Influential perspectives on teaching and learning
Here's a starter list giving the sources and summaries of some key ideas about teaching
and learning. All have their fans and critics.
Constructivism…
Writers in this area present the argument that knowledge is not something to be acquired,
but is actively constructed by the learner as they make sense of their experiences.
Influential authors in this field are Piaget, writing in the 1950s about a schemata of ‘ages
and stages’ of individual learners and Vygotsky, from the 1930s, who focuses more on
socialisation and acculturalisation. Sometimes referred to as ‘developmental cognitivism’,
the concept is explained well in Fry et al (2009) pp9-10, who offer a useful summary of
related ideas on the transitional phases of learning.
Fry, H., Ketteridge, S. and Marshall, S. (2009). A Handbook for Teaching and Learning
in Higher Education. (Chapter 2 pp. 9-10). 3rd ed., London: Kogan Page.
Ebook in University of Nottingham library.
… and constructive alignment
Another well referenced author is Biggs' (1999) who describes two ideas: ‘constructive’ as
students build their own understanding from their previous knowledge and current learning
context; and ‘alignment’ as tutors think about what students need to achieve, list those
outcomes explicitly, design assessment that will test those intended outcomes, and then
design learning activities that will allow students to develop in such a way that they will be
able to demonstrate achievement of those outcomes. There are obvious implications for
course design, assessment design and choice of teaching methods. Laurillard (2002)
incorporates these concepts into her work on ‘conversational frameworks’ as she discusses
approaches tutors can take to adapt their teaching online in light of learners’ previous
understanding of a topic.
Explained well here:
http://exchange.ac.uk/learning-and-teaching-theory-guide/constructive-alignment.html
And relates to Laurillard’s work on the role of conversation in teaching:
http://www.learningandteaching.info/learning/pask.htm
Biggs, J. & Tang, C. (2011) Teaching for quality learning at university: what the student
does. 4th ed. Maidenhead: OUP
Ebook in University of Nottingham library.
Laurillard, D. (2002) Rethinking University Teaching: a framework for the effective use
of educational technology. 2nd ed. London: RoutledgeFalmer
QP408 LAU in George Green Library
Bloom's taxonomy of learning
Bloom (1950s) outlined a set of levels of learning, going from most simple (remembering)
through more complex (understanding) to higher level (analyse/synthesise). That's for the
cognitive domain (intellectual activity). There are also similar classifications for the psychomotor domains (practical skills) and affective domain (values). Do a Google image search
to pull up many variations of the famous triangular diagram.
James Atherton covers this (as well as many other theories and approaches):
http://www.learningandteaching.info/learning/bloomtax.htm
Bloom, B.S. (ed.) (1956) Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, the classification of
educational goals – Handbook I: Cognitive Domain. New York: McKay
Dr Rachel Scudamore & Jackie Cawkwell
October 2015
Kolb's learning cycle
Related to experiential learning, Kolb (1984) offered a cycle that learners go through,
starting at any point: Experiencing; Reflecting; Theorising (abstract conceptualising as a
result of reflecting on the experience); Planning the next experience. Its main value is in
recognising stages in learning, and that students may find some more useful to them than
others, depending on subject and context (note the "aha" moment that some students get
doing experiments in hands-on labs whilst others prefer to take the hours thinking through
a concept until it makes sense). Gave rise to Honey and Mumford’s “learning styles” (see
below)" which have been criticised for being used to describe students rather than
describing behaviours that students might display depending on circumstance. Good for a
Google image search.
A bit more detail at:
http://skillsforlearning.leedsbeckett.ac.uk/preview/content/models/02.shtml
Kolb, D. (1984) Experiential Learning. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Students’ approaches to learning…
…deep and surface approaches to learning…
Marton and Saljo (1976) (drawing upon a phenomenological approach to enquiry) came up
with this finding that students may either come to understand material thoroughly (deep
approach) or remember and regurgitate but not necessarily understand (surface approach).
