ig
Majmaah University
College of Engineering
Study Skills
for Engineering and Technology Students
A Course for Preparatory year for Engineering College
Prepared by:
Dr. SaMeH S. Ahmed
Study Skills
[STUDY SKILLS ]
1.Time Management Skills
1.1 Introduction
Time is a precious commodity when you are a student. It can be very challenging to
manage time. New demands such as organizing your study time, your budget, your
meals, and your social life come rushing in. If you are a mature student, you may have
family and other responsibilities to fit around your new, academic life. Whenever and
wherever you are studying, you may have to work part-time to help support yourself
during your studies.
There is no student loan scheme for time and no entrepreneurial inspiration will create
more of it, but you can manage what you have really well.
1.2 Time management at work
Time management is a really valuable skill to develop before you start going for job
interviews and become involved in work. Effective management of work time is one of
the most important skills that employers expect their staff to use at all levels. Training
courses in time management are very common in industry and commerce; this
demonstrates just how highly employers rate it.
As a student if you can learn to use your time effectively, your daily life is likely to be
far less stressful and far more productive.
1.3 Setting priorities
Being able to prioritise is absolutely central to good time management, and is usually
mentioned as its first principle. You must be able to work out what is important, how
long it will take you, and when it needs to be completed to have a hope of managing
your time effectively.
List the things you know you must do.
Look at the deadlines to see which really has to be done first.
Look at the ease with which different tasks can be accomplished.
Work out what you need to accomplish particular tasks, e.g., a particular book, a quick
word with a tutor, and a discussion with other people in a project group.
 Be realistic; do not set yourself a timetable that means you are bound to fail by the end
of day one.
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1.4 Budget your time
If you are a keen student of politics or economics, perhaps the Chancellor’s annual
budget with its forecasts and estimates is a great thrill; on the other hand, perhaps not.
The key to good budgeting, and this applies equally to time, is to make realistic estimates.
Do you really have a clear idea about how long particular activities take you? It is very
common to underestimate the time required, and if this happens more and more, you
get further and further behind. A key to accurate estimating is to break down an
assignment, for example, into lots of mini tasks and estimate a time for each one.
1.5 Time wasters
A great timesaver is to start having tidy work areas, no piles of papers on your desk,
floor, or windowsill. Even if you keep most things electronically, it is just as important
to organize your files properly, so that you can easily access information and remember
where you put it. Keeping back-up copies is important, just in case you have a really
bad crash on your computer.
It is more pleasant to work in a tidy work environment and it also means you save time
because you do not have to keep looking for things you have lost.
1.6 Organization
It is easy to laugh at people who make endless lists of things they have to do (spending
a large part of their valuable time making lists), but being able to organize and
especially to prioritise your time is really important. If you tick things off the list as you
achieve them, you start to get some feedback that suggests you are being successful and
this is a great boost. At the end of this chapter (should chapter references be included as
they aren’t used to organise content in the CWS? Consider rewording), there is a printoff sheet you can take away that helps you to look at how you use time, and you may
find this quite revealing.
1.7 A sense of direction
One key principle of good time management is to ensure that the effort you put in is
directed to getting useful outcomes. Traps associated with this include being tempted to
work on something interesting, even if it is less urgent, rather than spending time on
something more boring or more difficult. Another common trap is feeling that your
work has to be absolutely perfect, so that whether it is an essay or a project, you end up
going over it too many times, just to make the most minor alterations. Try to apportion
time fairly between your different assignments.
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1.8 Your body clock
Whether you are a lark or an owl, it is no good telling your nine o’clock lecturer that
you are an owl and that is why you are late. What you can do is work with your body
rather than against it. If you know you are an evening or a morning person, and this is
when you produce your best work, plan your day so that you can do important
assignments that demand your best attention at that time of the day. Take note of other
peaks and troughs in your own body clock, so that you can make the best of your high
spots.
1.9 Time management strategies
Imagine, and this may be all too close to the truth, that in two weeks’ time you have five
assignments to complete. Between now and then you have two important social
engagements and next week you have two interviews for part-time work. After a brief
moment of panic, do the following:
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Clarify your objectives.
Make an action list each day.
Set a major target each day.
Achieve that target.
Be productive in the first hour.
Set time limits for each activity.
Make time to get things right the first time.
1.10 Time to sum up
There is good news: it is easy to improve your time management skills. By putting into
practice the suggestions in this chapter, you will find that you do have more control
over your time. Of all the study skills you acquire, the knock-on effects of mastering this
one are enormous. Above all, you will feel better. You are less likely to hand
assignments in late or be the last one in the library, trying to get hold of a key text. Your
planning skills will feed into your revision strategy and they will undoubtedly impress
future employers and ensure that you enjoy your work more because you feel in
control.
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2.Stress Management
2.1 Introduction
If you have just looked at the chapter opener and found that you have scored a mixture
of 3s, 4s and 5s, do not be alarmed; there is nothing unusual about you. You do not
want to add “filling in questionnaires about stress” as a further potential source of
stress. University and college life is very busy and it always coincides with some change
in your life: leaving school, giving up a job, deciding to return to education, coming
back from travelling, living away from home, etc.; and this combination of factors
means you are likely to encounter stress.
2.2 What is stress?
Stress is a set of physical, psychological, and emotional responses to the world around
us. It is how we react to situations like being late, being caught in a traffic jam, having to
confront someone about something, right through to more extreme circumstances such
as bereavement, break up of relationships, or the loss of a job. Not everyone has the
same response to the same circumstances and some of us become more easily stressed
than others. What matters is that you can recognize the signs of stress in yourself and
that you can deal effectively with that stress.
2.2.1 Tell-tale signs
We all react differently, but there are a few symptoms that are often associated
with stress and each person might suffer from different combinations of these.
