Groh
Using Readers Theater to Engage All Learners
USING READERS THEATER TO ENGAGE ALL LEARNERS
Amanda Groh
Abstract: This paper investigates the process and benefits of Readers Theater in order to
determine its usefulness within a variety of instructional settings. It discusses ways that Readers
Theater has been implemented in real classrooms and uses the findings of teachers and
educational researchers to determine the benefits it offers with regard to student learning,
particularly in the areas of student reading performance and content area learning. The review
begins with an examination of Readers Theater in order to provide a description of this strategy
and the basic elements that are essential to its implementation. Next, it discusses the benefits of
using Readers Theater as discovered from research and the classroom experience of teachers.
This section will also include a discussion of the connection between Readers Theater and
fluency because improved fluency is a widely noted benefit of Readers Theater. From there, it
investigates who actually benefits from Readers Theater, focusing in on which groups of students
have been positively affected with the use of this instructional strategy. Finally, it utilizes
teaching experiences of educators to delve into the ways that Readers Theater can be adapted for
greater use in all areas of the school day. This portion of the paper extends Readers Theater
beyond reading instruction and demonstrates why Readers Theater is an appropriate and useful
instructional tool in writing and the content areas.
Scope of the Research
In order to create this review of Readers Theater, I searched for studies and journals that
related to Readers Theater, with particular focus on articles that included classroom vignettes
which highlighted Readers Theater in action. I utilized a range of journals which allowed me to
investigate how Readers Theater can be used within language arts settings or extended to other
content areas at a variety of grade levels, though my primary focus is the elementary classroom.
1
2
Groh
Using Readers Theater to Engage All Learners
Beyond journal articles, I also utilized research found in published books, dissertations, and
instructional materials that pertain to Readers Theater. While the majority of these sources were
written within the last ten years, I have also chosen some materials that are older because
Readers Theater is not a new strategy and I wanted to be able to investigate ways it was
traditionally implemented.
Act 1: Introducing Our Star – Readers Theater as an Instructional Strategy
Readers Theater is a relatively simple and effective way of encouraging students to dig
deeper into a text. The process of this strategy includes only a few steps: choosing a text,
assigning roles, practicing lines from a script, and performing for an audience (Barchers &
Pfeffinger, 2007). The basis of the script can be any type of text (e.g., a book, article, song,
speech (Worthy & Prater, 2002), poem, fiction, or nonfiction (Palumbo & Sanacore, 2009)),
though many recommend that the texts should have straightforward plots, rich and plentiful
dialogue, plenty of roles for students, and reflect the reading levels of students in the classroom
(Rinehart, 2001; Forsythe, 1995; Freeman, 2007; Barchers & Pfeffinger, 2007; Worthy & Prater,
2002). The end result is a performance of two or more people who read from a script that has
been rehearsed. Readers Theater varies from traditional theater because it does not require
memorization, props, costumes, or physical acting (Barchers, 2001; Clementi, 2010). Instead, the
performers spend time practicing by rereading the script and developing the expression with
which they will read when they take the “stage” with only stools, chairs, or music stands
accompanying them (Barchers & Pfeffinger, 2007). This expressive development is essential to
the performance because it allows performers to fully become the characters, to understand the
text more deeply, and to communicate the fullness of the story to the audience who must actively
listen and create the setting, characters, and scene in their minds (Rees, 2010; Freeman, 2007;
Nessel & Graham, 2007).
Groh
Using Readers Theater to Engage All Learners
This reliance on the interaction between the reader and the audience to co-construct a text
during a performance (Moran, 2006) is reminiscent of Rosenblatt’s transactional model of
reading which suggests that “without a reader, a text does not come into existence—does not
have meaning or invoke feelings or sensations, but is just squiggles on a page” (Karolides, 1977,
p. 7). In Readers Theater, performers bring life to the text and create an opportunity for the
audience to do the same through the way they utilize speed, emphasis, and expression during the
performance (Hoyt, 1992). Because so much of the meaning-making occurs in one’s mind,
Readers Theater has also been called “theatre of the mind” or “theatre of the imagination”
(Coger & White, 1973).
Although the students are mostly responsible for the performance of their script in a
classroom setting, the roles of the teacher are essential to ensure success. Initially, a teacher’s
responsibility is to model expressive reading of all texts (Braun & Braun, 2002), but for Readers
Theater, they must take great care to model this kind of reading for the text or script that will be
used in the performance (Hoyt, 1992). After reading, teachers must provide scaffolds for their
students such as teaching unfamiliar vocabulary (Barchers & Pfeffinger, 2007), leading a
discussion about character traits (Bauer, 1987; Coger & White, 1973), and mentoring the groups
as they practice (Rees, 2010). In this process, the teacher serves as a coach and helps them come
to more fluent reading and deeper comprehension (Keehn, 2003). Teachers can also assist
performers by offering instruction to help them give a strong performance as they focus in on
skills such as making appropriate eye-contact, projecting their voices, and eliminating distracting
behaviors (Latrobe, 1996). With the teacher and students working together, Readers Theater can
be an effective learning and teaching tool.