Initially attributed as a property of the student, it is now recognised that students will adopt
one approach or the other dependent on a number of factors such as perceived importance,
conflicting interests (time pressure), motivation etc. Entwistle et al (1997) added a third
approach: strategic, which involves persistent effort, meta-learning (‘learning to learn’);
transferable skills and gearing work towards the preferences of tutors. As learners develop
and extend their study orientations, tutors can help students actively choose effective
approaches for given tasks.
Explained more fully at:
http://exchange.ac.uk/learning-and-teaching-theory-guide/deep-and-surface-approacheslearning.html
http://www.learningandteaching.info/learning/deepsurf.htm
A brief guide to teaching and assessment methods that encourage deep or surface approaches:
http://www.seattleu.edu/uploadedFiles/Center_for_Faculty_Development/Content/1a%20A
pproaches%20to%20learning%20-%20bullet-point%20summary%20%20FOR%20WEBSITE.pdf
Marton, F. and R. Säljö, R. (1976) "On qualitative differences in learning. 1 - Outcome
and Process". British Journal of Educational Psychology 46, pp.4-11
Entwistle, N.J. and Entwistle, A. (1997) “Revision and the experience of understanding”
in The Experience of Learning Ed. F. Marton, D.J. Hounsell & N.J. Entwistle, pp. 145158, Edinburgh: Scottish Academic Press.
…learner preferences…
This includes Pask (1976) who coined the phrase ‘serialist learner’ (staged, step-by-step)
and ‘holist learner’ (bigger picture and wider context); and Perry (1970) who developed the
concept of ‘dualistic’ perspectives (where knowledge and learning is perceived as right or
wrong); and ‘relativist’ approaches (where different opinions are acceptable and knowledge
is relative). Honey and Mumford (1992) are widely known for their questionnaire identifying
learners’ internal predispositions to learning, categorising them as being an activist; a
reflector; a theorist; or a pragmatist. Links to electronic resources here:
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October 2015
Pask: http://www.learningandteaching.info/learning/pask.htm
Perry: http://studentdevelopmenttheory.weebly.com/perry.html
Honey and Mumford:
http://www2.le.ac.uk/departments/gradschool/training/eresources/teaching/theories/honey
-mumford
Honey, P. and Mumford, A. (1992). The Manual of Learning Styles. 3rd ed., Peter
Honey.
Pask, G. (1976). “Learning Styles and Strategies” in British Journal of Educational
Psychology, 46, pp. 4-11
Perry, W. (1970). Forms of Intellectual and Ethical Development in the College Years: a
schema. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Adult learning (andragogy)
Popularised by Knowles (1978) who described four features of effective adult learning
(adding a fifth in 1984): self-direction; accumulated experiences; a readiness to learn; an
orientation towards learning; and a motivation for learning. Discussing these ideas, Tenant
(1997) describes effective self-directed learning as involving the skills and qualities to
formulate questions; capacity to identify data needed to answer these questions; evaluate
the data; and communicate answers.
An overview of Knowles’ ideas:
http://elearningindustry.com/the-adult-learning-theory-andragogy-of-malcolm-knowles
Knowles, M. (2012) The Adult Learner: A Neglected Species. 7th ed. Abingdon:
Routledge.
Ebook in University of Nottingham library.
Knowles, M. (1984) Andragogy in Action. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
LC5215.A6 in DLRC, Jubilee Campus
Tennant, M. (1997). Psychology and Adult Learning. 2nd ed. London: Routledge.
BF318.T4 in DLRC, Jubilee Campus; BF724.85.C64 TEN in George Green Library;
LC5222 TEN in Greenfield Med Library, QMC
Threshold concepts
Land and Meyer discuss the idea that all disciplines have a number of these threshold
concepts that are key ideas that change the way that you see the world. Unlike facts, which
can be forgotten, once you "get" a threshold concept, the works looks different for ever.
