ENGL 384: Syntax
Fall, 2015/1436
pages: 271 - 287
Covert = null = empty > silent constituent which have no overt phonetic form.
Examples:
1. Empty T constituent. Page 271 - 275
a- African American slang: We playin' baseball.
TP
T'
VP
PRN
T
V
We
ᵠ
playin'
N
baseball
b- He gonna be there, I know he is. The auxiliary "is" appears in the second clause suggests
that the first clause contains a null counterpart of "is"
c- He was laughing and she -- crying. The auxiliary "was" has been omitted to avoid
repetition > gapping
d- He did enjoy syntax.
(285) He enjoyed syntax.
TP
PRN
TP
T'
PRN
He
T'
He
T
di+d
VP
V
enjoy
T
N
syntax
-d
VP
V
enjoy
N
syntax
e- Tag questions. Page 273 & 274
What is it? Positive or negative? Which auxiliary do we use in tags?
f- Auxiliary vs. Causative verbs
Auxiliary
He had gone to Paris.
Can be used in questions.
Had he gone to Paris? 
Head of TP
Can be Criticized > he'd gone to Paris. 
Ms. Rasha Ali
Causative verb
He had a specialist examine the patient.
Can't be used in questions.
Had he a specialist …..? 
Head of VP
Can't be Criticized > he'd a specialist … 
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ENGL 384: Syntax
Fall, 2015/1436
pages: 271 - 287
(291) [TP HE [T had] [VP [V gone] to Paris]]
[TP HE [T ᵠ] [VP [V had] a specialist examine the patient]]. Page 275
g- Bare infinitive clauses.
(292) I have never known [you to lie]
I have never known [you lie]
TP
TP
PRN
You
T'
PRN
T
V
To
lie
T'
You
T
V
ᵠ
lie
The overall conclusion to which our discussion leads us is that all clauses are TPs of the
form subject + T + complement (with T being overt or covert, finite or infinitival).
2. PRO: the empty subject of infinitive clauses. Page 276 – 278
(296) We would like [you to stay]
We would like [to say] < PRO
TP
T'
VP
TP
T'
PRN
T
V
PRN
T
V
We
would
like
you
to
stay
We
would
like
PRO
to
stay
The null subject PRO is controlled by the subject we.
If the sentence has an auxiliary then the PRO become clear, example (298b) page 277
If there's a reflexive in a sentence but there's no subject then it's PRO, example (299)
3. Covert complements. Page 278
Do you think he will resign?
He may.
TP
PRN
He
Ms. Rasha Ali
T'
T
V
May
ᵠ
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ENGL 384: Syntax
Fall, 2015/1436
pages: 271 - 287
4. Empty complementisers. Page 278 – 281
a. Complementisers= word or morpheme to introduce a complement clause. If, that, for
C = complementiser
CP= complement clause
If > interrogative
that > declarative
(304) We didn't know [if he had resigned]
We didn't know [he had resigned]
CP
CP
C
If
TP
C
PRN
He
ᵠ
T'
T
Had
TP
PRN
V
He
resigned
T'
T
Had
V
resigned
5. Empty determiners. Page 283 – 285 & 287
D = determiner > articles & pronouns
DP = determiner clause > the Italians, we brits.
(318) That the Italians do love the opera.
CP
C
TP
That
DP
T'
D
The
N
Italians
T
do
VP
V
DP
Love
D
N
The
opera
Read more examples in pages 284, 285 & 286
Exercise: Draw a tree for the followings
1. I walked under the tree.
2. He is hoping to win the race.
3. I doubt if she understand the situation.
Ms. Rasha Ali
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