Act 2: Introducing the Supporting Cast – The Benefits of Readers Theater
While Readers Theater has been found to produce many benefits for readers, its ability to
3
4
Groh
Using Readers Theater to Engage All Learners
strengthen readers’ fluency is its most important benefit. In order to say that a reader’s fluency
can be improved, one must first understand what fluency entails. When discussing fluency, a
reader’s accuracy, rate, and prosody must all be considered (Deeney, 2010; Kuhn, 2009). If all
three of these characteristics are well-developed, reading will be smooth, effortless, and full of
expression, but if even one characteristic is missing, a reader may struggle with a text (Kuhn,
2009). So how does Readers Theater address each of these aspects of fluency?
Accuracy shows the reader’s word identification skills and encourages comprehension of
a text (Deeney, 2010). Repeated reading has often been cited as a way to improve fluency
(Worthy & Prater, 2002; Kuhn, 2009; Keehn, 2003), but it can also become boring for a student,
producing a decrease in motivation and effort. The benefit of Readers Theater is that it provides
performers with the opportunity to reread a text, but with an authentic and motivating purpose—
performing for an audience (Martinez et al., 1998/1999). With each additional “rehearsal” of a
text, performers are able to become more familiar with a text and, in doing so, are able to see
words that were once challenging to read become easy to read. These successes also help
students develop perseverance in reading because they see that taking their time with a text and
building their ability to perform a strong read actually does produce tangible benefits (Rinehart,
2001).
Rate of reading takes both automaticity and speed into account and results in an ease of
reading that allows the reader to focus on comprehending rather than decoding (Deeney, 2010).
As readers become more familiar with the text through the repeated readings of Readers Theater,
their reading becomes more automatic and, therefore, faster as seen in a 10-week study
performed by Martinez, Roser, & Strecker (1998/1999). While increased speed is valuable, the
true benefit of Readers Theater is that the end performance encourages performers to read at an
appropriate pace with high comprehension rather than as quickly as possible with lower
Groh
Using Readers Theater to Engage All Learners
comprehension (Worthy & Prater, 2002).
Prosody is also affected positively with the use of Readers Theater. As a reader practices
throughout the week, he or she gets the example of a fluent reader (the teacher) and is able to
work with others to use voice in order to express meaning. With each pass through the text, a
performer’s reading becomes smoother and more expressive, which is a necessity when the goal
of Readers Theater is to create a scene and a character for the audience with nothing more than
words (Coger & White, 1973). A study by Young & Rasinski (2009) confirms that implementing
Readers Theater produced greater prosody for students, even on texts that were at a higher level.
Because students often read expository texts with less expression and phrasing, this benefit of
Readers Theater becomes increasingly important as students move up in school and begin to
focus on expository texts (Rasinski & Padak, 2005). With new texts types and students who
come to believe that reading well means reading quickly, even strong readers can lose sight of
their own reading expression. Through instruction with Readers Theater, teachers can ensure that
all readers slow down and use their voice to create a scene full of expression (Worthy &
Broaddus, 2001/2002).
While it is clear that Readers Theater has a positive impact on fluency, it also produces
further benefits for the reader. Because fluency is “a bridge between decoding and
comprehension” (Kuhn, 2009, p. 4), it makes sense that improved fluency would lead to
improved comprehension. Researchers have found this to be true as students were seen going
deeper into stories, initiating discussion at deeper levels, showing evidence of understanding
what to expect from different genres of stories, and providing stronger retellings after
participating in Readers Theater (Martinez et al., 1998/1999; Young & Rasinski, 2009; Keehn,
2003). While these fluency and comprehension benefits are easily seen with the text that students
perform in Readers Theater, the fact that these benefits have also been shown to transfer to other
5
6
Groh
Using Readers Theater to Engage All Learners
texts that students read for pleasure or for instructional purposes makes Readers Theater an even
more valuable tool (Moran, 2006).
Another benefit of Readers Theater is its ability to improve student interest, motivation,
engagement, and confidence in reading (Corcoran, 2005; Rinehart, 2001; Garrett & O’Connor,
2010). Corcoran (2005) surveyed students after Readers Theater had been implemented and
found that they felt a great deal more comfortable reading aloud than they felt prior to
implementation, and they were particularly at ease during Readers Theater activities. This
confidence also allows children to “risk where they often would not be inclined to risk [and]
experiment with a medium that invites experimentation” (Braun & Braun, 2002, iv) to foster a
deeper literacy experience. Another classroom teacher saw students who experienced renewed
interest in reading, enthusiasm about reading, and spontaneous rereading of passages for pleasure
in her classroom that had been sparked by Readers Theater (Griffith & Rasinski, 2004). In many
classrooms, Readers Theater became an instructional practice that maintained student interest for
the long haul (Griffith & Rasinski, 2004; Keehn, 2003; Clementi, 2010). For all of these
students, the greatest motivating factor (outside of having fun) was knowing that they would be
performing for an audience (Clementi, 2010; Rees, 2010). All of these results stem from an
activity that is powerful and engaging in the way it allows students to escape reality and explore
new situations while using language purposefully (Lipscomb Smith, 1993). In this setting, even
reluctant readers and shy students are eager for the opportunity to be part of the Readers Theater
performance because they are provided with plenty of rehearsal and a group to perform with to
help them feel comfortable (Moran, 2006; Prescott, 2003). Eagerness to perform also translates
to eagerness to read as Readers Theater has also been shown to increase the amount of student
reading that happens by choice in and out of school (Worthy & Prater, 2002) and leads to
improved attitudes about reading in general (Corcoran & Davis, 2005).
