ivan Karamazov)
 The house burned down because
the Halogen bulb was touching the
drapes.
 You should support the president
because we need to appear united.
Argument Analysis
Premises: The claims
that offer reasons or
evidence, facts
appealed to for
support.
 Conclusion: The
claim that the
premises are
intended to establish.


Since hiring a public
relations firm costs
thousands of dollars
that could be used
for charitable causes,
it follows that the
Catholic Church
should not hire a
public relations firm.
Signal Words
Conclusion Signals:
Therefore; so; hence;
thus; consequently; it
follows that;
accordingly; etc.
 Pedophiles can’t be
rehabilitated,
therefore, they
should not be
released from prison.

Premise signals:
Since; for; because;
inasmuch as; etc.
 Since spanking
teaches children to
use violence to
resolve conflict,
parents should not
spank their children.

Specific Premise Signals
Numbering devices:
first, in the second
place, thirdly, etc.
 Cumulative devices:
furthermore, moreover,
in addition, also, etc.
 Contrastive devices:
however; nevertheless,
on the contrary, etc.


In opposing prayer in
public schools, I am not
deserting my God. On
the contrary, it is
possible I am thus
serving my God, who I
believe wants his
children to pray to him
of their own freewill
and not because they
are forced. (P. Walker)
Arguments without signals
In arguments without signal words, the
inferential claim is implicit.
 It is not obvious that one must be capable of
being a moral agent before one can be
considered an object of moral concern. We
certainly consider children and the insane to
fall within the scope of moral concern even
though we do not hold them responsible or
consider them to be moral agents. (B.E.
Rollin)

Argument or non-argument?
Neither a borrower nor lender be. For loan
oft loses both itself and friend, and borrowing
dulls the edge of husbandry. (Shakespeare)
 Lying is not only saying what is not true. It is
also and especially saying more than is true,
and, as far as the human heart is concerned,
saying more than one feels. (Albert Camus)

Argument?

A person never
becomes truly self
reliant. Even though
he deals effectively
with things, he is
necessarily dependent
upon those who taught
him so. They have
selected what he is
dependent upon….
(B.F. Skinner)
Check it out!
Arguments?

Just because one says
he has a weapon... it
still does not give the
officers the right to
use deadly force
unless they can
reasonably assume
that deadly force is
being used upon
them." Jeffrey M.
Galen

When a person decides to
engage officers in a pursuit,
refuses police orders to end the
threat they are posing to the
safety of officers and the public,
tells the police that they have a
gun, exits a vehicle and takes
an aggressive shooting stance,
extends their arms out and
points an unknown object at the
officers, they are subjecting
themselves to the consequences
of their actions, which may
include being shot." Tyler Izen
Incompletely Stated Arguments
Sometimes a premise or conclusion is
assumed without being explicitly stated.
 Here is a single conditional statement that
assumes a premise and a conclusion: If you

aren’t willing to steal to get into Harvard, then you
should not be willing to cheat to get in.
 If you tell her he is having an affair, she may end up
blaming you, and you don’t want that to happen.
Unexpressed Premises
Carlos won’t become
a great golfer, he
focuses too much on
technique.
 You shouldn’t use
immoral means to
get the things you
want in life. It may
come back to haunt
you later.

I should spend more
time studying, since it
is either that or
prepare myself to
accept failure.
 Cheating is immoral
because you don’t
want to live in a
society of cheaters.

Premise Support
Sometimes an argument contains a subargument to support a premise.
 Capital punishment should be used only if
there is no alternative means of protecting
society. But life without the possibility of
parole is an alternative. Keeping
murderers locked securely away for life
protects society as well. So, capital
punishment should not be used.

Casting Arguments
A method of
diagramming
arguments to exhibit
their logical
structure.
 Premises may
provide independent
or interdependent
support for the
conclusion.

It is raining. You are
sick. You hate Yanni.
So, you should not go
to the concert.
 It is raining and the
concert is outdoors,
so it will probably be
canceled.

Casting Technique
Bracket each assertion.
 Number each assertion.
 Express the relationships between the
assertions in a tree diagram, with
conclusion on top.


[If you cheat on the exam you have sacrificed
character for career.] (1) [You should not
sacrifice character for career.] (2) [So, you
should not cheat on the exam.] (3)
Casting Example

[The feds raised interest rates] (1) [This
means that credit card rates and
mortgage rates will increase.] (2) [We can
barely pay our bills as it is.] (3) You’d better
find another job, dear.]
1 supports 2
2 and 3 together are
needed to support 4
3
1
Casting example 2

[There is no doubt
that humans
commonly
hallucinate.] (1)
[There’s considerable
doubt about whether
aliens exist, abduct,
or molest us.] (2) [So
reports of alien
abduction are
probably imagined] (3)
3
1
1 and 2 together support 3
Argument Casting

[The elusive Jesus is a standard feature in the
appearance stories] 1 [Jesus is elusive] 2 [because he
was not flesh and blood,] 3 [he was not restricted by
space,] 4 [and his appearances took place over an
extended period.] 5 [However, as time passed and the
tradition grew, the reported appearances become more
palpable, more corporeal.] 6 [They gradually lose their
luminous quality and take on aspects of a resuscitated
corpse.] 7 [For these reasons, the stories of the
appearances need to be examined closely for clues to
their history and function.] 8 (Robert Funk)
Cast of Funk’s Argument
8
1
6
2
7
3
4
5
Cast this!

Since murderers rarely consider the possibility
of getting caught, the threat of capital
punishment does not deter them. Since justice
requires only that the punishment fit the crime,
not that it take a specific form, capital
punishment is not required by justice. And,
since mandatory appeals are more costly than a
life sentence, capital punishment does not save
money. Capital punishment, therefore, is bad
public policy.
Cast the Argument

The claim that the effectiveness of prayer
in medical treatment is evidence of
supernatural intervention is dubious.
Quiet meditation calms the patient. The
belief that others care about the patient’s
welfare may also reduce stress.
Developing a positive, hopeful outlook
improves prognosis. None of these
psychological benefits of prayer requires a
supernatural explanation.