FORM NO1R
Application approval to
IMPORT FOR RELEASE A NEW ORGANISM
THAT IS NOT A GENETICALLY MODIFIED ORGANISM
BY RAPID ASSESSMENT
Application Title: Application to import and release 19 Encephalartos species
(cycads).
Applicant Organisation: Palm & Cycad Society of New Zealand Inc.
ERMA Office use only
Application Code:
ERMA NZ Contact:
Formally received:____/____/____
Initial Fee Paid: $
Application Status:
IMPORTANT
1.
An associated User Guide is not yet available for this form.
2.
This application form (NO1R) covers rapid assessment of the adverse effects of importing a new
organism that is not a genetically modified organism for release under section 35 of the HSNO Act.
It can be used to seek approvals for imports for release by rapid assessment of more than one new
organism where the organisms are of a similar nature. This form replaces the old Form 1 which
should not now be used. Before using this form (NO1R) you should check with an ERMA New
Zealand Applications Advisor or the ERMA New Zealand web site to ensure that you are using the
latest version.
3.
If you are making an application to import for release or release from containment, any new organism
(including a genetically modified organism) but which does not meet the criteria for rapid assessment
under section 35 of the HSNO Act, then you should complete Form NOR. If you are making an
application to import for release, or release from containment, with controls, any new organism (i.e. a
conditional release) then you should complete Form NOCR.
4.
We strongly advise you to contact an Applications Advisor at ERMA New Zealand who can help you
scope and prepare your application. We need all relevant information early on in the application
process. Quality information up front will speed up the process.
5.
Any extra material that does not fit in the application form must be clearly labelled, cross-referenced,
and included as appendices to the application form.
6.
Commercially sensitive information must be collated in a separate appendix. You need to justify
why you consider the material commercially sensitive, and make sure it is clearly labelled as such.
7.
Applicants must sign the form and enclose the correct application fee (plus GST). The (initial)
application fee can be found in our recently published Fees and Charges Schedule. Please check with
ERMA New Zealand staff or the ERMA New Zealand website for the latest Fees Charges Schedule
effective from 1 December 2003. We are unable to process your application without the correct
application fee.
8.
Unless otherwise indicated, all sections of this form must be completed for your application to
be processed.
9.
Please provide an electronic version of the completed application form, as well as sending a signed
hard copy. We are unable to process your application without this signed hard copy.
10. When completing this application form please refer to the relevant sections of the HSNO Act
referenced throughout the form.
11. If your application is for a plant, it is recommended that you support this application with a
reputable weed risk assessment (refer to section 6 of this form).
12. If your application on this form (NO1R) under section 35 of the HSNO Act fails the rapid
assessment criteria, you may request ERMA New Zealand continue with your application under
section 34 in which case you will need to complete Form NOR.
This version of the application form was approved by the Chief Executive of ERMA New Zealand on 10 th
December 2004.
If you need further information, one of our Application Advisors will be able to help you. Please contact:
ERMA New Zealand
20 Customhouse Quay, PO Box 131
Wellington, NEW ZEALAND
Telephone: 64-4-916 2426 Facsimile: 64-4-914-0433
E-mail: info@ermanz.govt.nz, www.ermanz.govt.nz
Section One – Applicant Details
1.1 Name and postal address in New Zealand of the organisation or
individual making the application:
Name > Palm & Cycad Society of New Zealand Inc.
Postal Address > P.O.Box 3871
Auckland
New Zealand
Physical Address >
Phone >
Fax >
E-mail >
1.2
If application is made by an organisation, provide name and
contact details of a key contact person at that organisation
This person should have sufficient knowledge to respond to queries and have the
authority to make decisions that relate to processing of the application.
Name > Don Munro
Position > Biosecurity Index Expansion Committee
Palm & Cycad Society of New Zealand Inc.
Address > 147 Welcome Bay Road
Welcome Bay
Tauranga 3112
Phone > (07) 544 7111
Fax > N/A
E-mail > donz@clear.net.nz
(Preferred contact)
1.3
If the applicant is an organisation or individual situated
overseas, provide name and contact details of the agent authorised to
transact the applicant’s affairs in relation to the application
This person should have sufficient knowledge to respond to queries and have the
authority to make decisions that relate to processing of the application.
Name > N/A
Position >
Address >
Phone >
Fax >
E-mail >
Section Two – Purpose of the Application
This form is to be used for rapid assessment of importing for release a new organism,
which is not a genetically modified organism, under section 35 of the HSNO Act.
2.1
Give a short summary statement of the purpose of this
application to be used on ERMA New Zealand’s public register.
(Maximum of 255 characters including spaces and punctuation).
This statement is required for section 20(2)(c) of the Act. Briefly describe the
organism(s) to be imported for release and the purpose(s) for which you wish to
release the organism(s). Note: An organism is ‘released’ when it is not required to
be held in a containment facility registered by the Ministry of Agriculture and
Forestry. Once released it is no longer considered a new organism.
>The Palm & Cycad Society of New Zealand wish to import for release 19
Encephalartos species (Cycads) to establish seed producing plants for private
collectors and Botanic Gardens to ensure survival of these highly threatened plants
by maintaining an alternative seedbank.
2.2
Provide a short description of the background and aims of the
proposal suitable for lay readers
Describe in less than one page the rationale for the application to release the
organism(s), including the potential use for the organism(s), so that people not
directly connected with the application can understand what is proposed and the
reasons for the release.
>This application is being made to add more species of the genus Encephalartos
(Cycads) to the MAF Plants Biosecurity Index. Many of these are already present in
New Zealand as a result of a complex being divided, creating the "new" distinct
species, or have been left off the Biosecurity List of Species Present. It is simply
more convenient to make one application under the New Organism Application. The
purpose being to establish seed producing plants for private collectors to eliminate
the need to import further seed and for use in Botanic Gardens. This is to ensure the
survival for these highly threatened plants by maintaining an alternative seedbank.
Importation is solely dependent upon availabilty and within the laws governing
CITES/TIES.
The Encephalartos species are:
E. aplanatus
E. barteri
E brevifoliolatus
E. bubalinus
E. caffer
E. chimanimaniensis
E. delucanus
E. equatoralis
E. gratus
E. hirsutus
E. ituriensis
E. mackenziei
E. macrostrobilus
E. marunguensis
E. poggei
E. pterogonus
E. relictus
E. schaijesii
E. schmitzii
Section Three – Information on the Organism(s) to be Released
and any Likely Inseparable Organisms
If the application is for release of more than one organism, information must be provided
separately for each organism where there are details specific to the different organisms to
be released. If there are commercial reasons for not providing full information here,
alternative approaches must be discussed with and agreed by ERMA New Zealand.
3.1
State the taxonomic level at which the organism(s) to be
released are to be specified
Organisms may be specified at varying levels of taxonomic specification as
indicated by the interpretation in Section 2 of the Act, but “species” is the usual
level. If the taxonomic level is higher or lower than “species”, provide reasons for
this. The reasons should take account of the need to adequately describe the risks
of the organism.
>The taxonomic level is species.
3.2
Give the unequivocal identification of the organism(s) to be
released
Please provide details of the following, to satisfy sections 34(c) and (d) of the Act:
Latin binomial, including full taxonomic authority (e.g. Canis familiaris
Linnaeus, 1758) class, order and family: Please provide history of any name
changes and synonyms if applicable.
>
Class: Gynospermae
Order: Cycadales
Suborder: Zamiinae
Family: Zamiaceae
Subfamily: Encephalartoideae
Tribe: Encephalarteae
Subtribe: Encephalartinae
Genus: Encephalartos Lehmann (1834).
E. aplanatus Vorster (1996).
E. barteri Carruthers ex Miquel (1868).
E brevifoliolatus Vorster (1996).
E. bubalinus Melville (1957).
E. caffer (Thunb.) Lehmann (1834).
E. chimanimaniensis R.A.Dyer & I.Verdoon (1969).
E. delucanus Malaisse, Sclavo & Crosiers (1992).
E. equatoralis P.J.Hurter (1995).
E. gratus Prain (1916).
E. hirsutus P.J.Hurter (1996).
E. ituriensis Bamps & Lisowski (1990).
E. mackenziei L.E.Newton (2002).
E. macrostrobilus S.Jones & J.Wynants (1997).
E. marunguensis Devred (1958).
E. poggei Ascherson (1878).
E. pterogonus R.A.Dyer & I.Verdoon (1969).
E. relictus P.J.Hurter (2001).
E. schaijesii Malaisse, Sclavo & Crosiers (1993).
E. schmitzii Malaisse (1969).
(Jones, 2002, p.10)
(IPNI, 2005, Query Results- Zamiaceae)
>Appendix 1
Individual Species
Refer to Appendix 1 for species common names, synonyms and attributes.
Type of organism (e.g. bacterium, virus, fungus, plant, animal):
>Plants.
Other information, (e.g. information on consideration of the organism(s) by other
states, countries or organisations):
>Cycads are a very popular group of plants with landscape architects, plant
collectors, nursery people and other horticulturists, and their appeal is increasing
significantly each year. The larger growing cycads make excellent subjects for
landscape use and are often seen planted around public buildings and as lawn
specimens (Jones, 2002, p.47). Therefore these plants are being used widely in
areas frequented by the public and bring no undue attention to concerns of human
or animal health nor weediness.
3.3
Provide unique name(s) for the new organism(s) to be released
These name(s) will be on the public register and should clearly identify the
organism (e.g. Canis familiaris Linnaeus, 1758) as required by section 20(2)(b) of
the Act.
Encephalartos aplanatus Vorster (1996).
Encephalartos barteri Carruthers ex Miquel (1868).
Encephalartos brevifoliolatus Vorster (1996).
Encephalartos bubalinus Melville (1957).
Encephalartos caffer (Thunb.) Lehmann (1834).
Encephalartos chimanimaniensis R.A.Dyer & I.Verdoon (1969).
Encephalartos delucanus Malaisse, Sclavo & Crosiers (1992).
Encephalartos equatoralis P.J.Hurter (1995).
Encephalartos gratus Prain (1916).
Encephalartos hirsutus P.J.Hurter (1996).
Encephalartos ituriensis Bamps & Lisowski (1990).
Encephalartos mackenziei L.E.Newton (2002).
Encephalartos macrostrobilus S.Jones & J.Wynants (1997).
Encephalartos marunguensis Devred (1958).
Encephalartos poggei Ascherson (1878).
Encephalartos pterogonus R.A.Dyer & I.Verdoon (1969).
Encephalartos relictus P.J.Hurter (2001).
Encephalartos schaijesii Malaisse, Sclavo & Crosiers (1993).
Encephalartos schmitzii Malaisse (1969).
(IPNI, 2005, Query Results- Zamiaceae)
3.4
Characteristics of the organism(s) to be released
Information under this heading is required to assist the identification and
assessment of the effects of the organism(s) as required by section 34(2)(e) of the
Act. Provide information on the biology, ecology and the main features or essential
characteristics of each of the organism(s) to be released. For example, comment on
pathogenicity, production of spores/seeds/pollen, conditions for growth and
reproduction.
Provide information on attributes and characteristics of the family and genus the
proposed organism belongs to.