Where students struggle might indicate a threshold concept exists that does not sit easily
with their existing knowledge and understanding. In biology some threshold concepts might
include natural selection and anthropomorphism; in the arts perhaps modernity and
modernism; in the sciences these things might often be “somebody's principle” or be
captured in an important equation.
A good brief intro to features, followed by a very long list of discipline-specific references:
http://www.ee.ucl.ac.uk/~mflanaga/thresholds.html
Land, R., Meyer, J.H.F. & Smith, J. (2008) Threshold concepts within the disciplines.
Rotterdam: Sense Publishers.
The social and cultural environment
Seminal writers in this field are Bourdieu and Passeron (1977), who theorise that power
bases maintain themselves by the creation, reproduction and transmission of the practices
and values of society (clearly transferable to the world of education); and Friere (1970),
renowned for his work on ‘critical pedagogy’ where he advocates education as a practice of
Dr Rachel Scudamore & Jackie Cawkwell
October 2015
freedom, challenging what he perceived as an oppressive system that pursues integration
and conformity. More recent authors include Reay (2001), who discusses institutional
habitus (the impact of a dominant culture on a learner) and Thomas (2002), who argues
that institutions’ welcoming of cultural differences facilitate improved student retention.
Tinto (2006) also explores the social and academic experiences of learners, recognising the
impact of institutional practices on success (framed in terms of departure by Tinto).
Electronic resources can be found here:
Bourdieu: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=87BPL62wyyU (YouTube clip)
Friere: http://thenewobserver.co.uk/review-of-paulo-freires-pedagogy-of-the-oppressed/
(Book review)
Reay: http://socresonline.org.uk/5/4/reay.html
Thomas: http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/02680930210140257
Tinto: http://nces.ed.gov/npec/pdf/Tinto_Pusser_Report.pdf
Bourdieu, P. and Passeron, J. (1977). Reproduction in Education, Society and Culture.
London: Sage Publications.
Friere, P. (1970). Pedagogy of the Oppressed. 2nd ed. Penguin.
Reay, D., David, M. and Ball, S. (2001). “Making a Difference? Institutional Habituses
and Higher Education Choice.” Sociological Research Online, 5 (40).
Thomas, L. (2002). “Student Retention in Higher Education: the role of institutional
habitus.” Journal of Educational Policy. 17 (4), 423-42.
Tinto, V. (1993). Leaving College: Rethinking the Causes and Cures of Student Attrition,
2nd ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Reflective practitioner
Donald Schon (1983) introduced this term for one who is able to think critically about their
own actions and to be able to identify and question the assumptions that they are making.
This is important as a teacher in developing practice and also for students in becoming
independent in their studies. From an educational development perspective it's a core
behaviour that we see academic researchers display in their discipline and that we seek to
have them apply in their teaching. Sometimes it can be summarised as questions to help
students in professional courses (e.g. nursing) as What? (describe the experience) So
what? (relate that to previous experiences/expectations/theory) Now what? (how does that
change your perceptions and maybe your practice?)
Good overview at:
https://www.plymouth.ac.uk/uploads/production/document/path/1/1717/Reflection.pdf
Schon, D. (1983) The Reflective Practitioner: how professionals think in action. London:
Temple Smith.
LC1051.S3 Business library and DLRC, Jubilee Campus. Also a 1991 reprint.
A practical theory of teaching
Handal and Lauvas (1987) proposed that those who teach make use of a "practical theory"
to underpin their actions, even though this may not be explicitly recognised by the
practitioner. This practical theory is informed most obviously by their knowledge of how
learning happens and by their experience of their own and others' teaching. Importantly, it
is also shaped by their ideology about UK HE and their expectations of their students. The
implication is that any teacher's actions are therefore affected by their values in relation to
HE, as well as their knowledge and experience of teaching.
This might be particularly relevant in our international context where previous experiences
and expectations of staff and students are varied. It is also relevant in evaluating
approaches to teaching more widely when the perceived value of practices such as
Dr Rachel Scudamore & Jackie Cawkwell
October 2015
problem-based learning or peer-assisted learning are critiqued not only on an evidence
base, but also from cultural or political views on the role and authority of the teacher in HE
and therefore the range of student-teacher relationships that might be deemed
appropriate.
