2008
United Nations’
International
Year of
Languages
Stanford University
December 3
49th Day of the Basque Language
(1949-2008)
Language Policy
of the
Spanish and French States
(1789-1975)
Xabier Irujo
University of Nevada, Reno
Iñigo Urrutia
University of the Basque Country
2008
The French and Spanish states
1789 and 1839/1876
• 1792: out of 28 million inhabitants only 3 million spoke
French correctly (11%), as their first language. About 6
million people did not speak a word of French: Spanish
and French had to be imposed.
• The genesis of the French state after the Revolution in
1789 and the creation of Spanish state after the War of
the Seven Years in 1839, carries the imposition of an
excluding linguistic policy that
accelerated the
retreating of the Basque language.
• Both states, strongly centralist, fed the idea on the
unique language. The Convention of France declared,
by mouth of its raised spokesmen, Monsieur Barère and
Monsieur Grégoire, that the Basque language was a
“Patois” and, therefore, the language of the
antirevolutionary fanaticism and a brake for the
development of the ideas of the Enlightenment, so that it
had to disappear.
Nations
in
Europe
Primary laws against the Basque language
in the French state
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Report of the Committee of Public Salvation, Rapport Barère, on the
convenience of using the French language solely. 1794.
Report of the National Convention, Rapport Grégoire, on the necessity of
destroying every “patois” (regional languages) and of universalizing the
French language. 1794.
Decree of the National Convention on the prohibition of writing the public
documents in any language except in French. July 20, 1794.
Decree on the exclusive use of French language in education.
November 17, 1794.
Law on the organization of the Primary Education of 28 March 1882. The
Primary Education will be offered exclusively in French. Exclusion of any
other language from the education system.
Order of the Inspector of the circumscription of Maule (Zuberoa) on the
exclusion of the Basque language from education. Law Guizot of
1833.
Order of the prefect of the Low Pyrenees on the substitution of Basque
by French in Primary Education. 1846.
Law Falloux of education by which the exclusive use of the French
language in the schools is regulated. 1850.
Law Ferry by which the obligatory use of French in the education system,
excluding any other, is stated. 1879-1882.
Primary laws against the Basque
language in the Spanish state
•
•
•
Law Moyano of public instruction on the exclusion of
the Basque language from the education system, “the
Spanish grammar and the Spanish spelling by the
Spanish Language Academy will be the unique and
obligatory text in public education”. September 7,
1857.
Law for the profession of notary (article 25) on the
exclusion of the Basque language from all the legal
documents. May 28, 1862.
Real Order of Isabel the Second on the prohibition of
theater representations in any other language but in
Spanish. January 15, 1867.
Berpizkundea
The Renaissance of the language
• The loss of economic and political independence represented by
the old Basque laws at the end of the Third Carlist War in 1876,
caused a political and cultural movement, known as Basque
cultural Renaissance extended until 1936, with an interval of
eight years of Spanish fascist dictatorship (1923-1931).
• In 1877, the “Asociación Eúskara de Pamplona” arose in
Navarre and in 1896 Sabino Arana Goiri (1865-1903) founded
the Basque Nationalist Party.
• A blossoming age of the Basque language and literature takes
place: the printings of books written in Basque was remarkably
increased, the first magazines in Basque language came to light,
the first schools in Basque were created, the Society of Basque
Studies and the Academy of the Basque Language were
founded, multitude of Basque literary contests were impelled.
• Resurrection Maria Azkue (1864-1951) and Arturo Campion
(1854-1937) are the two main linguistics of the time.
Book Published in Basque
1700-1875
1700- 1725- 1750- 1775- 1800- 1825- 18501724 1749 1774 1799 1824 1849 1875
8
24 54 65 89 122 309
Ikastolak
The first Basque schools
• In spite of being illegal, in 1914 the first Ikastola,
with the name of “Koruko Andra Mari” was
opened in Donostia by Mrs. Muñoa. Students
learnt completely in Basque from 3 to 12 years.
• Following the example of Muñoa many other
Ikastola opened its doors, Tolosa (1922),
Errenteria (1928), Soraluze (1932), Bergara
(1932), Iruñea (Pamplona) (1932) or Lizarra
(Estella) (1932).
Eusko Ikaskuntza
Academy of the Basque Culture
• In 1918 Eusko Ikaskuntza, the Society of Basque
Studies, was created in Oñati. Angel Apraiz (18851956) inspired by the works of Luis Luciano
Bonaparte in Baiona in 1857 was its promoter.