Provide information on the biology and lifecycle of the organism including
 climatic and ecological preferences that result in the natural distribution of the
organism
 habitat requirements including factors that may limit its distribution
 basic description of the structure of the organism
 life history and life cycle information
 competitors and predators in managed and natural environments
As required by section 34(2)(f) of the Act provide information on the affinities with
New Zealand organisms/biota in terms of its potential to interact, form associations
or interbreed.
As required by section 34(2)(g) of the Act provide information on the potential use
for the organism.
>Characteristics of Encephalartos species
Attributes and characteristics of family and genus
Cycads are included with other cone-bearing plants, such as the conifers, in the
class Gymnospermae (known as gymnosperms). Of the eight orders of
gymnosperms, three are now extinct (Cordaitales, Bennetitales and
Glossopteridales) and five contain living genera (Gingkoales, Cycadales, Pinales,
Taxales and Gnetales). Bennetitales were a sister group of cycads. Placed within
the order Cycadales, cycads are the most primitive of the living gymnosperms and
are amongst the most ancient of all plants surviving today (Jones, 2002, pp.9-10).
They are recognised by scientists as the oldest seed plants still in existence with
origins dating back to the late Carboniferous period 300 million years ago
(Donaldson (ed.), 2003, p.12). During the Jurassic period, they achieved their
pinnacle of abundance and diversity, covering much of the Earth's surface, but their
slow decline came with the dawn of the Cretaceous period and the arrival of the
faster growing and earlier maturing angiosperms, the flowering plants (Jones, 2002,
p.22).
The order Cycadales is divided into two suborders, and further into three families,
Cycadaceae, Stangeriaceae and Zamiaceae. A fourth family, Boweniaceae was
created in 1981 but later rejected in 1992. Further studies into cycad genera are
underway and may see the recognition of their own families, such as Encephalartos
(Jones, 2002, p.10).
The Cycadaceae family has only a single genus, Cycas, containing the largest
number of species (The World List of Cycads, 2005, identifies ninety eight extant
species) distributed throughout Asia, from India to southern Japan, the south west
Pacific Islands, tropical northern Australia and with one disjunct species on the east
coast of Africa and Madagascar (Jones, 2002, p.11). Formally all the living genera
of cycads were classified in this one family until 1959, when L.A.S. Johnson
showed that the three distinct groups were better accommodated into separate
families (Jones, 2002, p.10). Epicycas, a new genus proposed by D.J.De Laubenfels
and F.Adema in 1998, has not been generally accepted by cycad scholars and
instead follow the comprehensive classification of this complex genus by Ken Hill
(Jones, 2002, pp.130-131).
Cycas differ in appearance to Encephalartos in having finer, narrow leaflets that
are coiled like a watch spring when young. Leaflets have a midrib consisting of a
single vein and no side veins. New growth has hairy parts and their leaves are
pinnate, reducing to thorn-like processes. The female plants form seeds loosely
arranged around the vegetative apex of the stem, while the male sporophylls are
arranged spirally on a central axis in a cone. Seeds are platyspermic, unlike all
other cycad genera which are radiospermic (Jones, 2002, pp.11,130).
Stangeriaceae comprises of two genera, both with a fern-like appearance, so much
so that the monotypic Stangeria eriopus, endemic to South Africa, was originally
described as a fern until it produced a cone (Jones, 2002, p.375). There are two
species of Bowenia, both endemic to tropical Queensland, Australia, and are the
only cycads to have bipinnate leaves (Jones, 2002, p.101).
Stangeria eriopus are easily recognised by their pinnate, fern-like leaves which
have a prominent midrib (comprised of several united parallel veins) and forked
lateral veins. Leaves are produced one at a time and leaf bases are not retained as
they get older. Young leaflets are inflexed and folded (Jones, 2002, pp.11,175).
Bowenia have bipinnate leaves that are coiled when young. Young parts bear short,
curved, coloured hairs and the petioles are long and slender. Both genera have
subterranean stems, radiospermic seeds with the sarcotesta plum or purplish in
colour (Jones, 2002, pp.11,101).
Zamiaceae is the largest family of cycads and is divided into two subfamilies
(Encephalartoideae and Zamioideae), each of which is further subdivided into four
tribes (Diooeae, Encephalarteae, Ceratozamieae, and Zamieae) and four subtribes
(Encephalartinae, Macrozamiinae, Microcycadinae and Zamiinae). Some
researchers suggest that elevation of one or more of the tribes to family rank may
be warranted (Jones, 2002, pp.11-12). The eight genera include Ceratozamia
(twenty species in Mexico, Belize and Guatemala), Chigua (two species in
Colombia), Dioon (thirteen species in Mexico, Honduras and Nicaragua),
Lepidozamia (two species in Australia), Macrozamia (forty one species in
Australia), Microcycas (one species in Cuba), Zamia (fifty six species in Florida,
the Caribbean islands and Central South America) and the largest genus,
Encephalartos with sixty five species in tropical Africa to South Africa (Jones,
2002, p.10).
Characteristics for the family Zamiaceae are cataphylls present on vegetative
shoots, stipules present or
absent but always lacking a vascular bundle, young leaves straight or inflexed,
leaflets flat and overlapping during development, cones borne terminally or
laterally on the main stem, seeds attached above the sporophyll stalk, seeds
radiospermic, and sarcotesta red, orange or yellow. Subfamily Encephalartoideae
characteristics include, stipules absent, leaf bases persistent, leaflets not jointed to
the rachis, lower leaflets reduced and spine-like, spinose prickles absent from
petiole, megasporophylls not peltate, leaflet veins anastomosing at the
tips, and cone peduncles bearing decurrent cataphylls. The tribe Encephalarteae has
female sporophylls thickened on the upper surface or with apical lobes, and seeds
attached to the sporophyll by a basal stalk. Subtribal characters of Encephalartinae
include leaflets lacking a coloured, basal callous area, and megasporophylls with
outer facets but lacking a spine-like apical lobe (Jones, 2002, pp.11-14).
Notable generic differences between Encephalartos in comparison to the other
cycad genera in this family are that Ceratozamia have paired horn-like projections
on the peltate sporophylls and spinose thorn-like prickles on the petiole and rachis
(Jones, 2002, p.107). Distinguishing features of Chigua are a prominent midrib,
subterranean stem and shed their leaves (Jones, 2002, p.124), Microcycas have
abruptly truncated leaves with reflexed leaflets and shed their leaves completely
(Jones, 2002, p.372) and Zamia have hexagonal sporophylls on the cones and new
growth is often coloured and shed their leaves with age (Jones, 2002, p.379). Dioon
have no prickles on their petioles and have highly decorative, closely arranged,
long, narrow, leaflets tapered at each end (Jones, 2002, p.224). Lepidozamia are
unusual in that the leaflet bases are inserted on the midline of the rachis. The male
cones are enormous, almost a metre tall, and separate spirally when dehiscing, the
female cones are clustered and the sporophylls are broadly wedge-shaped (Jones,
2002, pp.315,319). Macrozamia are possibly the most instantly recognisable of all
cycads, often having an untidy appearance and leaflets attached to the lateral
margins of the rachis often having a colourful callous area at the base (Jones, 2002,
p.320).
Encephalartos are terrestrial, small to large cycads with stout, cylindrical trunks,
which may be emergent or wholly subterranean, erect, reclining, decumbent or
postrate, with contractile roots, these sometimes immensely swollen and fleshy.
The trunks are covered persistent leaf bases and cataphylls. The trunk apex bears
cataphylls and is often covered with woolly hairs which increase in abundance prior
to cone formation. Basal suckers are produced by the majority of species and some
also develop branches on the trunk. Leaf bases are usually retained at senescence.
New leaves emerge in flushes, glabrous, hairy or with a powdery
bloom. Mature leaves pinnate, oblong, elliptical or lanceolate in outline, flat or veeed in cross-section
(leaflets drooping in some species), the older leaves often spreading or deflexing
after a flush of growth or from coning. Petioles lacking spines or prickles, glabrous
or hairy, swollen at the base and with a prominent, often colourful collar. Rachis
lacking prickles, straight, incurved, recurved or twisted in profile. Leaflets nonarticulate at the base, opposite to nearly opposite, evenly spaced or becoming
crowded towards the apex, straight or falcate, margins entire, flat, revolute or rarely
involute, or beset with spines or with spine-tipped
lobes, veins inconspicuous, rarely raised on the upper or lower surface, apex
pungent, the lower leaflets sometimes reduced gradually or suddenly in size to
spine-like processes which may be entire, bifurcate, trifurcate or multilobed. Cones
arising from lateral buds, male and female mostly markedly dissimilar in shape,
size and colouration, rarely similar, solitary or clustered, sessile or pendunculate,
the sporophylls lacking any horns, spines or projections but often hairy. Male cones
often narrow, erect (less commonly pendulous), hairy. Female cones usually broad,
erect. Seeds radiospermic, ovoid, obovoid or oblong, often angular, the sarcotesta
red, orange or yellow (Jones, 2002, p.240).
Encephalartos can be easily distinguished from other cycads in this family by
their large, heavy, squat cones and usually multiple male cones. The leaflets in
comparison are wider, have small teeth on their margins and do not have prominent
veins. As the leaves reduce towards the petiole, tiny leaflets form sharp spine-like
structures (resembling tiny holly leaves), as opposed to the other cycads where they
are either absent or are thorn-like. Old leaf bases are persistent and form a skirt,
whereas some of the other cycads in this family shed them or are deciduous (Jones,
2002, p.240).
Climatic and ecological preferences
Most modern cycads are confined to the tropics and subtropics, with a few species
extending to temperate zones. The less advanced genera still cling to the warm,
humid habitats similar to those which prevailed in the Jurassic Period, whereas the
more advanced, or modern genera, have adapted to drier, more marginal habitats.
Bowenia, Ceratozamia, Chigua, Lepidozamia, Stangeria and Zamia could be
considered to be less advanced on the basis that they mostly occupy mesic habitats,
whereas Encephalartos and Macrozamia have extended out into much harsher and
more xeric habitats. Dioon, while having numerous primitive morphological
features, usually grow in humid climates, the plants are rarely found within a forest
canopy, mostly growing in the open on rocky scarps. Cycas, which is generally
accepted to be primitive within the cycads, has many species which are found in
warm, humid habitats similar to those which prevailed in the Jurassic Period. Even
within Cycas, however, it is apparent that evolutionary adaption has occurred. Thus
a number of species from Australia and India are found in harsh, seasonally dry
climates, whereas other species from Australia, Asia and Africa, still occupy the
more traditional warm, humid environments (Jones, 2002, pp.23-24).
Providing the climate is moderate it is possible to grow at least one cycad species
as a garden plant in most areas. Some species are better suited to the tropics, others
to subtropical and temperate regions, and there are even a few which can tolerate
short periods of excessive cold and drought. Extremes of climate such as intense
cold, fierce heat and long dry periods are unsuitable for their cultivation unless
modifications, such as the construction of a greenhouse, can be made to
accommodate them comfortably. Cycads are generally very easy plants to grow if
the basic requirements of unimpeded drainage, good soil, warmth and plenty of
water are met. Some species react adversely to very acid soils and prefer those of a
neutral to slightly alkaline pH. This preference is probably governed by the
symbiotic nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria which require alkaline conditions to supply
the cycad with its nitrogen. Most cycads are sun-loving plants, but some species
especially those originating in rainforests, may need a position protected from hot
sun, certainly when they are young. Frost is a major impediment to the cultivation
of many species in temperate regions (Jones, 2002, p.63).