Groh
Using Readers Theater to Engage All Learners
Beyond oral reading and public speaking benefits, Readers Theater also encourages
improvements with regard to listening skills and writing skills. As students learn how to be
active listeners in the audience, they also learn to listen for details to help construct the story in
their minds (Rees, 2010; Prescott, 2003). Even the performers learn listening skills as they must
listen to one another in order to produce a successful and smooth performance (Rees, 2010;
Prescott, 2003). Writing skills are easily fostered by inviting students to compose their own
scripts. Naturally, this process takes time for students and support from teachers, but they will go
through the entire writing process (Barchers, 2001) and ultimately come away with an
understanding of a new genre of writing (Coger & White, 1973) and increased ownership in the
Readers Theater experience (Forsythe, 1995). This wide range of benefits proves Readers
Theater is an asset to classroom instruction in many respects.
Act 3: The Audience – Learners Readers Theater Has Benefitted Most
Readers Theater may demonstrate many benefits, but its largest advantage may actually
be the scope of its success with students in producing the previously mentioned benefits. All of
the studies that I came across in my research have shown that implementing Readers Theater has
made a positive difference for students, regardless of their situation. When implemented with
“typical” students, high-achieving students, struggling students, ELL students, and students with
special education needs, the outcomes all demonstrated remarkable improvement. Beyond the
type of student, age does not seem to be a factor in effectiveness either. The articles I read found
performers at every age from emergent readers (Moran, 2006) to middle school students
(Palumbo & Sanacore, 2009) to adults (Huang & Dolejs, 2007) making gains in some aspect of
literacy thanks to their participation in Readers Theater. From an instructional standpoint,
Readers Theater is also useful because it can be done in small, heterogeneous groups or with the
entire class (Kuhn, 2009) because within one script, different parts can have different levels of
7
8
Groh
Using Readers Theater to Engage All Learners
difficulty. With such a mix of reading levels in one text, student choice can come into play and
allow them to select a performance based on interest rather than ability (Worthy & Broaddus,
2001/2002).
The reason that Readers Theater is so effective for struggling readers (Rinehart, 2001) is
that it naturally offers them a large variety of supports for their reading. As students work
together, struggling readers can continue to hear fluent reading from students who are better
readers and, if the passages are read chorally, students can receive instantaneous assistance with
pronunciation and expression (Kuhn, 2009; Lipscomb Smith, 1993). A struggling student’s
pacing can also be supported because the members of his or her group can work together to
establish a pace representative of normal speech that is gradually built up through rehearsal
(Hoyt, 1992). When these benefits are combined with 15-20 readings (Clementi, 2010) of the
same text, even struggling readers can succeed thanks to extended amounts of practice (Rinehart,
2001). This success is essential for struggling readers because they often do not get the
opportunity to read in front of others fluently without experiencing frustration or embarrassment
(Rinehart, 2001). Wolf (1993) noted that children who were considered to be “at-risk” were able
to instead become experts in the context of Readers Theater in her study. For once, these students
were seen for what they were capable of and were able to be viewed in a more positive light by
their classmates and teachers (Wolf, 1993) rather than simply being labeled as “struggling.”
Readers Theater is also an effective tool with struggling readers because it creates a safe space
where children can read aloud without fear of judgment or ridicule (Bauer, 1987).
English Language Learners (ELLs) are also able to reap great benefits from participation
in Readers Theater. Often ELLs begin schooling with weaker vocabulary (Palumbo & Sanacore,
2009) and they may have difficulty communicating with other students. For these students,
Readers Theater provides the opportunity to explore and experiment with language in a safe
Groh
Using Readers Theater to Engage All Learners
setting, while also integrating them with the rest of the class (Braun & Braun, 2002). In order to
further support these students, teachers can send home taped readings of the child’s script so that
they have a fluent example to practice with, which can then promote more accurate
pronunciation and greater fluency in a second language (Braun & Braun, 2002). Because
Readers Theater naturally includes scaffolds of listening, repeated reading, speaking, and writing
within an authentic setting, it can be an effective strategy for working with ELLs (Nessel &
Graham, 2007). With Readers Theater, ELLs are able to take risks, learn about English, and
succeed just as their peers do.
For students in inclusion classrooms or students with special education needs, Readers
Theater can be implemented just as effectively (Lipscomb Smith, 1993). Garrett & O’Connor
(2010) completed a study of four elementary special education classrooms that ranged between
kindergarten and fifth grade. Their findings show Readers Theater being used as an enrichment
strategy to strengthen print concepts and sight word knowledge, a whole group strategy that
provides daily practice for a Readers Theater performance, and a small group strategy where
multiple scripts are being prepared each week. Regardless of the way Readers Theater was used,
Garrett & O’Connor (2010) reported gains in letter recognition, text level, reading
comprehension, and fluency which they attribute to students having an active and sustained role
in reading practices.
Emergent readers are able to benefit from Readers Theater as well. Though their reading
skills are still developing, Readers Theater can provide the boost that they need to make great
reading gains in a short amount of time. One way this is facilitated is through experience with
modeled, fluent reading and access to engaging literature (Moran, 2006). Just as was true with
struggling readers, group activities among emergent readers allow them to work together to set a
reading pace that matches oral speech (Hoyt, 1992). Because emergent readers can be in
9
10
Groh
Using Readers Theater to Engage All Learners
different places with reading acquisition, students are able to interact with more advanced
readers while still having an equal opportunity for success as they work together (Moran, 2006).
