CATEGORY 1- CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
Cell- smallest unit of living things
Prokaryotic- simple cells ex: bacteria
Eukaryotic- complex cells with defined nucleus and membrane bound organelles
Characteristic
Prokaryotic
Eukaryotic
Cell membrane
Yes
Yes
Cytoplasm
Yes
Yes
Nucleus
No
Yes
organelles
No
yes
EUKARYOTES
Plant Cell
Animal Cell
Prokaryote
Cell Part/ Organelle
Cell membrane
Cytoplasm
Nucleus
Mitochondria
Endoplasmic reticulum
Ribosomes
Golgi body/ complex
Lysosome
Vacuole
Cell wall
Chloroplast
Description
Surrounds cell; maintains homeostasis by
controlling what leaves and enters cell
Enclosed within cell membrane; contains the
organelles
Control center of cell; contains DNA
Makes energy
Moves substances within cell (transport
system for cell)
Protein factories; found freely floating in
cytoplasm or attached to rough E.R.
Changes and packages cell products
Contains enzymes
Stores materials like water; larger in plant
cells
Supports and protects plant cell
Contains chlorophyll used in photosynthesis
Virus: tiny NON-LIVING structure
-no metabolism
-causes disease (Chicken Pox, HIV, flu)
-cannot treat with anti-biotics
-requires host cell for life cycle
-Lytic cycle-
Plant Parts
Leaf- contains chloroplast for photosynthesis; stomas are present here to allow for gas
exchange
Stem- xylem moves water and minerals while phloem moves nutrients like glucose
Root- absorbs water and nutrients
Cell Cycle- series of events that cells go through as they grow and divide
INTERPHASEG1: rapid cell growth
S: chromosomes are replicated
G2: organelles reproduced and preparation for cell division
MITOSIS- Nuclear division ; results in identical daughter cells
Prophase- chromatin condenses and nuclear envelope breaks down
Metaphase- chromosomes line up in center of cell
Anaphase- sister chromatids separate
Telophase- chromosomes at opposite ends of cell and two nuclear envelopes form
CYTOKINESIS- division of cytoplasm
DNA molecule- contains genetic info
DNA replication- copying process by which cell
duplicates its DNA; new strand contains one old
and one new strand
Disruption of Cell Cycle- if there is problem within
cell cycle, cell reproduction will go unchecked and
cancers can develop
Cell differentiation- cells become specialized and
different from each other by turning on and off
genes
Biomolecules
Biomolecule
Carbohydrate (sugar,
starch)
Monomer
(building block)
monosaccharide
Lipid (steroid, wax, oil,
fatty acid)
Fatty acids &
glycerol
Protein (enzyme,
hormone)
Nucleic acids
Amino acids
Sugar
SUg
Protein
Nucleotides
Structure
Functions
Contains carbon,
oxygen, and
hydrogen atoms
Contains carbon,
oxygen, and
hydrogen atoms
Source of energy
Carbon, nitrogen,
oxygen, hydrogen
Sugar group,
phosphate group,
and nitrogen base
Source of long-term
energy; cell
membrane
component;
chemical messenger
Enzymes, hormones
Carries genetic info
Lipid
Nucleic acids
*Small organic molecules (monomers) link together to make longer and more complex
molecules (polymers)
CATERGORY 2- MECHANISMS OF GENETICS
Nucleotide- contains sugar (ex: ribose or deoxyribose), phosphate group, and nitrogen base
(Adenine, Thymine, Guanine, Cytosine, and Uracil)
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)- contains genetic Info; double stranded in form of double helix
RNA (ribonucleic acid)- uses genetic info from DNA to produce proteins; single stranded
Nucleic Acid
Sugar
Complementary Base Pairing
DNA
Deoxyribose
A-T; G-C
RNA
Ribose
A-U; G-C
Transcription and Translation
Codon- sequence of three nucleotides (AUG, GCC)
Protein- molecule made of amino acids that performs a specific function
Transcription- copies DNA’s genetic info to mRNA (occurs in nucleus)
1.