Encephalartos species are found growing from 10° north of the equator through to
30° south where the largest concentration of species have been identified (Jones,
2002, pp.242-243). Most of the forty nine species currently on the Plant Biosecurity
Index (PBI) are from South Africa and Mozambique, where frosts and even snow
occur in mountainous districts (Jones, 2002, p.15). In the northern regions some
species occur at relatively high altitudes in the mountains, where the summers are
much milder and the winters colder, but the lowlands are tropical or subtropical and
experience summers that are hot and dry to humid and the winters are mild (Jones,
2002, p.241).
All of the species being applied for come from climates considerably warmer all
year round than New Zealand (41° south) and this has a direct impact on growth
rates and capabilities to produce and sustain viable cones. Using another genus as
comparison gives an insight into probable behaviour. A plant of Lepidozamia hopei
growing under ideal conditions in Hawaii (20° north) coned in seven years from
seed; on the other hand a plant of this species at Fairchild Tropical Gardens in
Florida (27° north) took 30 years to produce cones (Jones, 2002, p.49). The same
species grown in the open environment in Auckland has not been able to maintain
it's cone, probably due to lower sustained day and night time temperatures. The
effects on growth are highlighted when a plant was shifted from the warm confines
of a plastic house to the outdoors, reducing new growth flushes of leaves from 2-3
per year, down to only one (J.Lok, 2005, President of Palm & Cycad Society of
N.Z., in litt).
Habitat requirements
Species of Encephalartos occupy a wide range of climatic regimes and habitats.
These cycads are frequently found growing among rocks, often granitic, in
mountainous regions, but are also known from the lowlands, including coastal and
near-coastal scrublands. Soils, which are usually sandy or gravelly, are always very
well drained and commonly impoverished or nutrient-poor (Jones, 2002, p.241).
Many species grow in open situations among grass but some favour the shelter of
sparse to dense, deciduous mesophyll or evergreen sclerophyll forests where
rainfall is strictly seasonal and they have to cope with dry periods of limited
duration. Some have also adapted to xeric habitats where rainfall is low, extremely
seasonal and often irregular, long, hot periods are common and burning may take
place annually. Such habitats include grassland, savanna, thornveld, scrub land,
sparse forests, open woodlands, granite domes, rocky escarpments and gorges
(Jones, 2002, p.15).
Personal experience has proven that all Encephalartos cycads should be grown in
tall containers (to avoid roots sitting in sodden soil) under protective cover from
rainfall and cold with minimal disturbance to the root system for at least five to ten
years before planting out. The potting mix must be very fast draining with our
higher rainfall, with the proportions of small gravel, pumice, sand (components that
do not break down and thus maintain drainage), bark, compost and potting mix with
slow release fertiliser (to provide a constant supply of nutrients to replace those
washed away by rainfall) very much a personal choice (M.Scragg, 2006, former
Editor of N.Z. Palm & Cycad, in litt).
Description of structure
Cycads are woody plants with roots, a stem, leaves and reproductive structures
known as cones. The main roots are thickened and fleshy as they may have storage
capacities, they are often termed tuberous. Along with the stem they may have
contractile properties which serve to regulate the level of the stem in the ground.
Specialised, upright-growing, branched roots, known as coralloid roots, contain
symbiotic cyanobacteria which can fix nitrogen from the atmosphere. Stems may
be completely subterranean or emerge from the ground and be trunk-like. Soil
depth may influence this development and in shallow, stony soils, species which
normally have a subterranean stem may develop an above-ground trunk. The leaves
are once-divided (pinnate) and often develop in an attractive, palm-like crown.
Leaflets are non-jointed and the lower leaflets are often reduced and spine-like
(Jones, 2002, p.14).
Species of Encephalartos can be recognised by their non-articulate leaflets, which
are often spiny. Other features include a suckering or clumping habit, trunks
covered with persistent leaf bases and cataphylls, unarmed petioles and rachis,
cataphylls with decurrent bases present on the cone peduncles, seeds attached
directly to the sporophylls, the sporophylls of both sexes lack any horns, spines or
projections and the sporophyll apex has flat facets (Jones, 2002, p.240).
In New Zealand's open environment, Encephalartos would be easily
distinguishable from any other plant form. A fully mature, trunking cycad has a
similar appearance to tree fern but with a fine, narrow palm-like foliage (Boyer,
1992, p.19), but this would need to be several hundred years old to gain this size
and would be of such an unusual form, it would be instantly recognisable. The
trunk is covered leaf base scars giving a warty appearance and the leaves are like
long, narrow pinnate palm leaves. Should the plant be coning, some of which are
yellow or orange, the visual display is so extrordinary it would not require other
identification features. Even seedlings with their limited number of leaves pose an
readily identifiable sight, leaflets are stiff and leathery, with small teeth along the
edges like few other plants, reducing to short, hardened leaflets that resemble tiny
holly leaves. Almost all require full sun to be able to continue to grow (shade
promotes dormancy) (Boyer, 1992, p.25), so would be out in an exposed
environment making them even easier to be recognised.
- Refer to Appendix 1 for photographic examples of Encephalartos.
Life history and life cycle
Cycads are long-lived, perennial, unisexual plants which develop cones and
reproduce by seeds. Some species produce cones regularly (often annually),
whereas others cone sporadically, sometimes with 10-15 years or more between
coning events. In some cycads coning may be regulated, or at least influenced, by
summer fires. Reproduction can occur when mature by the production of cones
(Jones, 2002, p.15). Large species of Encephalartos such as E. altensteinii and E.
natalensis can take 12-14 years to cone (Jones, 2002, p.49). Eudlo Cycad Gardens
near Nambour, south east Queensland, have had Encephalartos hildebrandtii
produce 12 cones on a male and 3 large cones on a female growing in cultivation
after only 10 years (Heimbloom, 1999, The Species, p.11). Tropical Queensland
offers ideal climatic conditions and with regular watering and light applications of
fertiliser give favourable results. Eudlo Cycad Gardens are most likely to fulfil
future seed orders from cultivated cycad species that are not capable of producing
cones here in New Zealand due to lower mean temperatures (pers. obs.). A plant is
either male or female (rarely both), but have been known to change sex in extreme
cases under stress (Jones, 2002, p.61). The cones of each sex are usually quite
different from each other in size and shape and, to a much lesser extent, colour.
Specialised lateral firm to woody growths (actually modified leaves) on the cones,
called sporophylls, bear the sexual parts: those on the male cone produce pollen and
those on a female cone bear large ovules which develop into seeds, whether
fertilised or not (Jones, 2002, pp.14-15).
The seeds of cycads are proportionately large compared to other gymnosperms
and have an outer, usually fleshy layer (sarcotesta) which is often colourful (Jones,
2002, p.41). Because seeds are arranged in a cone (short and narrow at the top, long
and narrow in the middle, short and wide at the bottom), variation in size is
considerable (pers. obs.). Also, most descriptions are from natural populations,
whereas cultivated plants (the only source allowed to be imported), have all their
growing requirements satisfied and are faster growing and of larger proportions
now (Boyer, 1992, p.20), including seed specifications. To calculate an
approximate seed size, add 25% to the seed kernel width and 50-100% to the seed
kernel length. (Refer to sketch of longtitudinal section through: (A) a mature ovule,
Grobbelaar, 2002, p.52). This would make the actual size of the seed range
between the smaller E. aplanatus at approximately 50 x 20 mm and the larger E.
transvenosus at approximately 100 x 35 mm, with some variation according to it's
position on the cone. (Refer to Appendix 1 for Individual Species seed kernel
sizes).
For reproduction to occur, male and female plants must produce cones at the same
time. In most species the transference of pollen from a male cone to a female cone
seems to be via insect vectors (mainly weevils), but in certain species wind may
also be involved, or perhaps both mechanisms operate (Jones, 2002, p14-15). The
evidence is building that many of these insect-cycad relationships have evolved a
very high degree of host specificity, even to the level of a 1:1 insect-cycad
association (Jones, 2002, p.49). On reaching maturity male and female cones may
both produce heat and they also often develop odours. This coincides with the male
cones shedding pollen and the female cones becoming receptive. The heat acts as
an attractant to night-flying beetles, and possible deterrent to others (W.Tang & S.L.Yang, unpublished data), and is produced in cycles which begin in the late
afternoon and early evening. Heat production in cones of both sexes facilitates
odour release by the volatisation chemicals and is likely to stimulate the activities
of any associated insects. In male cones heat generation aids in the release of pollen
from the pollen sacs (Jones, 2002, p.56).
When the female cone is receptive to pollination, certain sporophylls separate
slightly for a few days to several weeks, depending on the species. Insects bearing
pollen can then travel up the central core and deposit a pollen grain onto a droplet
exuded by the ovules at their micropyles. This is then drawn down the micropyle
canal and after a while, male gametes are released into the proximity of the ovules
to effect fertilisation by fusing to an egg cell if it is receptive. If successful, it will
develop into a pro-embryo, attached to a helically-coiled suspensor that pushes the
pro-embryo deep into the female gametophyte. It takes several months for the proembryo to develop into a mature embryo, a process called after-ripening, before it
can germinate and emerge from the seed (Grobbelaar, 2002, pp.52-53). Often after
a female coning, there is a resting period whereby no new leaves or cones are
produced for up to two years due to the large amount of energy consumed (Boyer,
1992, p.20). At maturity the female cones begin to disintegrate from the apex
downwards, usually at this time the sporophylls fall off the central axis, often with
the seeds still attached (Jones, 2002, p.40).
From a germinated seed, all cycads share a vital factor for growth in that they all
require sandy or rocky soil with good drainage in order to develop a large healthy
root system. These large and fleshy root systems are designed to store moisture
which they draw upon in times of drought (plants used to xeric conditions draw all
water in when available, often to their detriment in high rainfall situations, pers.
obs.). In addition to these, they have an adventitious root system that grows out and
upwards and are present near the soil. These coralloid roots contain colonies of
cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) which fix nitrogen providing some of the plants
requirement of this important nutrient. The roots are easily damaged by excessive
amounts of fertilisers or by disturbing the soil close to the stem of the plant (Boyer,
1992, p.19).
In time a trunk is formed, consisting of a central pithy core, surrounded by a corky
cambium layer and most species retain a skirt of persistent leaf bases. The stem acts
as an elaborate container for the storage of moisture (Boyer, 1992, p.19). An
unusual habit of Encephalartos is the ability to produce basal suckers, which if
carefully removed, these pups can be successfully transplanted. This method has
secured the survival of Encephalartos woodii, of which only a single male plant
existed. Some may also form aerial branches out of the side of the trunk which,
although do not have roots, may be induced to grow. All offsets are always the
same gender as the parent (Jones, 2002, p.244). Eudlo Cycad Gardens in south east
Queensland, Australia have produced basal offsets on Encephalartos gratus once
the caudex exceeded 20-25 cm in diameter (Heimbloom, 1999, The Species, p.54).