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Headaches, back ache, and stomach cramps (not all at once, hopefully)
Troubled sleeping patterns; either not being able to sleep, or not wanting to wake
up in the mornings
Being irritable and impatient with other people
Feeling constantly tired even if you have had plenty of sleep
Not wanting to eat or eating everything you can get your hands on
Starting several tasks, but not completing any
Not wanting to do anything at all
2.2.2 It’s not all bad
You might think that with the number of CDs, scented candles, shower gels, and
chimes that are supposed to keep you calm and relaxed, stress is an entirely bad
thing. Actually it is a natural and, indeed, an essential part of life. It is the body’s
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set of well-developed responses to stimuli from the world. Without a stress
response we could not function. Distress, when we suffer from overload and
cannot function properly, is the destructive side of stress. Eustress is the positive
side of stress, excitement, delight, and enthusiasm.
2.2.3 Find your own level
We do not all eat the same amount of food, need the same amount of sleep, or lead
identical lives, and our responses to stress are equally varied. Some people work
much better under a certain amount of pressure, e.g., an approaching deadline,
while others work much better by planning ahead and avoiding pressure. It is
fairly easy to tell what you are like. If you find ideas come to you quickly and you
can express yourself clearly when you are up against it, then you probably thrive
on adrenalin; if this brings out the worst in you, then you probably do not.
2.3 Stress and study
Studying brings its own particular set of stresses. Something seemingly minor like not
being able to get hold of a vital textbook or not being able to find a tutor when you
really want to speak to him or her can leave you feeling very fraught. Coping with
examination preparation, project deadlines, and dealing with the consequences if you
do fail an exam, or get seriously behind with assignments are just the sort of things that
can contribute to your feeling very stressed. Having doubts about the course you have
chosen and what you will do afterwards are also factors.
2.4 Stress strategies
What you can do about stress really falls under two headings; first of all, there is the
possibility of avoiding potential unpleasant stress in the first place by good planning.
Of course, this can only cover the predictable sources of stress: several assignments to
be handed in, revision to do on top of attending job interviews, giving a presentation
when you do not like public speaking, and so on. Unfortunately, there are always
situations that you can’t foresee: a problem in a relationship, a crisis at work, and an
unexpected drain on your finances. Since not all stress can be avoided, you also need to
develop techniques for coping with stress when it does arise.
2.5 Avoidance tactics
Good time management, so beloved for every employer, and mentioned earlier in this
chapter, is one of the most useful strategies you can develop to avoid stress. This is
covered in Chapter 11(should chapter references be included as they aren’t used to
organise content in the CWS? Consider rewording), but here is a quick reminder of
some of the things to do.
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1.
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Plan your time carefully.
Prioritise tasks.
Try to minimise sources of distraction and interruption.
Above all, be realistic.
Remember, most of us underestimate how long it will take to research, write, check
details, etc.
2.6 The best laid plans
Planning is a key skill in avoiding stress, however, there is a very important point here.
There is no value in having really well defined plans, with lists, and timetables and
cross-references, etc., unless you act on them. Try to be realistic about what you can
achieve, so that you can tick things off and feel successful. Have another look at the
previous chapter on time management again to remind yourself about this. Planning
means that you are able to anticipate when the busy times will be, and if something
unexpected comes up, you can deal with it without everything else falling apart.
2.7 Stress and time
Feeling that you do not have enough time to do all the things you are supposed to do is
one of the most commonly reported causes of stress. This is often true when you are
studying, where you have to balance the time spent on several assignments with the
time spent doing paid work, carrying out family duties, and trying to keep some kind of
leisure and social life going. Look back at Chapter 11 (should chapter references be
included as they aren’t used to organise content in the CWS? Consider rewording) on
time management, which gives plenty of advice and ideas on tactics for managing your
time effectively. Feeling more in control of time will certainly help you deal with stress.
2.7.1 Avoiding stress
If you can’t avoid unpleasant stress, there are ways of getting through it. Eating
good food without too much tea, and coffee and allowing yourself enough time
to sleep properly are two good starting points. Physical exercise is also really
useful, even if it only consists of going for regular walks. Walking, swimming,
joining a gym, (provided you use it once you have joined it), or getting involved
in any sport that you already enjoy or have always fancied trying are also useful.
2.7.2 Just relax
It can be highly irritating when people tell you to “just relax” and you feel you
could hit them just for mentioning it, but learning to relax really is useful. You
can often find local relaxation classes, and even if you can’t do these, giving
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yourself time to be quiet and calm and to concentrate on your breathing for a few
minutes really can take away that very overwrought feeling. You will also know
the things that help you relax: listening to music, reading a non-academic book,
going out somewhere, or just being with friends can all eliminate the unpleasant
side of stress.
2.7.3 A problem shared is a problem halved
Wherever you are studying, there will be some kind of support system in place;
you are likely to have been allocated a personal tutor and the majority of
universities and colleges employ a variety of staff who can help you: financial
advisers, accommodation officers, and personal counselors. The titles of support
departments vary and you should find out all about this in your first week of
study; look out for titles like:
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student support
student welfare
student advice
student counselor
personal counselor
Your student union can also point you in the right direction.
2.7.4 Stress at work
If you have come back to university or college after working for a while, you will
be acutely aware of some of the stressful situations that any job can present you
with. It is also true that part-time work while you are studying may have
highlighted potential frustrations such as other people not pulling their weight,
unpleasant managers, awkward customers, too much work to do in too little
time, etc. Learning to manage stress and even turn it to your advantage while
you are a student will undoubtedly be an incredibly helpful, transferable skill to
take with you into your long-term career.