DNA unwinds
2. Complementary RNA nucleotides pair up with one strand of DNA nucleotides
Translation- protein is made from mRNA (occurs on ribosome in cytoplasm)
1.
mRNA enters cytoplasm and attaches to ribosome
2. Translation begins at start codon (AUG) and anticodon on tRNA binds to
codon
3. Amino acid chain begins to assemble
DNA Fingerprinting
Genetic modification
Karyotyping
Mutation- change in a DNA sequence that affects genetic info; may be harmful or beneficial
Point mutations- includes insertions, deletions, and substitutions; these cause frameshift
mutations because they cause problems in the “reading frame” of the genetic message
Ex:
original DNA: TAC GGC GTT AUC
DNA:
TAC CGG CGT TAU C
*Mutations that change codon AAA to AAG will have no effect because they both code for
Lysine since there is a redundancy in the code
Genes
Gene- segment of DNA; controls specific hereditary characteristics
Gene expression- regulated process by which gene transcription and translation are
controlled by various factors, such as hormones
Genome- set of all genes that specify an organisms’ traits
Fragment of an organism’s DNA separated
using electrophoresis and compared to a
sample
Genes are changed for specific purpose
(making plants resistant to insects
Cells examined for missing, extra, or
abnormal chromosomes to identify disorders
Genetic Combinations
Trait- organism’s characteristics
Heredity- passing of traits from one generation to the next
Chromosome- structure in cell’s nucleus that contains DNA; humans have 46 total (26 pairs)
Sex chromosome- determines sex (Male XY; Female XX)
Allele- form of a gene that controls a characteristic (dominant- R; recessive- r)
Homozygous- has two identical alleles
Heterozygous- has two different alleles
Dominant trait- trait appears when at least one dominant allele is present
Recessive trait- appears when two recessive alleles are present
Genotype- inherited combination of alleles that is represented by two letters (RR, Rr, rr)
Phenotype- organism’s appearance due to genotype
Mendelian Genetics- laws regarding inheritance of traits
1.
Alleles segregate and recombine (one allele inherited per parent)
2. One trait may dominate the effect of another
3. Alleles for a trait segregate and recombine independently (eye color and hair
color do not influence each other)
Monohybrid cross (one trait)
R- right handed
Mother Rr x Father rr
r- left handed
R
r
Genotype Probability Phenotype
Rr
rr
r
RR
0 of 4
Right handed
Rr
2 of 4
Right handed
rr
2 of 4
Right handed
Rr
rr
r
Dihybrid Cross (two traits)
T and B –tall, brown-eyed
T and b- short, green-eyed
(TtBb)
tB
tb
TB
Tb
TB
TTBB
TTBb
TtBB
TtBb
Tb
TTBb
TTB
TTbb
TtBb
Ttbb
tB
TtBB
TtBb
ttBB
ttBb
tb
TtBb
Ttbb
ttBb
ttbb
Father
TtBb
Mother
Possible outcomes:
9- tall and brown-eyed
3- tall and green-eyed
3- short and brown-eyed
1 short and green-eyed
Non-Mendelian Genetics
Incomplete dominance- situation in which one allele is not completely dominant over another
Codominance- situation in which both alleles of a gene contribute to the phenotype of the
organism
Meiosis
Asexual reproduction- offspring’s genes come from one parent (not from meiosis)
Sexual reproduction- genes from two parents; results in greater genetic variation
Gamete- sex cells; eggs in females and sperm in males
Meiosis- two-staged cell division that produces gametes
1.
Parent cell’s chromosomes are replicated
2. Chromosomes “crossover” (Prophase I)
3. Chromosomes are pulled apart and cell divides in two
4. Cells divide again forming four haploid daughter cells (gametes)
CATEGORY 3- BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION AND CLASSIFICATION
Common ancestry
Evidence
Description
Fossil record
Information about past life, including the
structure of organisms, what they ate, what
ate them, in what environment they lived,
and order in which they lived
Biogeographical
Geographic distribution of organisms
Anatomical homology
Structural similarities
Molecular homology
Molecular similarities among organisms
Developmental homology
Embryonic similarities among certain
organisms show how some organisms
develop in common ways
Natural Selection- process proposed by Charles Darwin by which individuals that are better
suited to their environment survive and reproduce most successfully
Reproductive Success can be influence by several factors
Factor
Description
Inherited variations
Genes for a triat that help an organism
obtain food, avoid prey or disease, or attract
a mate become more common in
subsequent populations
Environmental resources
Competition for limited resources or a
change exerts selective pressure on certain