When children are unable to read a script on their own, Readers Theater can still be made
accessible to them by providing opportunities for students to repeat phrases or read key lines
from written out sentence strips as the teacher does the majority of the narration until they gain
enough literacy skill to have a greater role in the final performance (Young & Vardell, 1993;
Moran, 2006). As far as reading materials are concerned, an emergent classroom may be the
perfect place to utilize familiar nursery rhymes or songs as students begin acquiring reading skill
(Moran, 2006) because they provide a built-in support for new readers. With these modifications,
emergent readers can blossom into fluent readers through their experiences with Readers
Theater. Because emergent readers are often young learners, Readers Theater is an effective
instructional tool that embraces the energy and imagination of young children by giving them the
opportunity to perform. As students who are just beginning in their education, participating in the
writing of a Readers Theater script can also help them gain beginning understandings of concepts
such as quotation marks and the written structure of a play (Larkin, 2001).
Act 4: Introducing the Playwright – Writing with Readers Theater
Though Readers Theater is first an instructional strategy for reading, it has also been used
to teach writing. This is particularly true as students make the transition from using pre-made
scripts to becoming script writers themselves. In order to help students to make this transition,
strong literature can serve as the both the model for strong writing and a scaffold to help support
students when they begin writing on their own. For example, as students study texts that are rich
in dialogue, they are able to learn about writing dialogue—an understanding which has been
shown to transfer to student writing in other contexts (Stewart, 1997).
Script writing for Readers Theater is an activity that allows students to explore the entire
Groh
Using Readers Theater to Engage All Learners
writing process (Barchers, 2001). Brainstorming occurs after reading a story and then
conversation and negotiation follow to help students make decisions about what to include or
how to make words from the original text become a successful script (Wolf, 1993). This process
allows students to use talk that demonstrates deep comprehension as they “[slip] back and forth
between scenes [and weigh] each episode for inclusion in their play” (Wolf, 1993, p. 542).
Beyond deeper comprehension, these friendly debates also help to foster a sense of how to
interpret texts and a notion of community and teamwork within the classroom (Wolf, 1993).
Though choosing which parts of the story to incorporate is important, another important
decision students must make is determining what each character should say and how much
narration to include (Forsythe, 1995). While students can change the order or words of the text,
the ultimate goal is to use the text as a guide and maintain the integrity of the story through the
script-writing process (Freeman, 2007). Once the material is chosen, writing can begin and can
be followed with editing and revising (Forsythe, 1995). Even the final step of publishing can
occur if teachers turn Readers Theater scripts into classroom books to be placed in a Readers
Theater center where students can revisit them (Forsythe, 1995).
The writing process becomes further enhanced when students are given the choice of
which texts to use (Egawa et al., 2006). As they choose texts that are interesting to them, higher
levels of engagement in the task are also produced (Garrett & O’Connor, 2010). In addition,
students are given the chance to “bring their prior knowledge and imagination to the script and
take ownership of the play” as they go through the process of writing their own scripts (Rees,
2010, p. 59). Even if teachers use the same texts each year, the changing groups of students will
have a chance to individualize their understandings of the information that they were presented
with (Hoyt, 1992).
Act 5: Extended Scenes – Adaptations and Extensions of Readers Theater
11
12
Groh
Using Readers Theater to Engage All Learners
While Readers Theater has proven itself to be an effective strategy in its original form,
many teachers have found interesting ways to change or extend it. These adaptations and
extensions produce additional benefits and natural ways to include Readers Theater throughout
the school day. Rather than limiting Readers Theater to language arts, teachers have become
proponents of using it in other contexts to make learning across the curriculum more meaningful.
Using Readers Theater within the content areas can be an authentic way to produce
deeper knowledge of concepts and events that may be learned in social studies, science, or math
(McKay, 1997). In fact, one variation of Readers Theater, called Curriculum-Based Readers
Theater, demands that all scripts come directly from content area curriculum and standards
(Flynn, 2004/2005). In a time where content area instruction often is set aside for literacy
instruction, Readers Theater can provide a way for teachers to start incorporating content
knowledge with literacy instruction (Garrett & O’Connor, 2010). Because Readers Theater
provides students with the opportunity to experience the same text repeatedly, they are also given
a chance to comprehend content area information more deeply. With each read, students are
given the chance to actively see ideas “in a more nuanced and sophisticated manner” (Palumbo
& Sanacore, 2009, p. 276). Another issue within the content areas is the amount of knowledge
that students are expected to learn. This problem can be solved through Readers Theater when
teachers divide a text among students and have each group work with part of the material before
sharing their learning with one another (Nessel & Graham, 2007; Brooks & Nahmias, 2009).
This breakdown of content allows a large amount of information to become more manageable
chunks of knowledge for students to handle. Having students develop scripts for Readers Theater
also helps to manage this issue by encouraging students to foster skills in summarizing and
determining importance (Brooks & Nahmias, 2009).
In the content areas, students must be comfortable with discipline-specific words in order
Groh
Using Readers Theater to Engage All Learners
make meaning from content area texts (Palumbo & Sanacore, 2009) and this is a key place
where Readers Theater can come into play. If teachers create scripts that include repetition of
this type of vocabulary and the definitions of unfamiliar words, students will be able to build
deeper vocabulary understandings (Clementi, 2010). These understandings can be further
supported as teachers pre-teach definitions and pronunciations of new words in language that is
easy for students to understand (Clementi, 2010). A suggested way of ensuring that disciplinespecific words are used is to introduce the project by creating a class word wall that students will
be responsible for understanding and incorporating into their scripts (Brooks & Nahmias, 2009).