The large colourful seeds are ingested by a number of large birds, such as
hornbills and louries which void the seeds intact once the fleshy outer coat has been
digested. Thrushes may eat the sarcotesta as do various rodents. Large mammals
such as baboons and various species of monkey may feed on the outer flesh and aid
in dispersal. Elephants eat whole cones of Encephalartos poggei and disperse the
seed in their dung (Jones, 2002, p.243). Although Macrozamia have a more
variable range of seed sizes, published data does cover possums, wallabies and
other animal species more likely to be found in New Zealand's open environment
(pers. obs.). The large, colourful seeds attract the attention of birds and animals,
particularly rodents and marsupials. The emu is the only bird which seems to ingest
these seeds whole and is probably an important dispersal agent, either voiding the
seeds after the sarcotesta has been digested or passing them in dung. Parrots such as
rosellas also occasionally feed on the sarcotesta of species such as M. communis,
but probably play a very minor role in seed dispersal. An Australian raven was
observed carrying a seed in it's beak. Rodents, in particular the Australian Brown
Rat, feed actively on the sarcotesta and store caches of seeds in protected
sites(Jones, 2002, p.323). Kangaroos and wallabies also feed on the sarcotesta of a
number of species and are very effective at dispersal, while possums are generally
not (Jones, 2002, p.58). Sometimes these animals will worry a mature cone,
hastening it's disintegration and carrying off seeds which are still attached to the
sporophylls. There is some indication that the spread of seedlings by periodic
floods (Jones, 2002, p.323).
From this information I can assume that Encephalartos seeds would be too large
(20 x 50 mm minimum) for kereru or other native birds to swallow, and if they
were to manage to do so, would pass the seed kernel as they do with karaka drupes.
Pukekos are extremely likely to be curious and could fly above the stiff leaves to
land on the apex to pluck at the cone. Their natural instinct is to try anything and as
they frequent suburban areas where the plants are most likely to be found, should
be considered as possible dispersal agents. Temperatures are too cold in New
Zealand's southern regions for the species to be grown outdoors, so I consider kaka
and kea as dispersal factors as very improbable. Other birds, such as rosellas, tend
to feed on the outer flesh without carrying the seed away as the seed would be too
large and heavy. Rats and possums are likely dispersal agents in New Zealand,
carrying off seeds to a safe area to consume. Both tend to drop or lose seed and rats
often store nuts or seeds, that if not rendered incapable of germinating by chewing
the embryo, could develop into plants. Children could also be attracted to the bright
colours and curious shapes and could be considered a possibility for dispersal, as
could illegal disposal of garden waste (pers. obs.).
However, as all seed is infertile unless artificially hand pollinated, or in the rare
event of two fully mature male and female Encephalartos, both capable of cross
pollination, coning at the same time and were accidentally successfully fertilised by
a native or introduced insect attracted to and capable of entering the narrow
openings of the female cone (Jones, 2002, p.80), the possibility of a wild population
existing is exceptionally remote.
Competitors and predators
While some species of Encephalartos have a fairly wide distribution, others are
remarkably localised and a few are known to be restricted to a single river system
or even a solitary hill (Jones, 2002, p.240).
In their native habitat Encephalartos woodii and E. relictus were described from a
single male plant, E. brevifoliolatus is known from five male plants. Most of the
species being applied for are listed as vunerable to extinct in the wild according to
2004 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species and therefore are not outcompeting
their surrounding vegetation.
It must be appreciated that their growth is slower than most other plants which
will overtake them and crowd them out. Other plants may quickly shade them so
that they are unable to receive the amount of light that they require for adequate
growth (Boyer, 1992, pp.24-25).
In New Zealand they need to be planted away from other taller vegetation as they
cannot compete for light and would enter dormancy if shaded and with constantly
damp soil would succumb to root rotting (pers. obs.).
A unique group of day-flying moths of the family Geometridae have adapted to
various species of Encephalartos. Probably the best known of these is the Leopard
Magpie Moth (Zerenopsis leopardina), the caterpillars of which can severely
damage cultivated cycads (in KwaZulu-Natal). An additional three genera and six
species of these attractively marked moths are known to be intimately associated
with species of Encephalartos. The gregarious caterpillars, commonly known as
"inch worms", feed on the young leaves, often under webbing. As they grow the
caterpillars become less gregarious and can move onto other (non-cycad) plants to
feed. When of sufficient size they pupate in the leaf litter or soil. During their
feeding the caterpillars acquire toxins from the cycads which render them noxious
to predators. The adult moths advertise their unpalatable nature by their bright
orange, yellow and black markings (Jones, 2002, pp.241-242).
A range of weevils in the family Curculionidae, principally in the genus
Phacecorynes, live in the trunks of various Encephalartos species. As with other
weevils, the larvae of this species tunnel extensively within the stem and around the
leaf bases, causing the latter to be shed prematurely. Curculionid weevils of the
genera Phloeophagus and Brachyscapus have also been found in trunks (Jones,
2002, p.72).
The weevils are found only in South African Encephalartos species already listed
on PBI. It should be noted that the trunk-boring weevils, Brachyscapus,
Phacecorynes, and Phloeophagus genera, can remain undetected inside stems, can
endure long-distance transportation, and may even survive methyl bromide
fumigation under vacuum (Jones, 2002, p.71), but only applies to caudex or stems
being imported, a practice which is extremely expensive, being held in quarantine
for long periods, and most often results in the loss of the plant (pers. obs.).
Cycad seed kernels containing the embryo and its food supply, the
megagametophyte, are enclosed within a hard, woody sclerotesta which protects
them from being eaten by predators. As with most other parts of cycad plants, the
seed kernel contains toxins and is believed to be poisonous to invertebrates.
However, there are exceptions. Using the Macrozamia and Lepidozamia genera as
examples, as it is a cycad species predated upon by possums and rats, it has been
observed that the Australian Brown Rat (Rattus fuscipes), and probably other
rodents, gnaw neat holes in one end of the sclerotesta of Macrozamia seeds,
consuming the contents including the embryo. In lean years, they may attack
immature cones before the seeds have ripened. The Australian White-tailed Rat
(Uromys caudimaculatus), is very fond of Lepidozamia hopei seeds, as are feral
pigs. In Africa, porcupines are very fond of the young tissues of accessible
developing cones and baboons destroy immature ones as playthings (Jones, 2002,
pp.59-60). From this it is reasonable to assume that rats, possums, wallabies, goats,
pigs and possibly rabbits will attack cones and eat the seeds of Encephalartos
species if available to them (pers. obs.).
Pests particular to New Zealand that attack cycads are generally few as our
marked seasons tend to control their spread and disease is limited to root rotting
through poor drainage. Mealy bug and scale insects seem to be the main predator of
leaflets for Encephalartos and slaters feeding on unhealthy and decaying stems
(Boyer, 1992, pp.26-28).
Affinities with native organisms/biota
Cycads are unrelated to any other living group of plants (Jones, 2002, p.9).
Therefore are not related to any living plants native to New Zealand and cannot
affect biodiversity of flora. While native insects may feed on what appears to be
only unhealthy decaying plants, it is unknown if this influences the food chain. As
they must be immune to the toxins present, if any, then it is assumed that this is a
natural part of their life cycle. There are already many species of Encephalartos
present in New Zealand and as any significant increase in population is considered
to be unlikely, it must be assumed this will have only a minimal impact (pers. obs.).
Although all cycads contain chemicals which are toxic, these materials are
variously distributed in parts of the cycad plant but are not always found in the
same tissues of all species; for example toxins are present in the testa of species of
Macrozamia but appear to be absent from this part of the plant in many
Encephalartos species (Jones, 2002, p.16). Only an animal capable of crushing the
kernel could consume any reasonable quantity of toxins and this may be restricted
to only introduced pests and possibly pukekos although I imagine they would only
have an interest in the sarcotesta particularly if other more accessible food sources
are readily available (pers. obs.).
Potential use for organism
Importation is reliant upon meeting criteria for exporting and importing under
CITES regulations for both countries. Declaration must be made as to whether it is
for trade or private use and as only cultivated seed from artificially propagated
plants (on Appendix I or II of CITES) may be exported (Donaldson (ed.), 2003,
p.43), quantities at present are only being produced in limited numbers as yet,
therefore generally suitable only for hobbyist collectors. Commercial or trade items
may be sold to nurseries for growing on purposes, but personal or private growing
stock can not be offered for resale (G.Coleman, 2005, Seedbank for Palm & Cycad
Society of N.Z., in litt.). Availability is further compounded by the fact that South
Africa no longer allows the export of any cycad seed since 2003 as it was
impossible to tell if the seed had been wild collected or artificially propagated
(Donaldson (ed.), 2003, p.43). Other African nations with native cycads often
experience instability and access is restricted by poor infrastructure and difficult
terrain making supply of any seed with the necessary paperwork extremely rare
(pers. obs.). Another source of seed is from F2 generation plants, cycad plants or
plants grown from seed that have been CITES permitted, are allowed to have their
resultant seeds be exported. Without the CITES permitted documentation proving
the parent plant's origin, the seeds may not be exported (G.Coleman, 2005,
Seedbank for Palm & Cycad Society of N.Z., in litt).
Therefore the primary objective is to secure seed of as many species where
possible to obtain independence from importing to establish a breeding stock of
plants. Seed produced from these plants may be sold locally, but not exported
unless CITES permitted. The benefits of this would be reduce pressure on wild
populations (as well as the cultivated plants overseas), eliminate expensive import
costs and the risk of unwanted organisms, reduce problems over imported seed and
plant species not being named correctly and variable seed sizes not matching
currently known data, provide a higher germination rate of fresh seed from locally
grown sources, establish an alternative gene pool for the worlds diminishing
pedigree stock and offer the possibility of exporting F2 generation seed of the rarer
species to supplement natural populations being regenerated if required (pers. obs.).
3.5
Identify and characterise any likely inseparable organisms
Inseparable organisms are those which are inherently associated with the main
organism e.g. gut bacteria in animals. Information on this is required by section
34(2)(d) of the Act.
>Encephalartos species have no inseparable organisms, although two cycad seed
weevils, Antiliarhinus zamiae and A. signatus of the Brentidae family, are known
for their larvae feeding on the storage tissue of seeds of fifteen species (all South
African and all currently on PBI except Encephalartos caffer). While this doesn't
affect the seed from germinating if the embryo remains intact, the weevil can fly
and could spread to other cycad species and possibly become an unwanted pest if it
were to escape. Inspection of seeds has to date been very effective, and only needs
seed dealers to remain aware of any larvae found inside seeds and to destroy them
by burning immediately (Jones, 2002, p.77).
There are trunk-boring weevils which only affect whole plant or caudex imported
and is covered in Section 3.4, Competitors and predators (Jones, 2002, pp.71-72).
Current border procedures of inspecting all seed imported has to date been very
successful in preventing unwanted organisms and as all seed is from cultivated
sources they are naturally closely monitored for pests anyway. So long as importers
are constantly reminded to be vigilant for any form of infestation, any risk of
outbreak is extremely unlikely (pers. obs.).
Section Four – The Proposed Release Programme
Provide details of the source of the organism for release and the proposed release
programme including comments on timing and location(s) of the release(s) etc.