Between its foundation in 1918 and the outbreak of
the war in 1936 the society organized five National
Congresses.
• In the first meeting of the society arose the idea of
the urgent creation of an Academy for the Basque
Language which would impel the development of
euskara and channel the process of normalization of
the language.
Euskaltzaindia
Academy of the Basque language
• Created in 1919
• Resurreccion Maria Azkue was the first president
of the Academy.
• Euskaltzaindia has developed a fundamental role
in
the
process
of
normalization
or
standardization of the Basque language that took
place in 1968.
• The prior step to the political recognition of a
language and the rights of the speakers.
Fascist dictatorship (1923-1931)
•
•
•
•
•
•
Royal decree on the measures and sanctions against
separatism. Article second on the exclusion of Basque
language from any official act. September 18, 1923.
Order of the Ministry of Public Instruction and Beautiful
Arts on the exclusion of Basque from education. 1923.
Real Order on the exclusion of Basque from education.
October 27, 1924.
Real Order on the confiscation of all the books written
in Basque. October 13, 1925.
Royal decree on the sanctions to the teachers who do
not use Spanish language or Castilian at school. June
11, 1926.
Royal decree on the exclusion of the regional
languages from official books of registries, official
acts and communications. June 9, 1930.
War: 1936-1937
• Bombings and machine-gunning of Durango and
Gernika in March and April 1937 by the Condor
Legion sent by Adolf Hitler.
• Nearly 150,000 Basque people went to exile.
• Among them more than 32,000 children had to
leave the country by boat in spring and summer
1937.
• Nearly 20,000 executions ordered by new regime in
the Basque Country between June of 1936 and
autumn of 1937. Among many others Lauaxeta and
Aitzol died shot against the wall.
Basque is forbidden
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Order by the Military commandant of Lizarra (Estella) prohibiting the word
“agur” (meaning “good bye” in Basque). September 25, 1936.
Order by the Governor of Bizkaia and Gipuzkoa on the prohibition of the
use of the Basque calligraphy so the characters “k”, “tx” and “b”.
December 7, 1936.
Circular on the imposition of sanctions to anyone infringing the disposals
on the prohibition to speak any language or dialect different from Spanish
language or Castilian. May 29, 1937.
Order by the Commandant’s office on the prohibition of using the Basque
language at church after the eight o’clock in the morning. June 1, 1937.
Order on the prohibition of using names with separatist meaning like
“Iñaki” and “Kepa”. May 21, 1938. Official Bulletin of the State, May 26,
1938.
Circular of the Civil Governor of Gipuzkoa on the use of Basque names.
October 30, 1940.
Communication 2486 by the 4th office of the Civil Government of Bizkaia,
requiring to the relatives and proprietors of the tombs or pantheons
where inscriptions in Basque are written, to retire them from the
slabs and to replace them by others written in Spanish. October 27,
1949.
Law on primary education of February 2, 1967. Article 7 on the exclusion
of any language not being Castilian from education.
Books per year
• The number of editions in Basque constantly grows from 1850 to
1915.
•
•
•
•
From 1850 to 1875, 309 (12,3 a year)
From 1876 to 1895, 403 (21,2 a year)
From 1896 to 1915, 426 (22,4 a year)
From 1916 to 1935, 593 (31,2 a year)
• After the military rising of 1936 and due to the prohibitions and to the
services of the Office of Censorship imposed by the new regime,
the work production in Basque stops almost completely. In fact, until
1945 the indexes of Basque editions went back to those of principles
of 19th century, that is to say, an average of less than 10 books a
year.
• The great majority of books published in Basque up to 1950 are
printed in the French state or in America.
• From 1936 to 1975 a total of 1,733 books are published in Basque.
Sociological Prosecution of the
Language
• Basque is dying: there is nothing to do.
• The reason is internal: lack of capability of the language to
survive due to its grammar.
• The Basque language is not a culture language: it is only useful
for family life
• Peoples and cultures are culturally superior and inferior: Spanish
and French are superior to the Basque language.
• It is very difficult to learn Basque and that’s due to the fact that is
prehistoric, not useful anymore.
• Basque cannot develop so it will die: it is a fossil language.
• We should not try to keep it alive: it is a natural death.
• To think or to speak in Basque is dangerous: it makes people
nationalist, Catholic and fanatical.