As students work to put these words into the scripts that they create, they can be further pushed
to extend text by adding their own definitions and explanations of these new terms and concepts
(Kinniburgh & Shaw, 2007). Scripts can also come about by having students keep journals or
portfolios of their work throughout a unit that can serve as script-writing material. Just as found
poems are created from lines of text already written, students can create “found” Readers Theater
scripts by pulling lines from their journals that demonstrate their understandings of the content
that they have been learning (Emert, 2010).
In the social studies setting, Readers Theater can be used in lieu of reading from a
textbook or listening to a lecture. While these can both be beneficial activities, Readers Theater
engages learners in readings of a scripted retelling of history (McKay, 1997), allowing students
to become a person living at a different time in history and to be exposed to different holidays,
fables, folk stories, and cultures through Readers Theater (Barchers, 2001). This practice is also
able to help students “develop empathy for challenges others are facing” (McCall et. al, 2008, p.
138). If students are also involved in creating the scripts for social studies Readers Theater, they
will naturally have opportunities to internalize concepts as they transform text into drama
(McKay, 1997). McKay (1996) notes that as teachers used Readers Theater, they had to discuss
13
14
Groh
Using Readers Theater to Engage All Learners
complex issues, emotions, and perspectives in order to create a script that would most accurately
convey the original meaning of the text it was based on, and this is exactly what students would
have to do as well. Clarke and Whitney (2009) believe that this type of activity sets the scene for
critical literacy to become part of classroom practice because it encourages students to question
texts and consider multiple sides of any situation. Beyond using Readers Theater to learn about
history, the social context of Readers Theater helps to bring in social studies content (Lipscomb
Smith, 1993). As they interact with one another, students learn how to be a part of society,
develop communication skills, and work with others to produce a final product (Latrobe, 1996).
Readers Theater accomplishes similar outcomes when it is used in the science classroom.
In this context, Readers Theater can be especially helpful to students who are struggling to
understand all of the academic vocabulary and explanations they encounter in textbooks
(Kinniburgh & Shaw, 2007). Because students must complete repeated readings in order to
rehearse, they are given multiple opportunities to comprehend the meaning of a scientific term.
This is further enhanced as students write the scripts that will be performed because they are able
to “uncover the meanings of the science vocabulary and elaborate on confusing or puzzling
concepts” (Kinniburgh & Shaw, 2007, p. 16). In addition, Readers Theater provides students
with the opportunity to construct larger (and lasting) understandings about a variety of concepts.
For example, taking on the role of an animal being studied allows students to experience the
world through that animal’s eyes to produce true knowledge for the student (Stewart, 2010).
Another example of using Readers Theater to build understandings is performing “ecomysteries”
as Reader Theater scripts to help students learn about and solve ecological issues in an engaging
way (El-Hindi, 2003). Readers Theater is also an important teaching tool in the science
classroom because it gives students the chance to practice the scientific skill of reasoning as they
decide elements of text that should be included during script-writing and opportunities to
Groh
Using Readers Theater to Engage All Learners
practice having conversations focused around science vocabulary and concepts (El-Hindi, 2003).
Readers Theater allows students to be engaged in active learning across the content areas
(Brooks & Nahmias, 2009; Young & Vardell, 1993) while also helping them develop a love of
learning as information is brought to life (Kinniburgh & Shaw, 2007).
All of these benefits are true for mathematics instruction as well, with nothing more
needed than nonfiction texts to get performers started (Young & Vardell, 1993). Flynn
(2004/2005) provides an example of using Readers Theater in a math classroom to demonstrate
student understanding about the features and types of triangles, showing that there is no concept
too small to turn into a performance. Utilizing Readers Theater in mathematics instruction helps
students to have deep understanding of concepts that may otherwise be difficult to comprehend.
While some teachers have provided ideas for using Readers Theater in the content areas,
others have written to share adaptations that they have used to make it even more beneficial for
students. Many of these adaptations have been done in a language arts setting, but that certainly
does not mean they could not be integrated with content area learning. The first adaptation is the
incorporation of storyboarding. Doherty & Coggeshall (2005) worked together in a seventh
grade inclusion classroom and decided to use storyboarding to help readers keep track of
complex plots that would have to be incorporated into a Readers Theater script. This activity
allowed students to practice summarizing a text and creating visual cues to help them remember
the most significant events (Doherty & Coggeshall, 2005). Because the students had this extra
support, they were able to implement Readers Theater with longer and harder texts, creating a
deeper literacy experience. Though this was first practiced in middle schools, storyboarding can
also be effective for students who are younger as a pre-writing and comprehension tool to be
used with simpler texts. When this strategy is combined with Readers Theater, students are able
to learn about character, plot, setting, and text structure in meaningful ways (Prescott, 2003).