>Permits for importing Encephalartos species have become exceedingly difficult to
obtain, South Africa no longer allows the export of seed since June 2003 (Donaldson
(ed.), 2003, p.43) and other countries present many problems in trying to complete the
necessary documents. Therefore any seeds that are imported are generally in small
quantities and only suitable for private hobbyist use. These are only offered to current
seedbank members of the Palm & Cycad Society of New Zealand and the sale of less
common seeds or seedlings to the public is strongly discouraged as the intention is to
establish an independent source of viable pedigree seed (pers. obs.). To achieve this will
take many years as gender can only be determined upon production of cones and female
plants are generally less common (Jones, 2002, p.61).
Seedbank members that have bought seeds must wait for the after-ripening process. This
takes four to six months in Encephalartos for the pro-embryo to develop into a complete
embryo (Boyer, 1992, p.20), and to be capable of germinating. The seed is kept lightly
moist constantly, while applied with modest heat (15°-28° C.), forced germination at high
temperatures results in dormancy or more likely death (Boyer, 1992, p.23). Viability is
approximately two years - in extreme cases, some species can germinate after five to six
years (Jones, 2002, p.80). Members have found the seedling stage is always the most
vulnerable for any plant and cycads are no exception. All the initial growth relies on the
reserves inside the large seed. The main tap root is fleshy and vulnerable to rot as it does
not have the leaf area to disperse excess water through transpiration. Coralloid roots, for
nitrogen fixing, are not developed until later and therefore seedlings need slow release
fertiliser as regular watering or rainfall depletes the soil of essential nutrients. Unimpeded
drainage is an absolute necessity to its survival (pers. obs.). Soil mixture should contain
thirteen essential elements for optimum growth, and in their correct proportions as
growth is dictated by the least available nutrient (J.Lok, 2005, President of Palm & Cycad
Society of N.Z., in litt). Sun will burn the delicate new leaf, most species only grow one
new leaf a year for a decade and must have some protection for part of the day, even
though almost all need full sun in later life for continued growth (Jones, 2002, p.79).
Comparisons between the same species grown in tropical Queensland, Australia and
New Zealand, would suggest to me our growth rate is only a third of the achievable rate,
with tropical and sun loving blue-leaved species possibly never being capable of
producing cones and sustaining them to viability unless grown permanently in heated
conditions (pers. obs.). A six year old Encephalartos laurentianus seedling cultivated in
Eudlo Gardens is producing leaves over 3 metres in height, new leaves emerging almost
continuously with four to five flushes in a year not uncommon and has a caudex over 20
cm in diameter. The species suckers vigorously from the base, and other cycads in the
gardens have produced offsets once they reach 20-30 cm in diameter (Heimbloom, 1999,
The Species, pp.36-37). E. laurentianus is a species present in New Zealand prior to 29th
July 1998, however, no basal offsets or seeds are known to have ever been made
available to members of the Society to date indicating that this achievement is still many
years away (pers. obs.). Those that are capable of withstanding New Zealand's constant
rainfall with fluctuating temperatures can be grown outdoors providing they are planted
on a mound of free-draining soil mixture that does not break down (Jones, 2002, p.67).
All cycads with age are worth a considerable amount of money, more so if they form a
seed producing pair, and precautions must be taken to ensure that the easily transportable
plants are kept away from public attention or have very adequate anti-theft protection.
Constant application or slow release fertilisers are needed as rainfall and watering
depletes essential minerals and trace elements required for annual growth and heavily
taxing cone and new leaf production (pers. obs.).
Male cones are generally produced in multiples and rupture their pollen sacs over a
month to increase the chance of the host specific insect attaching pollen to it's body and
carrying it to a receptive female, as female cones are less common and seldom open at
the same time (Jones, 2002, p.61). As it is rare for even mature cycads to set seed, if
growers wish to produce viable seeds it is imperative that hand pollination be carried out
(Jones, 2002, p.80). In cultivated plants, the male cone is carefully removed and laid
down inside a paper bag and refrigerated or frozen until a female of the same species is
available. This extends the viability of the pollen (which is normally only several days) to
weeks. When a female cone becomes receptive, it opens very slightly, usually at the base.
For best results, a small amount of pollen is mixed with water and squirted into the cone
over the few days it remains open before it closes again. This method is preferred to dry
pollination because it avoids contact with airborne pollen which, like all parts of cycads,
has some toxins present. As the openings are minute, sometimes the top of the cone is cut
off to allow easier access. This is done several times over a fortnight to maximise
pollination as not all ovules are receptive at the same time, each time covering up the
cone with a breathable cloth bag to prevent accidental cross-pollination or losing seed on
the ground to rodents and birds (Jones, 2002, pp.80-81).
The Society is in the initial stages of creating several Cycad Botanical Parks for
maintaining seed and pollen producing plants although an alarming increase in cycad
thefts does present security problems in that too many in one location provide a tempting
target. Such is the value and attraction of cycads that during the hurricane evacuations in
Florida, many large and rare cycads have been stolen from Montgomery Botanical
Center. It is hoped by making viewing of these ancient plants available to the public, that
an understanding of their plight, and in due time successful recovery, that it will instil a
greater sense of care for our surroundings and how we can make a difference and bring
species back from the brink of extinction (pers. obs.).
Section Five - Identification and Assessment of Adverse Effects
(Risks)
Information in this category is required by section 34(2)(e) of the Act) and in accordance
with the Methodology. This section should include information on the adverse effects of
the type referred to in the HSNO Act. As set out in section 6 of the Act, you must take
account of the physical environment, effects on human health and welfare, the
relationship of Māori and their culture and traditions and New Zealand’s international
obligations.
In filling out this section please consider both the organism(s) and any inseparable
organism.
It is expected that organisms meeting the rapid assessment requirements will not
normally have any significant biological risks associated with them, so that a full
assessment of adverse effects may not be necessary. However, sufficient information
must be provided to confirm this, and also to confirm that the requirements for rapid
assessment are met. These requirements are set out in Section Six of this form.
It is recommended that sections five and six of the form are filled out in parallel to ensure
that sufficient information is provided, but not duplicated.
5.1
Identification and assessment of biological and physical
adverse effects of the organism(s).
Effects in this category are those set out in sections 6(a), 6(b) and 6(c) of the Act;
and repeated in other words in section 35(2)(b) of the Act. Cross reference the
material in this sub-section with that in Section Six of the form.
> Could form self-sustaining populations anywhere in New Zealand, taking into
account the ease of eradication:
- The possibility of reproducing independently in the open environment is virtually
nil. However, taking the point to the extreme, if a plant were to produce suckers
and remain undiscovered for decades in an ideal growing medium, rich in essential
nutrients, and reduplicate itself, it could only clone plants of the same gender and
not be capable of extending a population further afield. (Refer to Section 6.2).
- Eradication would more likely see the plant and any suckers removed to be
replanted in a Botanic Garden as Encephalartos are not known for vigorous growth
requiring immediate action and the specimen would most likely have considerable
value, if only for conservation. For difficult to access terrain, the soft starch column
of the trunk is easily severed by a handsaw to remove the meristem resulting in
death. (Refer to Section 6.2).
Could displace or reduce a valued species:
-Cycads have no affinities to any living plants, including any plants native to New
Zealand and Encephalartos are not invasive anywhere in the world. (Refer to
Section 6.3).
Could cause deterioration of natural habitats:
-Growth is much slower in the wild than as cultivated plants (Jones, 2002, p.69),
and therefore slower than other plants in the immediate vicinty to ever be invasive,
with reproduction almost exclusively by basal suckers. In the unlikely event that
fertile seed did form, due to their large size, (minimum size 50 mm x 20 mm),
dispersal would be mostly gravitational, with some seed possibly being gathered
and spread by rats. If taken into heavy shade with wet, cold conditions, no seedling
would be capable of surviving or further growth as dense shade promotes
dormancy. (Refer to Section 6.4)
Will be disease-causing or be a parasite, or vector or reservoir for human, plant, or
animal disease:
-Encephalartos are not associated with any diseases. (Refer to Section 6.5).
Will have any adverse effects on human health and safety or the environment:
-While it is well known that all cycads contain toxins, Encephalartos have no toxic
concentrations in the brightly coloured sarcotesta, as this is used in dispersal (Jones,
2002, p.46). Still, as a precaution as with handling any raw seeds, gloves should
always be worn when collecting seeds and removing the sarcostesta to avoid
prolonged skin contact (Jones, 2002, p.82). The seed kernels do contain toxins,
although not enough to kill rats or pigs, the usual predators, even if eaten in
quantity (Jones, 2002, p.59). Leaves could be eaten by stock, but as the effect is
cumulative, this would require a lot of large cycads as each plant produces only a
few leaves each year and they are prickly, therefore it is an unlikely scenario.
Pollen can cause allergic reactions and is advisable to mix with water for
pollination purposes or wear a facial mask. (Refer to Section 6.6)
5.2
Identification and assessment of adverse effects on the
relationship of Māori and their culture and traditions with their
ancestral lands, water, sites, waahi tapu, valued flora and fauna and
other taonga
Under sections 6(d) and 8 of the HSNO Act the Authority must be satisfied that the
release of the organism does not raise particular issues for Maori. If your
application might especially possibly have impacts on native flora and fauna, or
flora and fauna which it is reasonable to think may be valued by Maori, you should
address these issues here. Include details of any consultations that you have
undertaken in relation to this application. If concerns were raised during the
consultation process you should consider whether or how you are able to address
those concerns to the satisfaction of Maori.
> Cycad are not related to any living plants in the world, therefore they are not
related to any plants native to New Zealand (Jones, 2002, p.9). Due to their
demanding unimpeded drainage requirements, it is extremely unlikely they could
grow in our wet and cold environment or reproduce successfully without human
intervention. As such, the genus requires constant attention and due to slower
growth than most other plants and limited numbers of hobbyists growing them, they
will only ever exist as landscape plants, not capable of interacting with native flora
and fauna.
National Maori consultation was carried out in October 2005 and 80 Runanga
were sent a summary, a copy of the Landcare Research New Zealand report, a
coloured page of pictures of cycads and a response form to be returned by 16th
January 2006. Of the 80 consultation packs sent out to the Runanga of New
Zealand, 9 responses were received back, one of which was asking for an extension
of time to the 28th of February. A further allowance to the end of March was made
to allow them time in case of problems. No response has been received. Two had
no issues or comments and three replied saying they had no issues but requested
updates on the progress of this project/research. This wording makes up part of the
standard ERMA Response form although there is no expected research to be carried
out on this project. Three responded requesting enquiries to which I sent an e-mail
to each explaining in more detail that the summary did not cover adequately and
received no further enquiries from them.
It does seem an impossible ask to expect anyone to instantly acquire an
understanding of every aspect surrounding all the many procedures involved in the
export and import of CITES regulated plants, the border control inspections and
quarantine security and endless challenge to grow difficult species that still has
experienced growers asking questions and the limited response in this instance may
well reflect this.
>Appendix 2
National Maori Consultation
Refer to Appendix 2 for response forms and replies to queries.
5.2
Identification and assessment of other effects
Other effects include economic and related benefits and costs (section 6(e) of the
Act and impacts on New Zealand’s international obligations section 6(f) of the Act.
The possibility of economic, social and cultural effects/issues should also be
covered if relevant (section 5(b) of the Act).