Handal G. & Lauvas, P. (1987) Promoting Reflective Teaching: Supervision in action.
Milton Keynes: SRHE & OUP.
HB1731.H2 in Hallward Library.
Communities of practice
From Lave and Wenger (1991) with their picture of learning as something that happens not
just in a classroom but in any context where a group of people have a shared common
interest and who work together on the particular interest/practice. It underpins the
apprenticeship model of learning where newcomers are part of the professional community
and where they act, initially, as "legitimate peripheral participants". So they are legitimised
by being in the community, peripheral because they are on the edge of the professional
domain as novices, and participants because it's important that they are actively taking
part, not just watching, to learn. There are clear parallels with coming to University
(academic discipline) and this idea informs the work around peer mentoring and students
"becoming a biologist" not just learning biology.
Try this one for a very community-oriented take:
http://infed.org/mobi/jean-lave-etienne-wenger-and-communities-of-practice/
Lave, J. and Wenger, E. (1991) Situated learning: legitimate peripheral participation.
Cambridge: CUP.
BF318.L2 DLRC, Jubilee Campus
Assessment and feedback…
A challenge across the HE sector, much attention is being paid currently to assessment in
support of active learning.
…at Nottingham…
The University has developed an Assessment Framework that “offers a structure for
thinking about design, loading, marking, moderation and feedback within and across a
programme” and recommends actions that have an evidence-base in HE. It is based on
underlying principles of taking a programme-level view of assessment, engaging students
in understanding assessment and feedback, and taking a practical approach to
implementation.
http://www.nottingham.ac.uk/teaching/assessmentfeedback/assessmentframework.aspx
Tomás, C. and Scudamore, R. (2014) “Using an assessment conceptual framework to
facilitate institutional transformation of assessment”. Earli Assessment and Evaluation
Sig, Madrid. August 2014
…and elsewhere…
The 2010 REAP project (Re-Engineering Assessment Practices) is particularly noted for its
focus on the positive impact on learning if students are actively involved in assessment
processes through having opportunities to make judgements about their own work, and
that of others. A cornerstone of the project is Nicol and Macfarlane-Dick’s seven principles
of good feedback practice:
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Clarify what good performance is
Facilitate self-assessment
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October 2015
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Deliver high quality feedback information
Encourage teacher and peer dialogue
Encourage positive motivation and self-esteem
Provide opportunities to close the gap
Use feedback to improve teaching
This website is full of ideas and experiences on how principles of effective assessment can
be applied in practice: http://www.reap.ac.uk/Home.aspx and
Nichol & McFarlane-Dick:
http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/03075070600572090
Nichol, D. and McFarlane-Dick, D. (2006). “Formative Assessment and Self-Regulated
Learning: A Model and Seven Principles of Good Practice in Undergraduate Education.”
Studies in Higher Education, 31:2, pp. 199-218.
In a similar vein, Gibbs and Simpson (2004) also identify some key principles:
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Sufficient assessed tasks are provided to ensure ‘time on task’
Tasks are engaged with allowing for appropriate time and effort
Students are engaged with productive learning activities
Assessment communicates high and clear expectations
Feedback is frequent and in sufficient detail
Feedback focuses on students’ performance, on learning, and on actions under their
control
Feedback is timely, in that it still matters and they can pay attention to future
learning or seek more assistance
Feedback is appropriate to the assignment and its criteria for success
Feedback is appropriate in relation to students’ understanding of what they are
supposed to be doing
Feedback is acted upon by student
See:
http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.201.2281&rep=rep1&type=pdf
Gibbs, G. and Simpson, C. (2004). “Conditions Under Which Assessment Supports
Students’ Learning.” Learning and Teaching in Higher Education, Issue 1.
Dr Rachel Scudamore & Jackie Cawkwell
October 2015