15
16
Groh
Using Readers Theater to Engage All Learners
Emert (2010) presents an argument for using Readers Theater to help students understand
poetry, while also suggesting that Readers Theater could bring some imagination back into the
classroom by helping students focus in on the emotional aspects of poetry. Because poetry can
often seem like a puzzle to students, they often aren’t willing to really go below the surface level
in order to reach the deep and nuanced meanings that poetry can hold (Emert, 2010). Through
Readers Theater, Emert’s students were given the opportunity to spend time with a poem and
deeply respond to the language used and the themes present in the text. In this respect, students
were encouraged to “talk to, talk with, and talk about poetry” (Emert, 2010, p. 69) to create
greater comprehension of a poem as well as greater understanding of poetry as a genre. As part
of the process of preparing a script to perform, students were also asked to participate in
activities that would encourage this discussion around poetry, urging them to go deeper than
simply performing a poem without any analysis of it done beforehand.
Another simple adaptation of Readers Theater is the addition of technology in the form of
podcasting. This adaptation requires performers to pay extra attention to their volume,
expression, and timing in order to create an audio file that can be posted and shared by others.
The researchers in this study were careful to choose a technology tool that would fit with the
auditory nature of Readers Theater, and podcasting was the perfect fit because it is solely based
on sound (Vasinda & McLeod, 2011). As with traditional Readers Theater, students work with a
script all week and engage in repeated readings of the text to prepare for the final performance.
The way that podcasting changes the experience is that students were responsible for recording
their performance which was saved to the computer and then shared on a website instead of
performed live in front of an audience. This style of performing allowed students to engage in
self-assessment as they watched sound waves on the display of the recording program and
listened to their finished products, but its strongest benefit was that it allowed student
Groh
Using Readers Theater to Engage All Learners
performances to be permanent and shared with a larger audience, including their parents, to
create an even more authentic task (Vasinda & McLeod, 2011). While this multi-modal
adaptation of Readers Theater may be especially helpful for auditory learners (Putman &
Kingsley, 2009), it helps all children engage with new literacies in a way that is inexpensive and
easy to implement in the classroom (Putman & Kingsley, 2009).
Technology is also incorporated through an adaptation of Readers Theater called
“Writing a Movie” (Hoffner, 2003). In this strategy, students watch a brief film clip and then
work together to create a text that describes the scene they viewed. When the script has been
created, students rehearse and ultimately perform the script by reading it as narration while the
scene plays again (Hoffner, 2003). One benefit of this approach is that students must pay
attention to their pacing because their retelling must align with the speed of action on the screen.
As with Readers Theater, students have plenty of time to work on revising and rehearsing for
their final performance. Another benefit of this particular adaptation is that students are able to
work on selecting the perfect words to describe the scene that is set before them. Though they are
not creating a scene from scratch, they have visual cues that can add specificity to the language
and vocabulary they choose to incorporate (Hoffner, 2003).
Zambo (2011) highlights Readers Theater as a vehicle for shaping the attitudes and
voices of students, providing yet another classroom adaptation to consider implementing. This
strategy is presented as especially useful for young girls who are constantly bombarded by media
and society’s ideas of what being a girl should mean and who internalize these ideals to the
extent that they judge themselves and others based upon them (Zambo, 2011). In this approach to
Readers Theater, the teacher’s goal is to choose texts that will help bolster self-esteem as young
women are introduced to leading ladies who have a strong voice. This idea of voice is one that
goes beyond the sounds we are capable of producing and moves in the direction of considering
17
18
Groh
Using Readers Theater to Engage All Learners
the psychological and cultural ways in which a person has a voice (Zambo, 2011). Rather than
hiding who they truly are, Zambo (2011) believes that reading texts can help girls strengthen
their voice and challenge stereotypes. While this strategy seems to highlight young girls, the idea
of using strong characters to pass on positive character traits could certainly be applied to young
boys as well, but it requires a teacher who is tuned in to what students need and who believes
that literature has the power to transform (Zambo, 2011). Another way that Readers Theater has
been used to help children develop their voice is specifically related to those who are going
through difficult situations in their personal lives. As students read scripts that discuss common
concerns such as divorce or death, they can find a safe space to talk about personal issues with
others (Young & Vardell, 1993).
Each of these adaptations finds a way to make the Readers Theater experience even more
meaningful. As a result of changes in implementation, students are able to be stretched in new
ways and have the opportunity to take their learning deeper. Rather than piling on more elements
for students to complete as part of the Readers Theater process, students are given meaningful
tasks that maintain the integrity of a successful strategy without losing the interest or motivation
that Readers Theater produces. In order to continue to create deeper learning experiences for
students, teachers should consider ways of adapting Readers Theater for their own purposes, but
that cannot be the stopping point. With each new implementation, teachers should consider what
benefits it offers to students and must evaluate whether they can produce even greater learning
for their students. We can be sure that the world of literacy will continue to change, and as it
does, it will become particularly important for teachers to find more ways of incorporating
additional new literacies, just as was done with the inclusion of podcasting. As these modalities
are brought into the classroom to a greater degree, students will be prepared to utilize the new
literacies that are available to them and see them as effective learning tools.
Groh
Using Readers Theater to Engage All Learners
Act 6: The Critics – Assessing Readers Theater and Using it as an Assessment Tool
If Readers Theater is to be implemented in classrooms as an instructional tool, teachers
must also consider how it can be assessed. While informal assessments could be made as
teachers observe group work during the preparation and performance phases, Readers Theater
also lends itself to more concrete types of assessment. The most natural assessment tool to use
with Readers Theater is a rubric. This tool is particularly useful because it can help students
understand teacher expectations while also giving the teacher a guide for assessment that works
for all portions of the Readers Theater process. When students write their own scripts, all rubrics
would probably have an area that focuses on mechanics and organization, but the rubric could
also include the incorporation of key story ideas or demonstration of content area understandings
and the level of teamwork present (Brooks & Nahmias, 2009; Kinniburgh & Shaw, 2007). In
addition, teachers could use a rubric to assess the content of the scripts in terms of “inclusion,
accuracy, and sequencing of content and vocabulary” (Bullion-Mears et al., 2007, p. 46).
