Refutation
1. Definition - the act of revealing
weaknesses in arguments, or of proving
an argument to be false or erroneous.
2. Strategic Steps
Step A: Analyze Audience
Step B: Analyze Claims
Step C: Decide to attack or not
Step D: Select Posture
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2. Step D: Select a Posture
• Direct Refutation
• Reassertion
(Bolstering)
• Compromise
(minor repairs)
• Counterproposal
• Denial
• Even if ......
• Source Derogation
• Reservations
• Qualifiers
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3. Prepare for Refutation
A. Blocking
B. Probing and Questioning
1. Formal Interrogation
2. Cross X
3. Study the Flow
C. Decide on Timing (Pre-empting)
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4. Communicating Your Refutation
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State their point
State the retort
Explain and support your retort
Show the impact on the entire case
(“SO WHAT?”)
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5. Special Techniques
• Dilemmas
• Reduce to Absurdity
• Residues
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6. Grocery List of Counterargument Tactics
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Argument is unclear
Argument is insignificant
Argument is irrelevant
Argument is inconsistent
Argument claims too
much
• Advantage not inherent
• Claim does not follow
• Evidence is
unqualified, out of
date, or inaccurate
• Values are
inappropriate
• Low credibility of
authority or opponent
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7. What Proof is Not
• No Proof Argument
– Retort - Is there reasonable doubt?
• Straw Man
– Retort - Is this an accurate representation of the position?
• False Dilemmas
– Retort - Is this an accurate representation of the alternatives?
• Begging the Question
– Retort - What is really at issue?
• Evaluative Characterization
– Retort - Can you prove that characterization?
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