Erbesteko Ikatolak
The Franco years (1937-1975)
• Minoritization process
– Building the Spanish Totalitarian State:
• Political and legal uniformitarian process
• Linguistic diversity as a threat
– Dictatorship of Franco (1936-1976)
• Repression policy against the diversity
• Systematically ignoring human rights and the most
elementary rules of democracy
• Prohibition (public / private arenas) / Penalty
• Harmful effects
The Franco years (1937-1975)
Basque language in exile
• Key figures of the Basque literature in exile: Nicolas Ormaetxea
“Orixe” (1888-1961), Jokin Zaitegi (1906-1979) and Telesforo
Monzon (1904-1981).
• In 1943 the Department of Basque Studies is created by Bingen
Ametzaga (1901-1969) in the Universidad de la República in
Montevideo (Uruguay). Basque language and Basque culture are
taught for 12 years.
• Euskaltzaleak groups organized the first Euskara Eguna, Day of
the Basque Language, in 1949.
• The translation into Basque has a special relevance during the exile
years in order to organize grammatically a normalized Basque
language: Euzko Gogoa magazine.
• EKIN publishing house was created in Buenos Aires (Argentina) by
Andrés Irujo and Ixaka López Mendizabal in 1942.
• Basque schools in exile: in 1962 Euzkadi Ikastola (Caracas,
Venezuela).
Euzkadi Ikastola
Visit of Senator Frank Church in 1972
Chairman of the Foreign Committee of the US Senate
Resistance
• In spite of the prohibitions, in 1955 the first Ikastolas of the postwar
period started opening their doors in Gipuzkoa. Obviously illegal, the
first of them was just a small academy founded on 1944 in her own
house by Elvira Zipitria, an old teacher at “Koruko Andra Mari
Ikastola” in Donostia.
• This initiative was immediately followed by many others and, at the
early Sixties, tens small Basque schools or day-care centers in
which the youngest could learn Euskara were founded all over the
Basque Country. This way were founded the first Ikastolas in Bilbao
(1957), Iruñea (Pamplona) (1963), Gasteiz (Vitoria) (1966) or
Baiona (1969).
• In 1969 “Gipuzkoako Ikastolen Elkartea” (Federation of Ikastolas
of Gipuzkoa) was created in order to face the constant political and
administrative problems that supposed to maintain these centers
open.
• The aid and the shelter of the Church was fundamental during these
first years, in fact, many of these first schools were lodged in old
monasteries or seminaries in disuse let free for this purpose.
• In 1964 there were around 596 students at these Basque schools
and, only six years later, in 1970 about 8.255.
Normalization of the Basque language
(1968)
• The language normalization demanded that from all the Basque
dialects one should be taken as an axis for the common Basque
language “Gipuzkera osotua” or “euskara osotua” or, as it was
denominated later “euskara batua” (unified Basque language).
• The linguistic model for the standarization of the language took
place in the meeting of Euskaltzaindia in 1968 in the sanctuary of
Arantzazu, during years cradle on defense of Basque language in
Euskal Herria,
• To the theses of Federico Krutwig (1921-) of modeling a literary
Basque language based on the dialect of Lapurdi and, more
concretely, on works by authors of the Sara school of the 17th
century, Koldo Mitxelena or Luis Villasante (1920-) defended the
thesis of building the common Basque language on the base of the
dialects from the center of Euskal Herria, fundamentally on the one
of Gipuzkoa and Navarre, but also enriched with contributions of the
rest of the Basque dialects. On the other hand, these authors
defended a Euskara closest to the popular and contemporary
speech.
• The thesis of Azkue of adopting the Gipuzkoan dialect as a base
for the unified language definitively overcame.
End of Dictatorship in 1975
Recognition of Language Rights
• All the citizens of the Basque Country have the right to know and to
use both official languages, as much orally as in writing
• The following fundamental language rights are recognized to the
citizens of the Basque Country:
– Right to communicate in Spanish or in Basque, orally and/or in
writing, with the Administration and with any Organism or
Organization within the Basque Autonomous Community.
– Right to receive education in both official languages.
– Right to receive periodic publications, to listen to radio or TV
programs and other mass media in Basque.
– Right to develop professional, labor, political and union activities
in euskera.
– Right to express in euskera at any meeting.
• The public administration public will guarantee the exercise of these
rights, in the territory of the Basque Autonomous Community, in
order them to be effective and real
Legal Status of the Basque
Language in the
Basque Autonomous Community
and in the
Historical Community of Navarre
(1975-2008)
Iñigo Urrutia
University of the Basque Country
Xabier Irujo
University of Nevada, Reno
2008
Basque Language Policy
• Factors
– Sociolinguistic situation
• Language contact: Basque / Spanish
• Imbalanced weight
– Number of speakers
– Social or communicative functions
– Sociopolitical factor
• Social agreement: Basque Language
Normalization Act (10/1982 Act BAC)
• Way to achieve the “normalization”
Language
competence
BAC & HCN
Survey
on more than
16 years old
speakers.