traits
Potential to produce offspring
Species with higher reproduction rates can
exhibit increased reproductive success
Evolutionary mechanisms
Genetic drift- random change in allele frequencies that occurs in small populations
Gene flow- change in gene pool caused by movement of organisms into or out of the
population
Mutation- change in genetic pool caused by insertion, deletion, or substitution in DNA
sequence of gamete cell; tends to increase genetic variation
Recombination- sexually reproducing species have increased genetic variation b/c of gene
crossover
Taxonomy
Taxonomy- discipline of classifying organisms and assigning each organism a universally
accepted name
Autotroph- organisms that can capture energy from sunlight and use it to produce its own
food; a producer
Heterotroph- organism that obtains energy from the foods it consumes
Domains
Archae
Bacteria
Eukarya
Description
Primitive unicellular
prokaryotes; some live in
harsh conditions
Prokaryotes; some
autotrophs but most
heterotrophs
Unicellular and multicellular
eukaryotes
Examples
halophiles
Staphylococcus bacteria;
Fungus, trees, animals
Eukarya domain can be divided into four kingdoms
Kingdom
Description
Protist
Typically unicellular; some
autotrophs and some
heterotrophs; can be found
in water
Fungi
Typically multicellular
eukaryotes; heterotrophs
Plant
Multicellular eukaryotes;
autotrophs
Animal
Multicellular eukaryotes;
heterotrophs
Examples
Amoeba, algae
Mushrooms, mold, yeast
Tree, grass, moss
Dog, fish, human
Kingdom-> Phylum-> Class-> Order-> Family-> Genus-> Species
*Remember- King Phillip cam over for great spaghetti
Binomial nomenclature- system of naming an organism using its genus and species (Ex: Homo
sapiens)
Phylogeny- study of evolutionary relationships among organisms
CATEGORY 4- BIOLOGICAL PROCESSES AND SYSTEMS
Photosynthesis- process by which plants and some other organisms use light energy to
convert water and carbon dioxide into oxygen and high-energy carbohydrates such as sugars
and starches
Interactions Among Systems in Plants
Function
Transport
Reproduction
Response
Aerobic cellular respiration- process that releases energy by breaking down glucose and other
food molecules in the presence of oxygen; occurs in mitochondria
Enzymes- protein that acts as a biological catalyst; speeds up specific chemical reaction and
lowers activation energy; often named by affected substrate (ex: Lactase speeds of
breakdown of lactose)
Levels of Organization
Atom-> molecule-> cell-> tissue-> organ-> organ system-> organism-> population->
community
Interactions Among Systems in Animals
Function
Regulation
Nutrient absorption
Reproduction
Example of Interaction(s)
Endocrine system makes certain hormones
and is carried through circulatory system
Food broken down mechanically by muscular
system and absorbed through digestive
system
Hormones produced in endocrine system
control ovulation in female’s reproductive
system
Example of Interaction(s)
The root system uptakes water; xylem
vessels transport water to leaves in the
shoot system. Phloem vessels transport
sugars and nutrients throughout the plant
Reproductive organs like the pistil (female)
and the stamen (male) are regulated by
hormones in the plant’s root system
When one side of a plant does not receive
enough light, a hormone that causes growth
is produced in the shoot system’s leaves. It
is then transported to the dark side and as
the dark side grow, the plant bend toward
the light (phototropism)
Homeostasis and Internal Feedback Mechanisms
Homeostasis- regulation of conditions within an organism or system which allows for stable,
“normal” internal equilibrium (balance)
Internal feedback mechanism- self-regulating process, like a chemical reaction, that can help
maintain homeostasis
Negative feedback- decreases effect (Ex: When you exercise, your body creates
sweat to cool you down)
Positive feedback- increases effect (Ex: When fruits ripen, they release a chemical
called ethylene which will cause more apples to ripen; “one bad apple spoils the
bunch”)
CATEGORY 5- INTERDEPENDENCE WITHIN ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS
Organisms, populations, and communities must respond to external factors (like changes in
the environment or other organisms). If an entire species is unable to respond to changes, it
could face extinction
Role of microorganisms
Microorganism- tiny organism (like a bacteria or protest) that can be seen only with a
microscope; microorganisms play critical roles in the maintenance and disruption of the
health of both individual organisms and entire ecosystems.