>The primary goal is that by extending the list of species producing locally grown
viable seed, this will in the future eliminate all need for importing expensive seed,
saving money going off-shore, providing control over genetic purity, maintaining
an alternative gene pool for international stock and artificially increasing
populations of seriously threatened species by a limited number of experienced
cycad enthusiasts and conservationists. There is a possibility of export of F2 seed of
rarer species but this is unlikely due to other countries such as Australia having
faster growth rates and therefore cheaper prices and larger quantities.
Production of seedlings in South Africa, from both confiscated seed and cultivated
plants, has shown to reduce pressure on natural colonies in the wild, either to be
used to produce further seed, sold as seedlings to commercial growers or returned
to bolster depleted populations, particularly female plants, as these are targeted first
by poachers and over zealous collectors (Jones, 2002, pp.28-30).
Not only are cycad parks an attraction in South Africa, such as the awe inspiring
Encephalartos transvenosus forest, with some over a thousand years old, but it is
also possible in time to create the same natural wonder here in New Zealand as
well.
Section Six – Satisfaction of the Criteria for the Rapid
Assessment of Risk from Release of the New Organism(s)
This section of the application form must include information on the matters referred to
in sections 35 and 36 of the HSNO Act. Because sections 35 and 36 have different
thresholds (i.e. highly improbable versus significant respectively), your primary concern
should be to meet the more stringent criteria. These are generally the criteria set out in
section 35(2)(b). If these criteria cannot be met then your application will fail
irrespective of whether the requirements of section 36 are met. If you do fail you can
request ERMA New Zealand continue with your application for a full (rather than rapid)
assessment in which case you will need to complete form NOR.
Please address each of the subsections below. These reflect the matters just referred to in
sections 35 and 36 in the HSNO Act. Give as much detail as the subject warrants.
Include a description of where the information in the application has been sourced from,
e.g. from in-house research, independent research, technical literature, community or
other consultation. The importance of showing that the organism(s) is obviously low risk
is paramount.
As already indicated you will probably find it convenient to complete sections five and
six of the form at the same time. To avoid duplication cross reference between the two
sections.
Note: If your application is for a plant, it is recommended that you obtain an independent
reputable (e.g. from Landcare Research) weed risk assessment. If the risk score is above
zero (i.e. there is some degree of weediness) then it is more likely that your application
will be declined and/or referred on for a full assessment in which case you should
complete form NOR. Please incorporate the results of your weed risk assessment into the
relevant headings below and attach a copy of the weed risk assessment.
6.1
Unwanted organisms
Under section 35(2)(a) of the HSNO Act the Authority must be satisfied that the
new organism(s) to be released are not ‘unwanted organisms’ as defined in the
Biosecurity Act 1993. Note: An ‘unwanted organism’ means any organism that a
chief technical officer, appointed under the Biosecurity Act, believes is capable or
potentially capable of causing unwanted harm to any natural and physical resource
or human health. Provide information on this.
>Encephartos are not on the list of prohibited or unwanted organisms as defined
in the Biosecurity Act 1993.
6.2
Probability of the new organism forming self-sustaining
populations and ease of eradication
Under section 35(2)(b)(i) of the HSNO Act the Authority must be satisfied that it is
highly improbable that the organism, after release, could establish self-sustaining
populations anywhere in New Zealand, taking into account the ease of eradication.
Please assess the potential of the organisms to establish self-sustaining populations.
Also assess how easy it would be to eradicate the organism if it was to establish and
by what means would eradication be possible (e.g. mechanical, chemical, biological
control, lack of reproductive or propagative potential etc.) and at what cost? For
ease of reading please provide material under separate sub-headings as below.
Formation of self-sustaining population
>It is rare for cultivated cycads to set seed even if male and female plants of the
same species are placed side by side and their cones reach maturity together (Jones,
2002, p.80). To establish a self-sustaining population would require two adult
plants of coning maturity, approximately 15-25 years (Jones, 2002, p.49), and of
compatible species (not all Encephalartos can hybridise), growing in a nutrient rich
medium that is extremely fast draining, pollinated by a tiny insect (the openings of
a female are very slim, sometimes not even detectable), attracted to and not repelled
by both the scent of the male (to collect a pollen grain) and female (although they
are seldom both open at the same time and pollen viability is only a few days),
normally a member of the weevil family and usually host-specific, (Oberprieler,
2005, in litt.) and deposit the pollen grain inside the female cone while it is open
(usually less than a fortnight) to produce a viable seed (if the ovule is receptive).
Possible dispersal agents include rats, possums and wallabies, attracted to the bright
colours, and could spread any fertile seed after eating the outer sarcotesta (Jones,
2002, p.323). It should however be remembered that even after the seed detaches
itself from the female cone, it still requires 6-12 months of after-ripening before
sprouting can occur if it is pollinated. The sarcotesta needs to be removed or rotted
off as this contains chemical inhibitors to prevent germination (Jones, 2002, p.83)
and the seed kernel is required to be moist constantly to prevent drying out or
rehydrated, or the embryo will die (Jones, 2002, p.82). If successful, the seed could
develop into another plant but seedling losses would be very high due to New
Zealand's high rainfall all year round, rendering it vulnerable to fungal rot even in
free-draining media (pers. obs.).
Therefore the probability for a genus in which several species are classified as
extinct in the wild and most others survival entirely reliant upon artificial
pollination to establish itself in a less than suitable open environment such as New
Zealand's can only be regarded as excessively remote.
Ease of eradication
>Although African Encephalartos wouldn't pose any immediate concern of
eradication and could easily be transplanted to a more desirable location, the
Australian government agencies have in the past encouraged the eradication of two
of their endemic cycads, Cycas and Macrozamia, declaring them noxious for a
period because inexperienced cattle were allowed to graze in unfenced areas where
they were tempted by the new flush of bright green leaves (and most toxic), after
the frequent bush fires that destroys all other vegetation and promotes regenerating
growth. Eradication was effected by applying herbicides such as arsenic
compounds to a notch in the trunk made by an axe. Subterranean trunks could be
split with an axe before the onset of the wet season, and kerosene poured into the
wound. Today, areas where cycads are prevalent in farmed regions, they are
conserved by fencing them off, and any new development schemes allows the
removal of sought after species as almost all cycads are easily transplanted, a
considerably more internationally acceptable treatment of native species (Jones,
2002, p.47).
6.3
Probability of the new organism displacing or reducing a
valued species or causing any significant displacement of any native
species within its natural habitat
Under section 35(2)(b)(ii) of the HSNO Act the Authority must be satisfied that it
is highly improbable that the organism, after release, could displace or reduce a
valued species. The Authority must also take into account the sustainability of all
native flora and fauna and it will decline the application if displacement of any
native species within its natural habitat is significant under section 36(a) of the
HSNO Act. Provide an assessment of these matters. For example, how likely is it
that the new organism(s) will affect the abundance or geographical distribution of a
native or valued introduced species such as kauri, kiwi, ryegrass, or trout? Note: It
is important to identify and address how any potential effect is likely or unlikely to
occur.
>As reproduction will be totally reliant upon hand pollination to produce viable
seed (Jones, 2002, p.80), or by the only other means of duplication by removing
basal suckers, any plants grown outdoors will be relatively inert and not become
interactive within the open environment (i.e. they are not expected to become
invasive or to compete with or displace native or valued plant species).
Stock are not expected to come in contact with mature Encephalartos as plants are
extremely expensive items, as well as the cycads shouldn't present themselves as a
more desirable food source than grass and their prickly nature is a form of
deterrent. It also appears that the sarcotesta of species of Encephalartos would lack
the toxin macrozamin found in some of the species of Macrozamia (Jones, 2002,
p.46).
6.4
Probability of the new organism(s) causing any significant
deterioration of natural habitats
Under section 35(2)(b)(iii) of the HSNO Act the Authority must be satisfied that it
is highly improbable that the organism, after release, could cause deterioration of
natural habitats. Please assess this matter. For example, how likely is it that the
new organism(s) will influence the biophysical quality of, for instance, freshwater
lakes and streams, or the canopy of native forests?
>Cycads sadly form some of the most threatened species on this planet with two
species (E. woodii and E. relictus) both known originally from a single male plant,
and several other species extinct in the wild. This has been brought about by the
fact of reduced populations, females removed by poachers, poor seedling
recruitment due to seasonal and deliberate fires, host specific pollinators having
become extinct or controlled by insecticides, and a low natural reproductive success
rate. In a warm temperate country, growth and spread would be slower, if even
possible, having no impact on native habitat. Even as mature leaves are shed from
the trunk, these are drained of nutrients and toxins, back into the plant to assist new
growth of leaves and cones, thus rendering the dead leaf suitable for mulching or
composting (Jones, 2002, p.47).
6.5
Probability of the new organism causing disease, being
parasitic, or becoming a vector or reservoir for human, animal or plant
disease
Under section 35(2)(b)(iv) of the HSNO Act the Authority must be satisfied that it
is highly improbable that the organism could cause disease, be parasitic, or become
a vector for human, animal, or plant disease. Please assess these matters. For
example, what evidence is there from other countries that the new organism(s) are
hosts for plant viruses, or are carriers of bacteria pathogenic in humans?
>Cycads are relatively disease free plants. Literature is quite extensive on
interaction between cycads and humans, having been around for so long, and show
no diseases associated with Encephalartos. With New Zealand's wetter conditions,
it does lead to occasional Phytophthora attacks, even in free-draining media when
associated with cold. Sooty mould, scale insects, spider mites and mealy bugs will
attack cycads, particularly if inside and not exposed to natural weather elements
(Jones, 2002, pp.77-78).
6.6
Probability of the new organism having any adverse effects on
human health and safety or the environment
Under section 35(2)(b)(v) of the HSNO Act the Authority must be satisfied that it is
highly improbable that the organism will have any adverse effects on human health
and safety or the environment. Section 36(c) requires that the organism is unlikely
to cause any significant adverse effects on human health or safety. Please assess
these matters. For example, is there evidence of people displaying allergic reactions
to the organism itself or pollen from the new organism(s); are the new organisms
venomous?
>There is an early documented account of soldiers in the Boer War becoming
violently ill after eating untreated seed kernels, driven by hunger and obviously
after seeing animals eat the sarcotesta which does not contain the macrozamin
toxin. Only by continuing to eat the kernels would this result in possible death
(Jones, 2002, pp.45-46). In many countries around the world where cycads are
present, the seeds and stems have been processed by complex methods over several
weeks to extract the starch for food (Jones, 2002, pp.44-45). Resin exuded from
wounds in petioles and rachises has been used medicinally for insect and snake
bites, and for various skin infections (Jones, 2002, p.48). With alternatives
available, this has lessened.
Male cones do shed pollen over several weeks and prolonged exposure could
cause a reaction to an allergy sufferer. As a precaution to the pollinator, a facial
mask should be worn and the pollen diluted with water before spraying into the
female cone. When handling the flesh of any seed, gloves should be a standard to
guard against any possible toxic transference (Jones, 2002, p.82).
Cattle and sheep have developed paralysis in the hindquarters when left to wander
and graze on leaves of large colonies of other genera of cycads, in Australia (Cycas
and Macrozamia) and the Caribbean (Zamia) (Jones, 2002, p.47). There is no
mention of any similar effect on cattle in any part of Africa, and certainly stock do
come in contact with large stands of Encephalartos, possibly because the leaflets
are slightly prickly, leathery and unappealing to eat. For such an area of vast
numbers of wild cycads to exist in New Zealand would not be plausible, and we
keep livestock fenced in paddocks, not roaming freely over hundreds of acres of
wild scrub, so therefore this does not present a realistic concern (pers. obs.).