Rubrics could also be used to assess the Readers Theater performances. In these
assessments, teachers would look for “delivery, poise, and expressiveness” (Bullion-Mears et al.,
2007, p. 46), as well as the level of fluency students demonstrated during the performance
(Kinniburgh & Shaw, 2007). Because fluency is such a complex aspect of reading to measure,
teachers could also make use of fluency rubrics and assessments that they use in other portions of
reading instruction to serve as a guide (Rasinski & Padak, 2005).
Rather than only assessing student scripts and performances, Readers Theater itself can
become a tool to help teachers assess learning in other ways. Within the content areas, teachers
can use student scripts and performances to have students demonstrate their understandings of
content area concepts (Young & Rasinski, 2009). In this practice, students can be provided with
all the information they are responsible for learning on a certain topic and then teachers can see
19
20
Groh
Using Readers Theater to Engage All Learners
how much they have mastered (or missed) during an engaging and informative Readers Theater
performance (Flynn, 2004/2005). If performances are recorded, they can also become a tool for
student self-assessment. This practice helps students to reflect on what they did well and to
recognize areas where they could still improve as they listen for and evaluate their own
expressiveness and fluency (Corcoran & Davis, 2009; Vasinda & McLeod, 2011).
Where Do We Go From Here?
In light of all the research that has been done revolving around Readers Theater, it is
clear that it is a strategy that offers great benefits when it is implemented correctly. Students who
participate in Readers Theater experiences show greater fluency, comprehension, motivation,
interest, and confidence, so it would be foolish for us to keep such an effective strategy out of
our classrooms. However, as the world of education and the world around us changes, teachers
must be prepared to take this old strategy and make it new. Accomplishing this will most likely
require teachers to incorporate greater amounts of technology and multi-modal learning into the
Readers Theater experience. In addition, we must find ways to continue pushing the boundaries
of which parts of the school day can be enhanced through the use of Readers Theater. No matter
what happens in the future with Readers Theater, we must keep in mind that it will only remain
an effective strategy if it is implemented in ways that produce the same (or greater) benefits for
students. Combining this focus with new ideas and new literacies will undoubtedly take Readers
Theater and classroom instruction to new, unimaginable levels, making it an even more effective
instructional strategy for all students in all subjects.
Groh
Using Readers Theater to Engage All Learners
References
Barchers, S. I. (1993). Readers theatre for beginning readers. (pp. 1-4). Westport, CT: Teacher
Ideas Press.
Barchers, S. I. (2001). Enhancing reading with readers’ theatre. Knowledge Quest, 30(1). 11-12.
Barchers, S. I., & Pfeffinger, C. R. (2007). Getting ready to read with readers theatre. (pp. ixxiii). Westport, CT: Teacher Ideas Press.
Bauer, C. F. (1987). Presenting reader’s theater: Plays and poems to read aloud. (pp. 1-9). H.
W. Wilson Company.
Braun, W., & Braun, C. (2002). Readers theatre for young children. (pp. i-vii). Winnipeg, MB:
Portage & Main Press.
Brooks, S., & Nahmias, C. K. (2009). Search for the golden moon bear: Using reader’s theater to
teach science. Science Scope, 33(3). 29-33.
Bullion-Mears, A., McCauley, J. K., & McWhorter, J. Y. (2007).Erupting with great force:
Performing text o enhance reading comprehension. Science Scope, 31(1). 42-47.
Clarke, L. W., & Whitney, E. (2009). Walking in their shoes: Using multiple-perspectives texts
as a bridge to critical literacy. The Reading Teacher, 62(6). 530-534.
Clementi, L. B. (2010). Readers theater: A motivating method to improve reading fluency. Phi
Delta Kappan, 91(5). 85-88.
Coger, L. I., & White, M. R. (1973). Readers theatre handbook: A dramatic approach to
literature. Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman and Company.
Corcoran, C. A., & Davis, A. D. (2005). A study of the effects of readers’ theater on second and
third grade special education students’ fluency growth. Reading Improvement, 42(2).
105-111.
21
22
Groh
Using Readers Theater to Engage All Learners
Deeney, T. A. (2010). One-minute fluency measures: Mixed messages in assessment and
instruction. The Reading Teacher, 63(6). 440-450.
Doherty, J., & Coggeshall, K. (2005). Reader’s theater and storyboarding: Strategies that include
and improve. Voices from the Middle, 12(4). 37-43.
El-Hindi, A. E. (2003). Integrating literacy and science in the classroom: From ecomysteries to
readers theatre. The Reading Teacher, 56(6). 536-538.
Emert, T. (2010). Talking to, talking about, talking with: Language arts students in conversation
with poetic texts. English Journal, 99(5). 67-73.
Flynn, R. M. (2004/2005). Curriculum-based readers theatre: Setting the stage for reading and
retention. The Reading Teacher, 58(4). 360-365.
Forsythe, S. J. (1995). It worked! Readers theatre in second grade. The Reading Teacher, 49(3).
264-265.