BENEFICIAL ROLES OF BACTERIA
HARMFUL ROLES OF BACTERIA
Decompose organic material
Spoil food
Change nitrogen from one form to another in Produce harmful or damaging toxins
the nitrogen cycle
Have role in making drugs, foods, and
Cause shortage of oxygen in lakes when
vitamins
“blooms” occur
Help absorb nutrients in digestive system
Causes disease
Ecological Succession- gradual change in living communities that follows a disturbance;
diversity of populations and species changes during process
Primary succession- occurs in surfaces where no soil exists
Secondary succession- succession following a disturbance that destroys a community without
destroying the soil
Variations and Adaptations
Ecosystem- collection of all organisms that live in a particular place, together with their
nonliving environment
Organism- living thing
Species- group of similar organisms that can breed and produce fertile offspring
Population- group of individuals of the same species that live in the same area
Variation- differences among organisms
Adaptation- inherited characteristic that increases an organism’s chance of survival
Matter and Energy Flow
ORGANISM
Producer
Consumer
Herbivore
Carnivore
Omnivore
Decomposer
SOURCE OF FOOD (ENERGY)
Makes its own food
Gets food from other organisms
Gets food from plants
Gets food from animals
Gets food from plants and animals
Gets food from dead organisms or the waste
of organisms
Food chain- series of steps in an ecosystem in which organisms transfer energy by eating and
being eaten
Food web- network of complex interactions formed by the feeding relationships among the
various organisms in an ecosystem
Trophic level- step in a food chain or food web
Ecological pyramid- shows biomass, energy flow, and relative number of organisms within an
ecosystem
Pioneer organisms (Ex: lichens) Species begin to diversify
Relationships Among Organisms
RELATIONSHIP
Predation
Competition
Parasitism
Commensalism
Mutualism
DESCRIPTION
One population (predator) captures and
feeds upon another population (prey)
Two populations struggle for same resource
Symbiotic relationship in which one organism
lives in or on another organisms (host) and
consequently harms it
Symbiotic relationship in which one member
benefits and the other is neither helped nor
harmed
Symbiotic relationship in which both species
benefit
*only 10% of energy is
transferred to next
trophic level
Survival of Species
Extinct species- refers to species that have died out
Endangered species- species whose population size is rapidly declining and will become
extinct if the trend continues
Limiting factors- factor that causes the growth of a population to decrease (ex: food, water,
disease, etc)
Carrying capacity- largest number of individuals of a population that a given environment can
support
Carbon cycle- constant movement of carbon throughout environment
Cycles
Nitrogen cycle- movement of nitrogen though the environment
Scientific Process Skills
Laboratory Safety Rules and Equipment
1.
Read and understand all safety instructions before you begin
2. Follow directions and use the equipment only as instructed
3. Locate the emergency exit and safety equipment (eye wash, fire extinguisher, fire
blanket, alarm)
4. Wear all required safety equipment; tie back long hair and secure loose clothes
5. Pour acid into water, not water into acid (Do what you oughta, add acid to water)
6. Do not dissect while holding specimen in your hand
7. Avoid contamination
8. Report all accidents, spills, and broken glass
9. Avoid eating, drinking and only waft chemicals to detect odor
10. Keep metals and water away from electrical equipment
11. Point test tubes away from you and others
12. Clean up your area
13. Turn off equipment
Scientific Investigation
INVESTIGATION
Descriptive
Comparative
Experimental
Scientific Method
1.
Begin with well-defined question
2. Research and collect data
3. Make hypothesis
4. Design and conduct experiment
Variable
Independent
Dependent
EXAMPLE
Measure growth of plant
Observe similarities and differences between
viruses and bacteria
Applying different amounts of fertilizer to
plants to find which works best
Description
Variable that is manipulated during the
experiment (x-axis)
Variable that responds to changes;
measured result (y-axis)
Variable that is held constant
Controlled
5.
Collect and organize observation
6. Looks for patterns in data
7. Make a conclusion
Data Evaluation
Inference- logical interpretation based on prior knowledge and experience
Hypothesis- possible explanation for a set of observations or possible answer to a scientific
question
Theory- well-tested explanation that unifies a broad range of observations
Average/Mean
Sum of values divided by number of items
Precision
Closeness of values to each other
Accuracy
Closeness to “true” or “correct” value
Probability
Likelihood of an event
Laboratory Equipment
Beaker- measures liquid volume
Burette- dispenses precise liquid amounts
Erlenmeyer flask- holds liquids
Graduated cylinder- measures liquid volume
Hot plate- heats chemicals on a hot, flat surface
Mortar and pestle- crushes and grinds materials into powder
Petri dish- allows for growth and observation of organisms
PROPERTY
Time
Temperature
Length
Mass
Volume
UNIT
Second (s)
°Celsius (°C)
Meter (m)
Gram (g)
Liter(L)
MEASUREMENT TOOL
Stopwatch
Thermometer
Metric ruler
Electronic balance
Graduated cylinder