6.7
Likelihood of the new organism(s) causing any significant
adverse effects on New Zealand’s inherent genetic diversity
Under section 36(d) of the HSNO Act the Authority must decline the application if
the organism is likely to cause any significant adverse effect to New Zealand’s
inherent genetic diversity. Please assess this matter. For example, how likely is it
that the new organism(s) will hybridise with native or valued species or affect their
current distribution?
>Cycads are not taxonomically linked to any living plant form and therefore cannot
hybridise with any native plant or valued species, so no effect upon New Zealand's
genetic biodiversity is possible (Jones, 2002, p.9).
Section Seven – Overall evaluation
Although not required because it is a task for the decision maker, applicants may
provide their own overall evaluation of the information in Sections 5 and 6 above.
In doing this the first step is to address the criteria set out in Section 6. Organisms
must satisfy all these criteria in order to be eligible for rapid assessment. The more
general risk assessments in Section 5 are intended to both support the Section 6
information and to provide information on risks which lie outside the statutory
criteria for rapid assessment, but are covered by Part II of the Act.
>By making this application it is simply a more convenient way of adding species to the
MAF Plant Biosecurity Index that are already present in New Zealand but difficult to
prove, as well as including other species that may be tried should the seed become
available.
Encephalartos aplanatus is present in New Zealand as it was believed to be part of the
E. villosus complex. It has since been raised to species level largely by the fact it has a
different host-specific pollinator (not found in New Zealand) and slightly different
leaflets (Jones, 2002, p.247).
E. chimanimaniensis and E. pterogonus are further divisions of the E. manikensis
complex, a species that after being segregated from E. gratus, has already seen E.
concinnus and E. munchii raised to specific rank. E. manikensis once covered a vast area
and as the population has diminished, isolated stands have adapted to local environmental
conditions giving rise to variants such as 'Choala', 'Chipinga', Elizabethvillensis',
'Vanduzi' and 'Vumba'. At present these are still only E. manikensis forms, but may in
time be studied further to see if more taxa are warranted (Jones, 2002, p.288). Of note, E.
natalensis has 15 such variants and may also be similarly divided in the future.
E. gratus, described in 1916 and is widely distributed in Malawi and Mozambique
(Jones, 2002, p.269), E. caffer, first discovered in 1772, southernmost naturally occuring
cycad and is common and regenerating freely (Jones, 2002, p.252). Both of these cycads
are common and suited to New Zealand conditions and it is understood that several large
specimens are currently growing in Auckland having been sold prior to 29th July 1998
and are all now in private ownership and access is unavailable to Society members.
E. relictus (only one male), E. brevifoliolatus (only five plants and are all males), E.
hirsutus (listed as Critical on the IUCN Red List), as are many cycads of this genus. It
will take a massive effort simply to ensure their survival as they teeter on the brink of
extinction, let alone becoming weedy in New Zealand and every opportunity should be
made to raise the profile of their plight as well as other highly endangered species.
The other 11 species, E. barteri, E. bubalinus, E. delucanus, E. equatorialis, E.
ituriensis, E. mackenziei, E. macrostrobilus, E. marunguensis, E. poggei, E. schaijesii
and E. schmitzii, are all tropical in nature and will struggle to survive in an unprotected
open environment. E. delucanus, E. marunguensis, E. poggei, E. schaijesii and E.
schmitzii are accepted as the most difficult species to establish and maintain in
cultivation, with E. barteri being very sensitive to cold (Jones, 2002, p.244).
The species are not on the prohibited or unwanted organisms list as defined by the
Biosecurity Act 1993 and as there are 49 other species already on the Plant Biosecurity
Index, it indicates that they do not pose a risk in New Zealand.
Most Encephalartos are highly threatened by low populations, too scattered over vast
distances to be able to reproduce (particularly as females are removed by poachers), or
the absence of host-specific pollinators that have become extinct or killed by insecticides,
leading to all the genus placed on Appendix I of CITES. With a limited number of
hobbyist collectors growing the cycads, and very few male and female plants grown in
close proximity of each other to effect accidental pollination, the possibility of a selfsustaining population (as discussed in section 6.2), is implausible.
The Australian Government is the only organisation in the world to ever intentionally
try to eradicate species of two cycad genera, both distantly related to Encephalartos, all
because of the vast outback does not fence stock and instead allows animals to wander
uncontrolled. Simple methods they used reinforce the ease in killing any species, even in
native habitat. Cycads are vulnerable in every aspect and little effort is needed to destroy
them if required, their value and rarity would be reason enough to try and relocate them.
Despite the length of time in New Zealand, very few old specimens can be found,
probably due to growth limiting climatic conditions and fatalities occuring with these
demanding plants. The only insects seemingly associated with cycads are scale insects,
spider mites and mealy bugs, with slaters and earwigs observed afterwards on decaying
plants. To displace valued or native species is again not a possibility, they simply cannot
compete in growth rate.
Although cycads are known to contain toxins, within each genera, these are contained in
different parts or may even be absent in some. Certainly Encephalartos appears to have
no toxins in the sarcotesta of the seed as these are eaten by a wide variety of animals, the
kernel is even entirely eaten by pigs and rats with no ill effect. Leaves have nutrients and
toxins drawn back into the starch column to assist in new growth flushes which tax the
reserves of the plant. Therefore, only the seed kernel could exude low levels of toxins
into the environment if produced in huge quantities. It is not expected that large numbers
will be grown for the landscape industry as Encephalartos have slightly toothed leaves,
an undesirable selling point, while most other species are too rare to ever be available.
Natural habitats should remain unaffected by their presence in New Zealand just as the
species currently on the Plant Biosecurity Index are not affecting the environment.
Disease in cycads is rare, there does not appear to be any associated plant virus or
bacteria pathogenic to humans.
An incident of poisoning occurred in 1900, over a hundred years ago, when soldiers
were desperate and ignorant of these plants. Since then, it is extremely doubtful any
further incidents have happened, however, should cycads become plentiful and popular,
advice may be warranted on the label if sold from gardening outlets as a precaution. No
animal or human would readily eat a plant's leaves as the prickly nature of the leaflets is a
deterrent, the seeds are only found on females and are very highly prized plants for seed
production as males outnumber them in by a three to one ratio (Jones, 2002, p.61). The
pollen of mature male plants could cause a reaction to those with allergies if exposed to
the pollen over a prolonged period of time. Those that are involved in reproduction
activities, are advised to wear facial mask and only use the pollen mixed with water for
pollinating female cones as a precautionary measure.
There are the 49 species already on the Plant Biosecurity Index that pose no threat to our
genetic diversity as cycads are not related to any living plants, therefore are not related to
any plants native to New Zealand.
As a summary, the population of Encephalartos species present in New Zealand is low
due to limited numbers of cycad enthusiasts and the continued existence of these species
in this country is completely reliant upon artificial propagation, as would be with these
additional species being applied for. The impact on our open environment is negligible, if
at all, as the plants will always be expensive and rare due to slow growth habits and too
valuable to be left unguarded. Disease, health issues or weediness have not presented any
problems to those that are currently growing Encephalartos species and these issues are
not expected to ever promote concern in the future, particularly due to low numbers that
can be or will be grown.
Section Eight – Additional Information
8.1
Do any of the organism(s) need approvals under any other
New Zealand legislation or are affected by international obligations?
For example, indicate whether the organism may be subject to other New Zealand
legislation, e.g. the Biosecurity Act 1993; or if the organism(s) are listed in CITES,
then approval is required from both the importing and exporting countries.
>All Encephalartos species and subspecies are listed as Appendix I on CITES.
CITES export permits are required from 1975, when South Africa became a
signatory country.
CITES import permits are required from 1989, when New Zealand became a
signatory country.
TIES was an extension to the CITES laws of 1989 and was to include seed and
pollen as parts of the
plant parts requiring export permits.
MAF import permits are required for all cycad parts excluding seeds.
South Africa has introduced it's own laws banning the export of all cycad seed,
June 2003.
It was decided recently that wild-collected seed be allowed to be cultivated to
reduce pressure on
natural populations but is only for local demand and not for export (Jones, 2002.
p.28).
There are also plans to judge cultivated specimens under different criteria to wildcollected plants (Jones, 2002. p.29).
8.2
Have any of the new organism(s) in this application previously
been considered in New Zealand or elsewhere?
For example, have the organism(s) been previously considered for import (e.g.
under the previous Plants or Animals Acts or under the HSNO Act)? Also include
information on all occasions where the organism(s) have been considered by other
countries, governments or organisations and the results of such considerations.
>I can find no record of these Encephalartos spp. having been previously
considered under the HSNO Act 1996 or the Plant Act 1970 (repealed).
8.3
Is there any additional information that you consider relevant
to this application that has not already been included? Please provide
any such information that is material to the organism(s) concerned
>There are 49 species currently represented on the Biosecurity Plant Index and
these are growing in New Zealand, some in open environment situations, including
the Auckland Regional Botanic Gardens, Manurewa, Clive Square, Napier and
Pukekura Park, New Plymouth. As these plants have been purposely planted in a
publicly accessible area, it must be assumed they do not represent a health hazard to
humans or animals, or else there would be reported incidents and require protective
measures in place (pers. obs.).
8.4
Provide a glossary of scientific and technical terms used in the
application
>Acaulescent
Without trunk, subterranean or underground stem.
Aculeate
Bearing short, sharp prickles or spines.
Acute
Bearing a short, sharp point.
Adventitious
Arising from secondary growth.
Aerial branches
Suckers forming on the side of the trunk above ground.
After ripening
Period of several months between a pro embryo developing into a mature embryo
ready to germinate.
Anastomosing
Forming a network with crossed links, as in the venation (arrangement of veins) of
some cycads.
Apical
Uppermost point.
Arborescent
Tree-like growth habit, forming a trunk.
Basal leaflet
Small leaflets growing at the base of a leaf, used for distinguishing between taxa.
Basal suckers
A shoot arising from the roots or trunk below ground level, also known as pups or
offsets.
Basipetally
Progressing from the apex to the base.
Bifurcate
Forked or deeply notched.
Bipinnate
Twice pinnately divided, as in the leaves of Bowenia.
Bulbous
Bulb-shaped or swollen.
Bulla
Expanded outer head of a cone scale with several facets.
Callous
In cycads applied to an often colourful patch of tissue at the base of leaflets in
Macrozamia species.
Cambium
The growing tissue lying just beneath the bark.
Cataphyll
Reduced scale-like leaves (bracts) that protect the apex between leaf flushes.
Caudex
Trunk-like growth axis.
Contractile roots
Roots that pull down the trunk to keep the apex level with the surface.
Cyanobacteria
A group of bacteria, previously called blue-green algae.
Cylindrical
Shaped like a roller with parallel sides.
Deciduous
Falling off or shedding of any plant part, usually leaves.
Decumbent
Reclining on the ground with the apex ascending.
Decurrent
Running downwards beyond a junction, as in the lower margins of the leaflets
extending along the rachis.