2.8 Conclusion
Remind yourself that stress is not all bad. This is really important because accepting
that there are times when you really will feel under pressure is a very significant step
towards coping with just such stressful situations. You can reduce unpleasant stress by
getting to grips early on in your course with all the relevant study skills, such as
reading effectively, getting the most from lectures, knowing where and how to get
information, and being able to communicate that on paper and in groups all feed into
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how effectively you manage your studies. Most importantly, it will affect how much
you enjoy yourself!
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3.Reading Skills
3.1 Introduction
Reading is something we take for granted; at least by the time we enter higher
education, it has become automatic. We read to acquire knowledge, or purely for
pleasure. We read in order to take informed decisions about a purchase or a holiday.
We read to locate very specific “facts”, e.g., what time a bus is due to leave. This is
normally a pointless piece of reading because the time indicated bears little resemblance
to the actual time. We read to escape, perusing boring magazines in a dentist’s waiting
room to avoid thinking about the treatment or reading a brilliant novel to escape from
everything.
3.2 The key to knowledge
When you start your higher education, reading takes on a whole new significance.
Whatever you study, you will undoubtedly be expected to do a great deal of reading. In
books and journals lies the history of every subject, from the thoughts of great
philosophers from the distant past to cutting-edge discoveries in biotechnology. Even
though some of your reading may be from online information, you still have to develop
the techniques of selecting, remembering, and using the right information and learning
to read quickly and effectively. Reading is a marvellous key to the doorway of
knowledge and a wonderfully enriching experience.
3.3 Why read at all?
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To gather information for very precise instructions, such as how to programme a
mobile phone or how to follow a statistical procedure. This means you read
carefully, pay attention to detail, and return to particular sections.
Reading for enjoyment: romping through a gripping novel as fast as you can,
knowing you are not going to be tested on it.
Reading for quick information: skimming through a magazine to gain a quick
idea of what it contains.
Reading for specific information, e.g., scanning a recipe book for vegetarian
recipes.
3.3.1 Four ways of reading
i. Background reading gives you the big picture and a general overview; a lot of
pre-course reading comes into this category.
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ii. Skimming helps you gain a general impression and gives you a
superficial knowledge; you tend to use cues like headings or key words
for this type of reading.
iii. Scanning gives you a more detailed knowledge than skimming; here you
read only what is necessary and look for things of specific interest.
iv. Detailed and critical reading gives you deeper knowledge and the ability
to analyse and evaluate what you have read.
All of these are useful.
3.3.2 Use your eyes
Maybe you believe that as you read your eyes move steadily along each line. In
fact, they make a series of small jumps, fixating on one word at a time, and then
pausing for 0.25 to 0.50 seconds between fixations. You probably think that you
read steadily forward, but in fact, most of us make several little backward
movements with our eyes as we read, wasting more time. Learning to read
quickly and take in what you read does take practice, but you can read up to
1,000 words a minute and if you can reduce the number of jumps and pauses,
you will suffer less eye strain.
3.3.3 Eye gymnastics
At least, these don’t make you sweaty and you don’t involve expensive
equipment.
Fixate first the top left, then top right of a page, and practice moving your eyes
quickly between the two. Do the same between the top and bottom of the page
and between diagonal corners.
Practice reducing the number of fixations. Use a pointer to point at every second
or even every third word. Move your pointer every 1.5 seconds. It is true that
reading while you are coordinating all this is challenging, but it is worth it.
Gradually increase the frequency with which you move your pointer and the
distance you move it.
3.3.4 Other tips for fast reading
Practice turning pages quickly and at the right moment: think that you are
turning the pages of music for a world-class musician (though, of course, they
should be able to play by memory, but that is hardly the point). Time yourself
over set numbers of words to see whether you are getting quicker and give
yourself frequent breaks so that you can maintain reasonable levels of
concentration. Check your comprehension. Common sense might suggest that as
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you read faster it is harder to absorb information, but, with practice, it appears
that perhaps the contrary is the case.
Be selective
When you read books, journals, or papers, you can find out quite
quickly what is going to be useful to you. Obviously, the title tells you
something, but you can also learn a lot from the contents, the index,
the notes on the back cover, and the introduction. Individual
introductions to chapters or sections and the summaries at the ends of
these won’t ensure you can write an essay that will get you a mark of
70%+, but they will quickly let you work out what is actually worth
reading. It is easy to waste time reading irrelevant material.
SQ3R
You have not suddenly wandered by mistake into a chapter on
numbers and equations; SQ3R is the acronym for a popular reading
method that has stood the test of time. S is, in a way, linked to being
selective but it actually stands for survey, as in to survey the material
you want to use in order to achieve whatever your objective is, e.g.,
write an essay, gather some background material for a project, or
prepare to give a presentation. Briefly surveying everything you might
want to use and using your technique of being selective will help you
concentrate on what is relevant and useful.
Q is for Questions Questions Questions
As you prepare for your reading, ask all those familiar “W” questions,
an “H” sneaks in as well to untidy the pattern: the when, what, where,
why, how, and who questions to which you need answers to achieve
your objectives. This helps your reading to be more tightly focused and
encourages you to concentrate on gathering relevant information.
Doing this will help you note or mark the most important points and it
will draw your attention to new names, dates, and new terminology.
You will gain deeper understanding using this approach to reading.
It sounds obvious, but read
When you begin to read, be aware of trying to find answers to the
questions you have raised. If you can, try to read the whole chapter,
article, or paper right through, marking, underlining, and noting
anything that is important; this also helps to keep your concentration
sharp and alert. Having read the material through once, divide it into
smaller sections and reread, note all the underlined text, and reduce
your reading speed for any difficult sections. This second reading
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allows you to fill in the details around the framework your first reading
provided. You have become a reader with a detailed, critical approach.
The second “R” - Recall, Rehearse, and Recite
When you have read the material, look away for a while and then try
to recall answers to questions. The more quickly you recall and
rehearse information and the more times you do this, the more likely
that information will be stored in your long-term memory and also
recalled when you want to remember it. Your deeper knowledge of a
subject will also grow by doing this. Note in your own words what you
have read – this is far more likely to guarantee your understanding
than just copying phrases from the book. Read more about notetaking in Chapter 6 (should chapter references be included as they
aren’t used to organise content in the CWS? Consider rewording).
The final R
You’ve made it through all the stages of skilled, planned, and
thoughtful reading. Does this mean the final “R” stands for “relief”,
because you are now ready to start that dissertation or report, or
perhaps for “refreshment”, because you feel ready for some by now?
Sadly, it stands for neither, but you are nearly there – it stands for
“review”. When you have finished reading the chapter or article,
employing all the steps listed in SQ3R, review what you have read and
learned. Skim through the chapter once more, checking that you can
still answer your questions.
Don’t be discouraged
Reading about reading, the approaches, steps, exercises, and
instructions, can put you off. It is really worth remembering that you
are not starting from a base point of being unprepared, inexperienced,
and clueless in all of this. Rather, you are building on skills,
knowledge, and techniques that you already possess. What all this is
about is to help you to be more efficient and to make better use of
your reading time, but don’t feel it all has to happen at once. To find
out more, read Sheila Cameron’s “Business Students Handbook”
chapter (should chapter references be included as they aren’t used to
organise content in the CWS? Consider rewording)
3.4 Reading and employment
As you hand back your last book to the library after your final examination, you are not
abandoning the skilled approach to reading you have cultivated throughout your
studies. Most jobs, however practical they seem, require effective reading of many
kinds. Not everyone will be ploughing through hefty legal texts, and sadly, there are
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but few opportunities to become paid book reviewers of high renown. There is,
however, written text to suit every job: sales reports, technical manuals, medical notes,
annual reviews, or project bids. The written word is everywhere and you will be
expected to read it and to use it.
3.5 Handy in your job search
There are many places where being able to draw out relevant information and, most
particularly, to read between the lines is a truly valuable life skill, and when you start
your job search this is certainly the case. Which recruitment brochure or company
website is going to say, “It is nasty to work here and I wouldn’t apply if I were you”?
Recruitment information does give away a lot about the culture of the organisations you
are thinking about applying to. Do they mention the word “flexible”, or is there any
mention of ongoing training and staff development?
3.6 Read for life
Just as puppies, kittens, and Brussels sprouts are for life and not just for Christmas, reading is
not just for the time you spend in higher education. The reading techniques and
approaches you develop will stand you in good stead in all kinds of situations at work,
in further training and professional development, and in all aspects of life. The amount
you have to read while you are a student can be overwhelming, so use whichever
techniques seem to suit you best and, above all, take breaks and breathers from time to
time. Reading should remain a key, not a lock.
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4.Writing Skills
You will find that your writing skills develop significantly whilst at university because
there are usually writing assignments to complete for every module or unit or option.
Your spelling and vocabulary will also improve. In this section, you can read more
about the writing process and how to go about getting top marks in all your
assignments.
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Enjoy the process
Define the task
Plan the assignment tasks
Make an outline plan for your writing
Stages in the writing process
Grammar, spelling and punctuation
4.1 Enjoy the process
There is such a lot of writing to do at university that it is worth finding the point of
enjoyment in writing as a process. This is easier if:
1. You give yourself enough time to write up your work so that you are not
always rushing to meet deadlines.
2. You break writing tasks down into several stages with their own deadlines.
This is easier than trying to write the perfect essay or report first time.
3. You regard writing as a craft. Write several drafts. Aim to make each
successive draft better than the previous one.
4. Familiarize yourself with the style and conventions of your subject. Take
pride in producing a piece of writing that is good by the standards of your
own subject.
4.2 Define the task
Spend time working out exactly what is required by the assignment title. The title will
usually include a question that you must answer.
Think through:
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Why was this particular title or assignment set?
What are your tutors expecting that you will research?
What issues do they intend you to cover?
What theories, research and evidence do they expect you to refer to?
What recent research or articles have been published on this subject?
What methodologies are your tutors expecting you to use to demonstrate that
you understand how to apply these?
4.3 Plan the assignment tasks
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Use the word limit and the assignment title to guide you in how much you need
to read of each book and article recommended.
Make a list of all the steps you need to take in order to finish the writing task.
Work out how long each will take you. Each step will probably take longer than
you think so plan for this.
Write each task into your diary so you know when it will be done.
4.4 Make an outline plan for your writing
It takes time to rewrite each draft of your writing. The more you have to change, the
longer it will take. This makes it worthwhile to develop a detailed outline of your
writing. If you do this straight onto the computer, you can reorganise the plan on
screen, and progressively build on this until you complete your final draft.
4.5 Stages in the writing process
These will vary but the following steps offer a basic outline:
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Work out what your conclusion is and write it down.
Brainstorm initial ideas onto the computer.
Organise these into headings with main points underneath.
Organise these headings-and-points into the best order.
Write in other headings that will structure your writing, depending on the nature
of the assignment (such as introduction, conclusion, references, abstract,
methodology, results, etc).
Allocate a word limit for each point - check whether you have enough or too
many points for the word limit you have allocated.
Select the strongest points and save the rest elsewhere.
Write up your points - you may find it easier to start with the conclusion.
Read through and fine tune - check it makes sense; check one point seems to lead
naturally to the next.
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Leave the writing for a day- read and fine tune again
Print out and read aloud - look for typing errors and other mistakes: correct
these.
You will develop your own strategies and find short-cuts as the process becomes more
familiar to you. For example, some people find that they develop their ideas as they
write whereas other people cannot write until they have worked out what they need to
say.
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5.Note Taking
5.1 Introduction
Everyone would have taken notes on all sorts of occasions long before taking up life as
a student. At school or at work you would have made notes of several kinds. Day-today living includes taking messages, making shopping lists, or reminding ourselves to
do something, in fact, to help us store and use information in the world around us all
the time. It is also something you would have done at school or at work, but the heavy
demands on your note-taking skills that life as a student creates are probably more than
what most of us are used to.
Why bother?
It might be tempting, with so much to do and so many sources of information
available to you, to feel that note taking is just one extra burden to add to an
already lengthy list of tasks. Learning to take good, useful notes is, however, an
essential skill simply because there is so much information you have to process.
This information comes from seminars, lectures, written texts, journals, and the
Internet, and without finding some way of reducing all this information to a
manageable and memorable quantity, you will come unstuck. The sooner you
can apply good note-taking skills, the smoother your academic life will be.
5.2 The five benefits of note taking
There are five major purposes for taking notes; their initials do not form into a neat little
acronym, so you’ll just have to note them down to remember them. They are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
concentration
understanding
remembering
referral
revision
5.2.1 Concentration and understanding
Sometimes in a dull lecture, or when you are reading a lengthy complicated text,
your mind may wander, especially if you are tired, or pre-occupied. Taking notes
definitely helps you to focus as it makes you active rather than passive and keeps
you involved in learning. It also looks better in the eyes of a lecturer than does a
snoring student. If you are concentrating, you are more likely to understand
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what you are reading or what is being spoken about. If you take notes you can
pay special attention to points that are important or difficult to understand.
5.2.2 Now I remember
How often have you written something down and found that simply writing it
makes it easier to remember? You write a shopping list and find that you barely
need to refer to it once you are in the shop. You write a date in your diary and it
is firmly fixed in your mind even before you check your appointments. Taking
notes acts as reinforcement. It means you immediately receive and store the
information twice rather than once, so you have already started the process of
committing something to your long-term memory. Think of how many times an
actor goes over the same lines to ensure a perfect delivery.
5.2.3 Refer and revise
If you have made good notes, they act as an excellent reference for future work to
refer back for reports, essays, projects, presentations, or any other course
assignments. Above all, they make it far easier to revise when examinations are
lurking just around the corner. No waiting to get key texts from the library,
hours spent photocopying journal articles, or frustrations as your PC crashes.
Just you, a folder, or electronic organiser of easily understood, clear, thorough
notes, a cup of tea, and a calm mind, and there you are.
5.3 The best way to take notes
There is no best way to take notes. It depends on what works for you and what kind of
material you are working with. If you have never thought about different ways of
taking notes, though, you could find it useful to have a go at some different techniques.
The three main ways of taking notes are:
 linear or sequential note taking
 summary note taking
 outline note taking and mind mapping
You will also find that using different techniques makes note taking more interesting.
You can find what really suits you only by trying things out.
5.3.1 Sequential note taking
Sequential or linear note taking is no more than a fancy name, for what we tend
to do naturally, i.e., to take down notes in our own words, on what we have been
reading or listening to. It is the most common way of taking notes. The
advantage of this sort of note taking is that it is relatively easy to do and you do
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get an accurate record of what you have been attending to. The disadvantage is
that you can end up with copious notes to deal with, especially when it comes to
revising for exams or working on a major project.
5.3.2 Summary notes
Making summary notes probably demands that you think a good deal more
about the notes you are taking, possibly spend time reorganising them, and
writing summaries in your own words. The advantage of this technique is that
you really have to think about the ideas and concepts that you are dealing with
so that your summaries are clear and accurate. This, in turn, can help you store
the information you have summarised in your long-term memory. The main
disadvantage is that it can be rather time consuming to put in all this extra work
on your notes.
5.3.3 Outline notes
This is quite a popular way of taking notes. You only note the key words and
phrases from lectures or reading material. There are different ways of writing
your outline notes, but using numbered headings, lots of sub headings, and
indentations are all characteristics of this style of note taking. The advantage is
that they are quick to take and they are easy to read through and memorise. The
disadvantage is that you may sometimes find it difficult to fill in the detail of
what seemed very obvious at the time that you took your brief outline notes.
5.3.4 Mind maps
Mind maps are an entirely different way of taking notes - they are diagrammatic
representations of the subject material you are learning about, where key
concepts occupy a central position and ideas, issues, facts, and figures, whatever
it happens to be, that are more peripheral are drawn further away from the
centre. Many people really like this way of taking notes, once they get used to it.
It can seem daunting at first. But it is a very active way of noting and learning.
Many people claim that it improves your ability to understand and to retain
information.
A few hints on mind mapping
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Use A4 paper and turn it to a landscape orientation.
Write down the title of the topic you are covering in the centre of the page
and draw a circle round it.
Draw a line out from the circle, in any direction and write the first main
heading for the topic on this line.
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For each sub-heading, draw lines coming from the main line with the main
topic heading on it so that it is obvious where the connections lie.
Use single words, short phrases, or images to capture ideas.
Try using different colours for different ideas.
5.4 In your own words
Here are a few general hints that should be helpful, whatever methods you are using to
take notes. In certain situations, particularly in lectures, one of the biggest temptations
is to write too much. This means all your concentration goes into writing fast and
hearing what is said, but at a superficial level, rather than listening, taking it in, and
cutting it down. Try to write brief phrases that summarise long sentences. Try
paraphrasing the opening paragraphs of a few of your favourite novels, articles, or
sports reports to help develop this technique.
5.5 Use your own shorthand
While there are standard abbreviations for many words, it makes sense to invent your
own shorthand so long as you can understand it yourself. Note those words, concepts,
technical phrases, and names that are central to your subject and find quick ways of
writing these. It makes sense to write a list of these so that you become familiar with
them.
5.6 Writing on writing
A fundamental rule, if you are taking notes from written texts, is to write on and
annotate those texts only if they belong to you. You may incur library fines as well as
serious unpopularity if you are found out. Finding texts that are scribbled all over also
illustrates the point that while there are general guidelines for making notes we tend to
have individual shorthand and codes that we understand better than anybody else.
5.7 Note with care
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Cut down your essential reading and note taking by making intelligent use
of your reading material. Look at introductions and summaries to help you
take notes on key points.
Make notes on margins, or highlight/underline important words, phrases,
formulae, or ideas.
Don’t just put a vague mark or tick in the margin, thinking you will
remember what it refers to when you look at that page again; you probably
won’t.
Make brief notes of your notes and list important chapters, sections, pages,
etc., so that you can refer back to them quickly.
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5.8 Now where did I...?
Your notes are of any use to you only if they are well organised and you can find them
and use them easily. Try to file them as soon as possible after you have made them.
How you store them is purely a matter of personal preference. If you keep everything
electronically, do not forget to make back-up copies. If you keep your notes on paper
you may like to try using small cards, ring binders, or ordinary note pads. Whichever it
is, make sure that items are numbered, properly headed, and stored in order. This will
save you so much time in the future.
5.9 Taking notes at work
Elephants may never forget, but employees do. The chapter opener reminded you about
how much note taking is part of so many, many jobs. It is easy to think you will
remember the content of a telephone call or the main points from a meeting and then
find that even an hour or two later, other enquiries, problems, or tasks have driven
important information out of your head. Getting into the habit of taking good brief
notes is likely to improve your relationships with colleagues, clients, and customers and
to make your own working life more organised and enjoyable.
5.10 Quick reminders for striking the right note
Try to stick to the suggestions below:
 Try to use both words and diagrams as it makes your notes easier and more
interesting to refer back to.
 Read over your notes as soon as you can after you have made them; this is
another way of committing them to memory.
 Look at them again within 24 hours; it may seem a pain at the time, but it
will really contribute to effective and successful revision.
 File them and organise them well. There is nothing worse than taking
excellent notes and then losing them.
 Remember, good note taking is a great life skill to possess.
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5.10.1 Individual styles
Everybody makes notes in their own ways. They are for your purposes so the
most important aspect is that they suit your purposes. Your notes may be neat or
messy, ordered lists or sprawling webs. This does not matter as long as you can
make use of them.
5.10.2 Methods of taking notes

Headings and bullet points
This is a very common way of making notes. It is especially useful if you are
making notes on a computer as you can reorganise information under new
headings. The heading is the key point or a question. The bullets or list of points
under it all refer to that one heading.
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Double notes
These are notes where you use either two colour or two columns or two sheets of
paper in order to make two connected sets of notes. The first set is a summary of
what you are reading or hearing. The second set is your commentary upon the
first set. This is useful for separating out other people's ideas and words from
your own.
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Pattern notes
These are notes that are organised around a central concept and work their way
out from that idea. Each line from the centre leads you into more depth on a
particular theme. Use colour and shape to make the notes distinctive. Look for a
particular image formed by the final shape of the notes - or aim to develop a
particular image. This will make the notes more memorable.

Annotations
If you own the text, you can highlight key points and write additional
information and comments in the margins or underneath. This can save time
making longer notes, but is less effective for processing the information and
ensuring that you understand it than other forms of notes.
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Summaries
It is useful to summarise your notes on any one topic or questions down to a few
key points, quotes and examples. This familiarises you with the material. It also
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makes it easier to carry the information around to refer to on work placement or
to revise for exams.
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Lists
These are useful, for example for:
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Identifying all the tasks that have to be undertaken on a particular day.
Noting the key themes in a book or lecture.
Numbering key points.
Being able to see what you need to do or remember very easily.
Identifying resources to follow up.
Keep a record of resources such as useful web-pages.
5.10.3 Keep a record of sources
It is important to keep a very good record of where you gained each piece of
information so that you can find it again quickly and easily if you need to check
something about it. You will also need this information when you make
reference to the information in your work. If you do not state where you get
ideas, material and quotations, then you may be accused of plagiarism and
cheating.
Record the:
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Author's name and initials.
The full name of the chapter, book or article.
The name of the journal for printed articles or of the book for chapters.
The place of publication.
The date of publication.
The publisher.
The shelf reference or web address.
It is also useful to keep a record of the ISBN number at the back of the book.
5.10.4 Noting down quotations
Take special care when copying quotations. To avoid plagiarism:
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Copy only very small phrases or very short sections to quote in your work.
Use a different colour pen to copy these.
Make very few such quotes.
Write down details of the source of the quotation and reference these in your text and
list of references.
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6.Working with numbers
6.1 Introduction
Plato, who thought about things quite a lot, considered that numbers were some of the
most beautiful things in the universe: he thought so because of their ordered form and
symmetry. Some of us, as we ponder over a bank statement, a table of projected sales
targets, or a calorie calculation chart, might well feel that we do not share Plato's
enthusiasm for matters numerical. Many students embarking on a course where quite a
high level of numerical competence is expected can feel very daunted. If you are
reading this, you are more likely to be in the daunted category than in the numerical
genius category.
6.2 Who does the worrying?
Anyone studying mathematics, physics, engineering, quantity surveying, or any other
technical or scientific subject is not likely to be concerned that numbers and
mathematical formulae will be part and parcel of their everyday academic lives. If, on
the other hand, you have just started a course in business studies, social science,
management, information technology, or humanities, you may have a few anxieties.
You have perhaps looked at the course outline and found that statistics, spreadsheets,
or other numerical concepts are something you will have to get to grips with. It is often
the fear of the unknown that undermines our confidence.
Why do we worry?
It does not seem to matter whether you left school 3 months ago, or 30 years ago;
there will always be people who have unpleasant memories of maths lessons.
Either the teacher was grumpy, or everyone else seemed to understand and you
did not dare say you did not. Or else, a lot of the subject simply seemed
unrelated to the world around us. Ask yourself; will you use a quadratic
equation or struggle to calculate the internal volume of a sphere? Yet, you can
probably calculate your shopping bill as you walk round the supermarket
without too much trouble.
6.3 Basic arithmetic
Calling it basic is a bad start, because it makes you feel inadequate if you are not
familiar with it. Being able to handle basic arithmetic means you can add, subtract,
multiply, and divide numbers. Of course, on most occasions it is fine to use a calculator,
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but it is often good to understand what the calculator is doing for you, rather than
believing it works like magic. Have a look at the explanations below to remind yourself
of the main arithmetical procedures. You are likely to find that most of it is familiar and
this should be an encouraging starting point for you.
2+2
Here is a quick revision of basic arithmetic terms.
Addition (symbol +) is the simplest of all number concepts. It means exactly
what it says; you take one number and add it to another.
Subtraction (symbol -) means taking one number away from another.
Multiplication (symbol x) describes sums like “What is 6 times 7?”, or “What is
12.5 times 1712.2?”.
Division (symbol /) describes sums like “What is 25 divided by 5?” or “What is
130 divided by 260?”.
6.3.1 A few more terms
To square a number means to multiply it by itself, i.e., 3 x 3 is 9 and 9 x 9 is 81.
Conversely, the square root of a number is the number that multiplied by itself
becomes the number whose square root you want to find. It is far easier than the
words that explain it. The square root of 16 is 4 because four 4s are 16.
Percentage means per hundred. If 60% of people say they prefer tea to coffee,
then 60 in every 100 people prefer tea to coffee. You will come across percentages
a lot if you are interpreting data of many kinds.
6.4 Statistics or sadistics ?
Statistics is one of the areas of mathematics you are likely to have to deal with even if
you did not opt for it or did not think you had opted for a highly numerate subject. You
have probably already been part of all kinds of statistical data yourself. Statistics is a
branch of applied mathematics concerned with the collection and interpretation of
quantitative data. It is simply a tool to make handling data easier, not to drive you to
distraction. Statistics are used by government departments, market research
organizations, managers, sales staff, teachers, medical researchers, and, of course, you:
students.
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6.4.1 What are they for?
Statistics is all about working out what people have done and what they will do;
it is linked to questions of probability. How likely is it, for example, that if you
eat six bars of chocolate you will feel sick? How many people do eat six bars of
chocolate a day? What kind of chocolate are they most likely to eat? Of what age
group, gender, and social class are they likely to be? How much is their average
weekly chocolate bill etc.; these are the sorts of question that can be answered by
statistical applications.
6.4.2 Terminology
For a mathematical subject, statistics is remarkably full of words, some of them
common, everyday words that take on their own meaning when they have a
statistical application.
Variables are those factors that might affect a population you are studying, e.g.,
age of people, colour of vehicles, amount of money spent, etc.
Frequencies: this term describes the pattern of responses in a table of data. They
allow you to review how different categories are distributed within a sample.
Correlation refers to how much agreement there is between different sets of data.
There are some special terms associated with averages that need further
definition.
Mean
Is the average score of a set of data obtained by adding all the responses
together and then dividing their sum by the number of respondents.
For example: 10 people go to a restaurant
The bill is £250,00
The average cost of the meal is £25.00 a head
Of course, we all know that it never works like that in a restaurant
because someone has only had mineral water, someone else did not have
a starter, etc., etc., so let us look at one or two other figures, which,
incidentally, will be of no help in solving restaurant bill disputes.
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The median
Think back to the restaurant bill and cast your eyes down all the items.
The lowest price is £3.50 (garlic bread), the highest is £18.50 (monkfish).
There are lots of others in between, of course. The midway point between
these two items is £11.00 because it is halfway between the lowest figure
and the highest. On a table of statistics this would be the median.
The mode
Look down your bill again. Is there one price that occurs more than any
other? Perhaps there are far more items at £12.99, so this price appears far
more times on the bill than any other. This represents the mode on any
table of statistics. If you look down a table and see that the largest number
of people gave the same answer to a particular questions: that is the mode.
Whether you are dealing with statistics or other large numbers, you don’t
want to be landed with too many digits.
Rounding
Rounding up has nothing to do with chasing cattle. It has to do with
making numbers manageable and more meaningful. All it means is
adjusting figures to the nearest large (consider using the term ‘whole’ or
another term instead of ‘large’) number. If, for example, 7,725 people were
questioned about something, you would round the number down to
7,700. If 7,782 were questioned, you would round it up to 7,800 if you
were describing the data. Rounding also avoids dealing with very long
figures where you have used decimals. Instead of a figure like 5.23798 you
could round that up to .238. You are often told how many decimal points
to work to, so you do need to understand rounding.
Charts and diagrams
One of the good things about mathematics, especially statistics, is that
there are many different ways of presenting data. Some are far more
pictorial and diagrammatic rather than just being based entirely on
figures. As your knowledge and experience grows you will learn in which
sorts of situation to apply these different methods of explaining and
presenting data. You may also find that even though you would not
describe yourself as “good with numbers”, as soon as you can convert
these into diagrams things start to fall into place. Conversely, if you hate
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diagrams, once you learn to extrapolate the numbers you might feel much
happier.
Pie charts
This is a popular way of representing proportional data. It is called a pie
chart for the simple reason that it looks like slices of a pie.
Pie charts are fine, so long as you are not dealing with too many figures. If
you have a large number of categories and lots of very small percentages,
the slices of pie become too tiny and meaningless. Pie charts are ideal for
broad representations. They are also ideal if you are explaining things to
people who are not all that comfortable with numbers, because they are
such a good visual representation.
Line graphs
You probably remember drawing graphs; perhaps it is even a happy
memory. Graphs normally show the relationship between two variables, X
and Y, drawn as two lines at right angles with the right angle at the
bottom left corner. X and Y obviously stand for something, the variables
might be stress level and work efficiency, or number of cigarettes smoked
and number of chest infections.
There are many things you can do with graphs apart from just looking at
them. You can use them to find the break-even point between, say,
advantageous and disadvantageous situations and you can compare more
than just two relationships with graphs.
Bar charts
Bar charts are useful when you want to measure variables that can’t
necessarily be converted into numbers. Imagine you are plotting a chart of
average rainfall and temperatures in different countries. A country can’t
be measured by numbers, or in mathematical terms, it can’t be measured
on an ordinal scale.
A bar chart allows you to categorise data in various ways; it could be
alphabetical, by size, age, or country of origin. Many tables of data can be
more meaningfully presented as bar charts or pie charts.
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6.5 Calculators and computers
Calculators were mentioned under 7.4 (should chapter references be included as they
aren’t used to 30rganize content in the CWS? Consider rewording). You will always be
told in test situations whether you can or can’t use a calculator, and fortunately for most
of us, you are nearly always allowed to use one. Just in case though, buy a really basic
maths book and remind yourself of how to work with percentages, decimals, and
fractions. You can also make better use of any data management software on your PC if
you understand why you are creating a pie chart or a bar chart, rather than just
knowing how to make it appealing.
6.6 The thought that counts
When you are given a rather tasteless present, you have to console yourself with the fact
that it is the thought that counts. When you are being assessed on your work with
numbers, it really is true that it is the thought, or at least the working out, that counts.
Examiners who can see that you have followed the right methods, even though your
final answer may not be 100% correct, will still award you marks for taking the right
approach. This is encouraging if you are doing assessed assignments and you are not
confident about your final answers.
6.7 Numbers in your job search
You often find yourself having to deal with numbers when you start your job search,
and not simply to count how many times you have sent off your CV. Many employers,
especially large organisations in the private and public sectors, use selection tests as
part of their recruitment procedure. Often, one of these tests is a numerical reasoning
test. It might be anything from simple arithmetic to being asked to derive information
from various sets of data. If you have conquered any maths anxieties that you had early
on in your course, you won't be daunted by such tests.
6.8 Numbers at work
When you consider it, you’ll find it difficult to think of jobs where numbers do not play
at least some part. We are not just talking about accountants and actuaries here either.
The further you progress, the more likely you are to be in charge of a budget. This is
true whether you are a marketing manager, a management consultant, a teacher, or a
hospital administrator. You may think that it is mainly financial forecasters and market
researchers who have to produce or interpret statistics, but social workers or librarians
might find they have to do this too. In short, numbers are everywhere.
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6.9 Never be afraid to ask for help
With practice you will improve, but some people still find maths difficult. If you are
really having difficulty with your course, just because of the numerical content, talk to
your tutor. Your university may well run short maths courses and if they do not, a local
college may have a suitable evening class or other part-time course that fits in with your
timetable. Have a look on the Internet too! You may find there are useful courses you
can do. With experience, you get better at understanding what you do not understand
and at being able to ask for the right sort of advice.
6.10 Enjoy the world of numbers
Numbers are not all bad. If you are at ease with making basic calculations, you are far
less likely to be conned by people offering you bad financial advice. You may be much
better at managing your budget and you might buy the right quantity of paint for your
kitchen or tiles for your bathroom. It is probably best to keep your talents to yourself
when it comes to looking for someone to work out a restaurant bill, but other than this
your flair and ease with numbers will always impress. Start doing a few number
puzzles and quizzes.
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Skillful listening
Good listening skills are invaluable when working with others. There is an art to being able to
discover what another person is trying to communicate, and this can take many years to perfect.
However, the following are good starting places.
1. Demonstrate clearly that you are listening, using appropriate body language and facial
expressions.
2. Let people complete the point they are making without interruption.
3. Make some reference, however brief, to what they have been saying before you change the
subject.
4. Listen for the underlying message: what does the person really mean? What do they really
want you to hear or to know?
5. Check for meaning - ask questions to check you have heard and understood correctly.
6. Clarify details: ask for more details, ask questions to clarify points and to show your interest.
7. Leave silences - this enables other people to enter the dialogue or to work out their own
position.
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Group work and team work
A good team:
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has a shared vision - it knows what it wants to achieve
puts the desired team outcome first: individual interests take a secondary place
is clear about targets and priorities - and agrees these together
can make decisions
has members with different strengths, who can make different contributions
includes all members, everybody counts, efforts are made to ensure that nobody feels
left out or undervalued
Good team members:
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respect the time of all members
are punctual for meetings
turn up
complete their own targets to deadline so that other people are not kept waiting
respect the opinions of others in the team
take turns
share responsibilities
keep each other informed about developments
Support groups
Setting up a support group is a good opportunity to develop people skills whilst also gaining and
offering support.
Organising the group
Tasks that may need to be shared and managed are:
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organising the room
phoning members to remind them of the next meeting and of the action that they were
to undertake
developing an agenda
time-keeping in meetings
keeping the group strictly to the agenda, and to the item under discussion
maintaining a supportive atmosphere
ensuring everyone contributes
ensuring everybody gets an equal share of time for their own issue, and that different
people go first or last each time
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