Aprox.
3,000,000
people
Development of Language
Full Bilinguals
35
30
BASQUE
AUTONOMOUS
COMMUNITY
25
20
15
10
NAVARRE
5
0
1991
1996
2001
2006
Sociopolitical Agreement
• 1980 BAC / 1986 HCN
• Principle of linguistic separation
– Education (freedom of language)
– Administration: language groups / two
columns (Basque/Spanish)
– Media: language channels (Basque/Spanish)
• Language freedom
– Progress
– Integration vs. Segregation
– New challenges
Spanish Constitution of 1978
• Decentralization process: political autonomy (two
separated Autonomous Communities)
– BASQUE AUTONOMOUS COMMUNITY
– HISTORICAL COMMUNITY OF NAVARRE
•
Article 3 [Official Language] Spanish Constitution (SP)
(1) Castilian is the official Spanish language of the state. All
Spaniards have the duty to know it and the right to use it.
(2) The other languages of Spain will also be official in the
respective autonomous communities, in accordance with their
Statutes.
(3) The richness of the linguistic modalities of Spain is a cultural
patrimony which will be the object of special respect and protection.
Statute of Autonomy of Catalonia
2006 (Organic Law 6/2006)
• Article 6 [Catalonia’s Own Language and Official
Languages] (SAC)
“Catalan is the official language of Catalonia, together
with Castilian, the official language of the Spanish State.
All persons have the right to use the two official
languages and citizens of Catalonia have the right and
the duty to know them. The public authorities of
Catalonia shall establish the necessary measures to
enable the exercise of these rights and the fulfilment of
this duty. In keeping with the provisions of Article 32,
there shall be no discrimination on the basis of use of
either of the two languages.”
• Constitutional Court: Pending Decision
Statute of Autonomy for the Basque
Country (Organic Law 3/1979)
Gernika Statute
•
Article 6 [official languages] SABC
(1) Euskara, own language of the Basque People, will have as
does Spanish, official status in the Basque Country, and all its
inhabitants will have the right to know and use both languages.
(2) The common institutions of the Autonomous Community,
taking into account the sociolinguistic diversity in the Basque
Country, will guarantee the use of both languages, regulating
their official status and they will arbitrate and regulate the
measures and resources required to assure its knowledge.
(3) Nobody can be discriminated against for reasons of
language use.
Legal status of Basque
• Shared official status.
• Equal formal status: equality of languages
• Language rights and duties:
•
•
•
•
•
Validity and legal effectiveness
Citizens’ basic right to use Basque or Spanish
SCC Decision 82/1986: subjective public right
Active / passive
SCC Decision 337/1994: school duty to learn Basque
• No discrimination on language grounds
•
•
•
•
Language choice can not be a discrimination factor
Context of inequality of languages
Positive actions
Language requirements
Basque and Public Administrations
• Basque Language Normalization Act (10/1982
Act)
– Right to use Basque or Spanish
• SCC Decision 82/1986: (…) The fact that the whole procedure
can be done in Basque is the natural consequence of the
official nature of this language in the BAC, which leads to
efficacy within its field of the actions carried out in it”.
– Right to be attended in the official language of choice
(progressively)
• System of Language Profiles (LP)
– References: federal administration in Canada
– Linguistic characterization of each job: LP
– Rate of compulsory LP: Percentage of Basque
speakers = Percentage of Basque speaking civil
servants
– Constitutional Court: support
– Courts of Justice: legal controversy: effects
Status of Basque in Navarre
•
Statute of Autonomy (LORAFNA) Art.9
(1) Spanish is the official language in Navarre.
(2) Vascuence [Basque language] will also have official
status in Basque speaking areas of Navarre. A
law will determine these areas, regulate the official
use of Basque, and within the framework of the
State general legislation, organize teaching of this
language.
•
Characteristics:
–
–
–
Absence of the symbolic identity-based elements.
Spanish language as the official language of
Navarre.
Zoning regime regarding the official status of
Basque
Language zoning in Navarre
Foral Law 18/1986, 15 December,
on Basque in Navarre
• Basque speaking area: double official status regime
(Basque and Spanish)
– right to use both
– right to be attended
• Mixed area:
– No official status
– Official uses (active use/not passive)
• Non-Basque speaking area
– No effects
– No language rights
State Administration located in the
Autonomous Communities
• Basque Language Normalization Act (BLNA)
3rd Additional Disposition:
– Basque Government will promote, in accordance with
the competent bodies, the adoption of measures tending
towards progressive normalization of the use of Basque
in state administration
– Central agencies of State Administration: unilingual
• No significant progress
– No language requirement
– Police
– Post Service and other relevant civil services
Courts of Justice
• Citizens: Right to use the Basque language
• Judges: use Spanish language (Judicial Power Organic
Law, Art. 231)
– No obligation for knowing Basque
– Judges should use Spanish; can use Basque
• Impossible a trial totally in Basque
• The mechanism provided: Interpreters
– Problems
– Questions:
• The same mechanism applied to foreigners
(guarantee fair trial)
• Official status – Fundamental right for a fair trial
Recommendation of the Council of
Europe to Spain, 2005
“The Committee of Ministers, in accordance with
Article 16 of the European Charter for Regional
or Minority Languages; Recommends that the
authorities of Spain take account of all the
observations of the Committee and, as a matter
of priority:
1.- take the necessary legal and practical measures
needed to ensure the implementation of the undertakings
under article 9 of the Charter, in particular by ensuring that
an adequate proportion of the judicial staff posted in the
autonomous communities concerned by the application of
Article 9 of the Charter has a working knowledge of the
relevant languages.”
Education
• Principle of freedom to choose the language
(Art 15 BLNA)
• Linguistic segregation: language models
– Model X: Spanish (English)
– Model A: Spanish (Basque and English)
– Model B: Basque and Spanish (English)
– Model D: Basque (Spanish and English)
Development of models
60
50
40
A Model
B Model
D Model
X Model
30
20
10
0
1997/98 2000/01 2004/05 2005/06 2006/07
Evaluation of bilingual education
• Constitutional Court Decision 87/1983; CCD
88/1983; CCD 337/1994
– Official character of both languages: and “this naturally supposes
that both languages must be taught in schools in the BAC with
the intensity that means this target can be met”
• Linguistic Competence Evaluation:
–
–
–
–
Basque: Good results in Model D (Poor results in Models B & A)
Spanish: No significant differences
English: Best results in Model D; good results in B; poorer in A
Risk of guettization of Model A (Spanish Speaking Immigration)
• New law project concerning language policy in
education
– Language autonomy to schools (at least %60 in Basque)
Language Rights in Education in
Navarre
• Basque Speaking area:
– Right to choose the official teaching language
– Model D (Basque), Model A (Spanish), Model B
(Mixed).
• Mixed area
– Learning Basque is not compulsory
– Four models: Model G, Model A, Model B, Model D
• Non Basque Speaking area
– Education in Basque is not regulated (outlawed)
– Incomprehensible and anachronistic situation from a
democratic perspective
Conclusion
• Heterogeneity of situation and legal regimes
• Double official status:
– Formal Equality of Languages: freedom of language use
• Differences between both languages: Official but nonnormalized language
– Affirmative Action:
• Positive Discrimination: to achieve real equality in an
unbalanced situation
• Language Planning
• Navarre: need to rethink the language policy
– restrictive character
– International Law
• Objective
– Respect for language rights
– Language integration
Euskara in education at the present
Linguistic Model
BAC
HCN
Only Spanish
Without Basque
Model X
0,1%
Model G
56%
Only in Spanish
With Basque
as a subject
Model A
19,9%
Model A
19%
In Spanish
and Basque
60% & 40% respect.
Model B
23%
Model B
0,1%
In Basque
with Spanish
Model D
57%
Model D
24%
In Spanish
and English
With optional Basque
(Only in TIL)
Does not exist
Model TIL & British
0,9%
Ghettization of the HCN
Linguistic Model G
Zone
Spanish
Model A
Spanish/
Basque
Model D
Basque
“Basque
speaking”
0,0%
14,18%
85,82%
“Mixed”
52,9%
20,03%
27%
“Non
71,85%
Basque
speaking”
25,85%
2,3%
Progression Full Bilinguals
BAC / Navarre
(Sociolinguistic Survey, 2008)
Araba
60
50
Bizkaia
40
30
Gipuzkoa
20
BASQUE
AUTONOMOUS
COMMUNITY
10
0
NAVARRE
1991
1996
2001
2006