Freeman, J. (2007). Once upon a time: Using storytelling, creative drama, and reader’s theater
with children in grades prek-6. (pp. 189-258). Westport, CT: Libraries Unlimited.
Garrett, T. D., & O’Connor, D. (2010). Readers’ theater: “Hold on, let’s read it again.” Teaching
Exceptional Children, 43(1). 6-13.
Griffith, L. W., & Rasinski, T. V. (2004). A focus on fluency: How one teacher incorporated
fluency with her reading curriculum. The Reading Teacher, 58(2). 126-137.
Hoffner, H. (2003). Writing a movie. The Reading Teacher, 57(1). 78-81.
Hoyt, L. (1992). Many ways of knowing: Using drama, oral interactions, and the visual arts to
enhance reading comprehension. The Reading Teacher, 45(8), 580-584.
Huang, G., & Dolejs, B. (2007). Reading theatre, parents as actors: Movie production in a family
literacy workshop. Reading Improvement, 44(2). 87-98.
Karolides, N. J. (1977). Reading process: Transactional theory in action. In N. J. Karolides (Ed.),
Groh
Using Readers Theater to Engage All Learners
Reader response in elementary classrooms: Quest and discovery (pp. 3-28). Mahwah,
NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Keehn, S. (2003). The effect of instruction and practice through readers theatre on young
readers’ oral reading fluency. Reading Research and Instruction, 42(4). 40-61.
Kinniburgh, L., & Shaw, E. (2007). Building reading fluency in elementary science readers’
theatre. Science Activities, 44(1). 16-22.
Kuhn, M. R. (2009). The hows and whys of fluency instruction. Boston, MA: Pearson.
Larkin, B. R. (2001). “Can we act it out?.” The Reading Teacher, 54(5). 478-481.
Latrobe, K. (1996). Encouraging reading and writing through readers theatre. Emergency
Librarian, 23(3). 16-20.
Lipscomb Smith, M. R. (1993). Effects of scripting readers’ theater, participatory basal
activities, and customary pull-out instruction by chapter i students on comprehension,
vocabulary, participation, and attitude. (Doctoral dissertation).
Martinez, M., Roser, N. L., & Strecker, S. (1998/1999). “I never thought I could be a star”: A
readers theatre ticket to fluency. The Reading Teacher, 52(4). 326-334.
McCall, A. L., Janssen, B., & Riederer, K. (2008). More time for powerful social studies: When
university social studies methods faculty and classroom teachers collaborate. The Social
Studies, 99(3). 135-141.
McKay, R. (1997). Essential ways of knowing: Drama and the visual arts in social studies.
Canadian Social Studies, 31(3). 116.
Moran, K. (2006). Nurturing emergent readers through readers theater. Early Childhood
Education Journal, 33(5). 317-323.
Nessel, E., & Graham, J. M. (2007). Thinking strategies for student achievement: Improving
learning across the curriculum, k-12. (2nd ed., pp. 159-163). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin
23
24
Groh
Using Readers Theater to Engage All Learners
Press.
Palumbo, A., & Sanacore, J. (2009). Helping struggling middle school literacy learners achieve
success. Middle School Literacy Learners, 82(6). 275-280.
Prescott, J. O. (2003). The power of reader’s theater. Instructor, 112(5). 22-26, 82.
Putman, S. M., & Kingsley, T. (2009). The atoms family: Using podcasts to enhance the
development of science vocabulary. The Reading Teacher, 63(2). 100-108.
Rasinski, T., & Padak, N. D. (2005). Fluency beyond the primary grades: Helping adolescent
struggling readers. Voices from the Middle, 13(1). 34-41.
Rees, R. M. (2010). Using readers’ theater to engage young readers. In B. Moss & D. Lapp
(Eds.), Teaching new literacies in grades k-3: Resources for 21st century classrooms (pp.
57-70). New York, NY: The Guilford Press.
Rinehart, S. D. (2001). Establishing guidelines for using readers theater with less-skilled readers.
Reading Horizons, 42(2). 65-75.
Steineke, N. (2002). Talking about poetry: Teaching students how to lead the discussion. Voices
from the Middle, 10(2). 8-14.
Stewart, M. (2010). Bringing science to life with readers theater. Knowledge Quest, 39(2). 80-82.
Vasinda, S., & McLeod, J. (2011). Extending readers theatre: A powerful and purposeful match
with podcasting. The Reading Teacher, 64(7). 486-497.
Wolf, S. A. (1993). What’s in a name? Labels and literacy in readers theatre. The Reading
Teacher, 46(7). 540-545.
Worthy, J., & Broaddus, K. (2001/2002). Fluency beyond the primary grades: From group
performance to silent, independent reading. The Reading Teacher, 55(4). 334-343.
Worthy, J., & Prater, K. (2002). “I thought about it all night”: Readers theatre for reading fluency
and motivation. The Reading Teacher, 56(3). 294-297.
Groh
Using Readers Theater to Engage All Learners
Young, C., & Rasinski, T. (2009). Implementing readers theatre as an approach to classroom
fluency instruction. The Reading Teacher, 63(1). 4-13.
Young, T. A., & Vardell, S. (1993). Weaving readers theatre and nonfiction into the curriculum.
The Reading Teacher, 46(5). 396-406.
Zambo, D. (2011). Young girls discovering their voice with literacy and readers theater. Young
Children, 66(2). 28-35.
25