Dehiscing
Shedding, as in the release of pollen from the sporangia.
Distal
Towards the apex.
Ellipsoid
Oval-shaped in three dimensions.
Emergent trunk
A trunk that grows above ground level, aerial.
Entire
Whole, not toothed or divided in any way.
Facets
Applied to the flat surfaces of the outer face of a cone scale.
Falcate
Sickle-shaped.
Fusiform
Spindle-shaped.
Gametophyte
Flesh of the female seed kernel that provides sustenance for the development of the
mature embryo.
Glabrous
Smooth, hairless.
Glaucous
Bluish green bluish grey, or covered in bloom to impart a bluish lustre.
Incubous
When the upper or distal margins of a leaflet overlap the lower margins of the next.
Inflexed
Recurved when young like a shephard's crook.
Involute
Inverted vee shaped leaves sloping downwards.
Keeled
In the shape of a keel, vee-shaped.
Lamina
The expanded part of the leaf.
Lanceolate
Leaflet that is lance-shaped, tapering to each end, widest at base and narrowing
towards the apex.
Laterally
Arising at the side of the main axis.
Lax
Open and loose.
Linear
Long and narrow with parallel sides.
Lobe
Segment of an organ as the result of a division.
Macrozamin
Toxin found in the sarcotesta of some Macrozamia species, but not in
Encephalartos.
Median leaflet
Leaflets growing in the middle of a leaf, used for distinguishing between taxa.
Megagametophyte
The fleshy tissue that surrounds the embryo.
Megasporophylls
Female cone scale which bear the ovules.
Meristem
The apical growing point of a stem or root.
Mesic
Moist conditions.
Mesophyll
Photosynthetic tissue of a leaf.
Micropyle
An opening in the developing ovule which allows the pollen tubes to enter during
fertilisation.
Microspores
Term for the pollen grain of cycads.
Microsporophylls
The male cone scale which bear the microspores.
Mucilaginous
Secreting glue-like compounds.
Multilobed
Leaflet tip divided into multiples of four or more.
Nodule
Point of attachment of a leaflet to a stem.
Non-articulate
Not jointed.
Oblanceolate
Leaflet that is lance-shaped, tapering to each end, widest at the apex and narrowing
towards the base.
Obliquely
Not perpendicular.
Obvate
Leaflet that is round-shaped with both ends tapered.
Ovate
Leaflet that is round-shaped at base, tapering towards the apex only.
Ovoid
Egg-shaped in a solid or three dimensional plane.
Ovule
The structure within the ovary which becomes the seed after fertilisation.
Peduncle
Cone stalk.
Peltate
Circular, with the stalk attached in the middle.
Pendulous
Hanging downwardly.
Petiole
The stalk of a cycad leaf between the expanded base and the first leaflet.
Pinnate
Once divided, feather-like, with the divisions extending to the midrib, usually
referring to leaves.
Platyspermic
Cycad seeds which are distinctly flattened and upon germination split into two
halves near the micropyle.
Procumbent
A trunk leaning or reclining on the ground.
Pro embryo
A fertilised egg cell attached at the end of a helically-coiled suspensor that pushes
deep into the gametophyte. Proximal
Towards the base or attached end, basal.
Pungent
Sharply pointed end.
Pyramidally
Surface of the bullae on cones that are raised in the shape of a pyramid.
Rachis
Extending from the petiole to the end of the lamina.
Radiospermic
Cycad seeds which are round in cross-section and germinate by forcing the radicle
out of a pore at the micropylar end of the seed, as in all cycad genera except Cycas.
Reclining trunk
A trunk forced over by it's own weight and laying along the ground.
Recurved
Curved backwards.
Revolute
Vee shaped leaves facing upwards.
Rhizome
Underground stem producing roots and leafy shoots.
Sarcostesta
The outer fleshy layer of a cycad seed.
Scarp
Escarpment, steep slope or side of hill or rock.
Sclerophyll
Plant with hard, stiff leaves.
Sclerotesta
The hard, bony layer of a cycad seed which surrounds the megagametophyte and
embryo.
Seed kernel
Fleshy tissue of the gametophyte enclosed in a shell forming the female seed.
Senescence
Growing old.
Sessile
Without a stalk.
Simple
Undivided.
Spines
Reduced leaflets that are short and have one or more stiff, sharp points.
Spinose
Modified like a spine or resembling a spine.
Sporangium
A case that bears spores.
Sporophyll
Cone scale of a cycad.
Stipules
A swollen protective growth situated at the base of the petiole.
Striate
Marked with narrow lines.
Subterranean trunk
Trunk that grows downwards below the ground surface, underground.
Succubous
When the lower or proximal margins of a leaflet overlap the upper margins of the
next.
Suckers (basal)
A shoot arising from the roots or trunk below ground level, also known as pups or
offsets.
Stolon
A shoot from the root of the plant.
Symbiotic
When two different organisms live in intimate harmony together.
Terminally
At the end or extremity.
Testa
The outer covering of the seed, the seedcoat.
Tomentose
Densely covered with short, matted, soft hairs.
Trifurcate
Leaflet divided at the apex into three separate tips.
Tuberous
Swollen and fleshy.
Vascular bundle
Internal conducting system of plants.
Vegetative
Asexual development or propagation.
Voiding
Ejecting.
Whorls
Three or more organs attached at a similar level on a stalk, also commonly applied
to a new flush of leaves.
Xeric
Dry conditions.
Xerophytic
Adapted to growing in dry conditions.
8.5
List of appendices
List any appendices included with this application. Any information that is
commercially sensitive or additional material included with the application (such as
details of consultations, referenced articles) should be contained in appendices. The
main application should refer to the relevant appendices but the application is able
to be read as a stand-alone document.
>Appendix 1 - Individual Fact Sheets for the 19 species, and 1 subspecies.
- Photographic examples of Encephalartos
Appendix 2 - Response forms and replies to National Maori consultation.
Appendix 3 - Initial Weed Risk Assessment (Landcare Research)
Appendix 4 - Photocopied Cross-referenced Material
8.6
References
Please include a list of the references cited in and supplied with this application
form. Originals of the references must be supplied in full. Where the reference
supplied is an extract from a book only the specific pages quoted must be supplied.
>
Boyer, Keith. (1992). Palms and Cycads Beyond The Tropics. Australia: Palm &
Cycad Societies of Australia.
Coleman, Gary. (2005).
<http://www.groups.yahoo.com/group/nzpalmcycad/messages.html>
Donaldson, J.S.(ed.). (2003). Cycads. Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan.
IUCN/SSC Cycad
Specialist Group. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK, ix + 86 pp.
Grobbelaar, Nat. (2002). CYCADS . Pretoria: Four Images Bureau & Printers.
Haynes, Jody.L. (2005). The World List of Cycads: A Historical Review. Florida:
Montgomery Botanical
Center.
Heibloem, Peter. (1999). Cycads of Central Africa. Australia: Palm & Cycad
Societies of Australia.
Hill, K.D. & Stevenson, D.W. The Cycad Pages. (1998-2005).
<http://planetnet.rbgsyd.gov.au/PlantNet/cycad>
IUCN 2004. 2004 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. <http://www.redlist.org.>
Downloaded July
15, 2005.
Jones, David.L. (2002). Cycads of the World, 2nd Edition. Australia: Reed New
Holland.
Landcare Research New Zealand Ltd. Initial Weed Risk Assessment.
Lok, John. (2005).
<http://www.groups.yahoo.com/group/nzpalmcycad/messages.html>
Oberprieler, Rolf.G. (2005). <http://www.groups.yahoo.com/group/ERMAUPDATES/messages.html>
Scragg, Mark. (2006).
<http://www.groups.yahoo.com/group/nzpalmcycad/messages.html>
The International Plant Name Index (2004). Published on the Internet.
<http://www.ipni.org.> Downloaded
4th June 2005.
Whitelock, Loran.M. (2002). The Cycads. Oregon: Timber Press.
Section Nine– Application Summary
Summarise the application in clear, simple language that can be understood by the
general public. Include a description of the organism(s) to be released, the potential use
of the organism, and any risks associated with their release. This summary will be used to
provide information for those people and agencies that will be notified of the application
(e.g. Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, Department of Conservation) and for members
of the public who request information. Note: Do not include any commercially
sensitive information in this summary – this should be attached as a separate
appendix and clearly marked “confidential”.
> Application Summary
The Palm & Cycad Society of New Zealand wish to import for release 19 Encephalartos
species (Cycads) to establish seed producing plants for private collectors and Botanic
Gardens to ensure survival of these highly threatened plants by maintaining an alternative
seedbank. There are currently forty nine species of this genus already listed on the Plant
Biosecurity Index, and the additional Encephalartos species to be applied for are:
E. aplanatus, E. barteri, E brevifoliolatus, E. bubalinus, E. caffer, E. chimanimaniensis,
E. delucanus,
E. equatoralis, E. gratus, E. hirsutus, E. ituriensis, E. mackenziei, E. macrostrobilus, E.
marunguensis,
E. poggei, E. pterogonus, E. relictus, E. schaijesii and E. schmitzii.
Cycads are the oldest known living plants and are not related to any other plants, as
such, they can not affect New Zealand's genetic diversity. They can form trunks or be
subterranean and have a crown of palm-like leaves. All cycads contain some toxins,
including the new flush of leaves and should be grown away from grazing stock as a
precaution. They are long lived, and therefore slow growing, and upon maturity produce
either male or female cones. Reproduction is usually effected by a host specific insect,
weevils mainly, and as many of these insects may be extinct or controlled by insecticides,
artificial pollination has in most cases become the only means of regeneration. Some
species are known only from a single male or small group of male plants. Pollen could
cause a reaction to allergy sufferers if subjected to prolonged exposure and the kernels
contain toxins, although the bright fleshy sarcotesta apparently does not as this is eaten
by several animals. Due to the value of mature plants, it would be suggested that they
should not be grown in public places to avoid theft, but also to eliminate any possibility
of accidental airborne contact with pollen or ingestion of kernels.
Populations of Encephalartos are very low, both in nature and in cultivation, and it is
expected that only a limited number of hobbyist collectors will be growing the cycads to
establish an alternative gene pool of seed producing plants should it be required and to
reduce or eliminate importing further seed. This will divert seed and seedlings grown in
their native origins to replenish natural colonies that have been badly depleted by over
zealous collectors, but it can only be achieved by starting a resident seed producing
population as early as possible to save these ancient curiosities.
Checklist
Please check and complete the following before submitting your application:
All sections completed
Appendices enclosed
Confidential information identified and enclosed separately
Copies of additional references attached
Cheque for initial fee enclosed (incl. GST)†
If “yes”, state amount:
Fee direct credited to ERMA bank account:
If ‘yes” give date of DC …/…/… and amount:
Application signed and dated
Electronic copy of application e-mailed to ERMA New
Zealand
Yes
Yes/
NA*
Yes/NA
Yes/NA
Yes/No
$……….
Yes/No
$……….
Yes
Yes
*NA – not applicable
†
The cost of the application (our fee) can be found in the “Fees and Charges Schedule”
on our web site under “New Organisms” and “NO and GMO Forms and Publications”
http://www.ermanz.govt.nz/resources/publications/pdfs/ER-FE-03-5.pdf
Signed:
Date: