Running Head: CHILDREN’S LITERATURE IN THE PRIMARY SCIENCE CURRICULUM Children’s Literature in the Primary Science Curriculum: A Valuable Tool for Promoting Scientific Literacy Stefanie Rapp Vanderbilt University CHILDREN’S LITERATURE IN THE PRIMARY SCIENCE CURRICULUM “The aim of science is to discover and illuminate the truth. And that, I take it, is the aim of literature, whether biography or history or fiction. It seems to me, then, that there can be no separate literature of science.” Rachel Carson, 1952 2 CHILDREN’S LITERATURE IN THE PRIMARY SCIENCE CURRICULUM Table of Contents: Abstract ___________________________________________________________ 4 Scientific Literacy in Today’s World _________________________________________ 5 Traditional Science Education _________________________________________ 6 Children’s Literature within an Inquiry-Based Curriculum _______________________ 7 Developmentally Appropriate Practice ___________________________________ 9 Children’s Literature in an Integrated Curriculum _____________________________ 12 Children’s Literature and Motivation _________________________________________ 13 Children’s Literature and Engagement ___________________________________ 14 Children’s Literature as an Authentic Model of Science _______________________ 15 Children’s Literature vs. Textbooks _________________________________________ 16 Evaluating and Gathering Quality Children’s Literature _______________________ 19 Children’s Literature in an Inquiry-Based Learning Environment Curricular Strategies for Using Children’s Literature _________________ 20 _______________________ 23 Children’s Literature and Assessment of Student Learning _______________________ 25 Conclusion ___________________________________________________________ 26 Appendix A: Mayer’s (1995) Checklist for Book Evaluation _________________ 28 Appendix B: Literacy Standards that Connect to Teaching Science _________________ 29 References ___________________________________________________________ 30 3 CHILDREN’S LITERATURE IN THE PRIMARY SCIENCE CURRICULUM 4 Abstract This essay will explore the professional literature that provides the rationale for using children’s literature in an inquiry-based, primary science curriculum (preschool to grade three). My belief, based on the findings of educational researchers in the fields of human development, science education, and literacy education, is that teachers can use children’s literature to develop the scientific literacy of young learners. Children’s literature does so by encouraging motivation, promoting engagement, and serving as an authentic model of the act of science. The essay will describe why the traditional textbook approach to science education has been unable to produce satisfactory student achievement in science. Then, the essay will make the case for using children’s literature and will describe the supportive learning environment and curricular and assessment strategies that are needed to fulfill the possibilities that children’s literature provides. My hope is that this essay will highlight the advantages of children’s literature that help children begin the path towards becoming scientifically literate adults. CHILDREN’S LITERATURE IN THE PRIMARY SCIENCE CURRICULUM 5 Scientific Literacy in Today’s World The human attempt to solve enduring mysteries has been around for as long as the human species itself. Whether trying to start a fire, simplify work, or navigate uncharted terrain, humankind has always had a motivation to discover the ways of the world. Life in the twentyfirst century has made the desire and ability to understand a requirement. In our time, as we become ever more reliant on science and technology to resolve economic, health, and sustainability issues, the preparation of a scientifically literate population proves to be a necessity (Fang, Lamme, & Pringle, 2010). A scientifically literate individual, according to Fang, Lamme, and Pringle (2010), is one who has “the ability to use one’s knowledge and understanding of science concepts and processes to solve realistic problems and issues for personal and societal benefits” (p. 1). Scientific literacy can help a person realize potential, as he or she makes informed decisions while interacting with different people in thoughtful, considerate manners (American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1990). The scientific literacy of our entire population has significant impact on the pursuit and achievement of national and global interests, as well (American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1990). A scientifically literate citizenry can generate solutions to the enduring issues we face today. Science education in the primary years of schooling counts a great deal in our efforts to create a scientifically literate society if a person is to understand not just factual knowledge, but also the cognitive and physical processes required for a scientific understanding of the world. Science curriculum must reflect and represent science. Currently it does not, as established by a CHILDREN’S LITERATURE IN THE PRIMARY SCIENCE CURRICULUM 6 number of educational research studies and assessments of student achievement (American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1990). For instance, the 2005 National Assessment of Educational Progress conveyed that only 3% of American fourth-graders, 3% of eighthgraders, and 2% of twelfth-graders performed at Advanced level; 29%, 29%, 18%, respectively, performed at Proficiency level; and 32%, 41%, and 46%, respectively, performed below Basic level (Fang, Lamme, & Pringle, 2010). These results are even worse when measured against science achievement in other countries. According to the International Mathematics and Science Study, American students fare worse than their global peers not only in content knowledge, but also in cognitive abilities to use knowledge successfully in multiple contexts (Fang, Lamme, & Pringle, 2010). Student attitudes towards science begin to deteriorate in the later elementary grades; the unfavorable sentiments towards science accelerate once students leave middle school (Osborne, Simon, & Collins, 2003). These statistics provide a sense of urgency as schools evaluate the effectiveness of their science curriculum. Traditional Science Education American children’s mediocre performance in science achievement can be attributed to an approach to science education that does not reflect and represent science. Traditional elementary science emphasizes memorization of facts and vocabulary, and scarcely promotes the application of knowledge to their everyday lives (Butzow, & Butzow, 2000). Though students learn how to match terms and definitions, children’s natural curiosity and motivation to figure out how the information applies to real life is left unfulfilled (Martin, Sexton, & Franklin, 2009). The passive nature of learning in traditional science engenders classes of students that have yet to really ever experience science: a process of asking questions, making observations, gathering CHILDREN’S LITERATURE IN THE PRIMARY SCIENCE CURRICULUM 7 data, interpreting results, communicating outcomes and discussing them with others (McKee, & Ogle, 2005). Children in traditional science classrooms rarely have the authentic scientific experiences necessary for developing into a scientifically literate society. Children that are never taught how knowledge is relevant or useful in life, have only a disconnected collection of facts and an untapped inquisitiveness of the world. According to McKee and Ogle (2005), children are less able to remember information and transfer their learning when genuine context is not provided. Even worse, learning facts without learning processes provides no motivation to remember or apply them (Bosma, & DeVries Guth, 1995). Butzow and Butzow (2000) relate learning science by memorization of facts to learning to read by using decoding skills without context. Without real experiences with science, where knowledge and skill combine, children are left unable use their learning as a scientifically literate adult. Children’s Literature within an Inquiry-Based Curriculum “We cannot expect a child to learn passively by observing experiments performed by the teacher, any more than we can expect that child to learn to play a musical instrument by watching someone play it.” (Butzow, & Butzow, 2000, p. 5) The pedagogical strategy needed to develop the science literacy of young learners is to provide authenticity and context through the use of children’s literature in an inquiry-based science curriculum. The activities involved in scientific inquiry do not have to be the reserved enterprises of the stereotyped old scientist with a lab coat, wiry hair, and glasses. They are already the sorts of activities that children engage in naturally. Inquiry-based science can be a young learner’s first model of science in action. Modeled after how scientific understanding is CHILDREN’S LITERATURE IN THE PRIMARY SCIENCE CURRICULUM 8 used in our everyday lives, inquiry-based science instruction encourages young learners to take an active role in their learning by participating in hands-on investigations that demonstrate the scientific process and allow the construction of knowledge. The National Research Council describes scientific inquiry as (Fang, Lamme, & Pringle, 2010): a multifaceted activity that involves observation; posing questions; examining books and other sources of information to see what is already known; planning investigations; reviewing what is already known in light of experimental evidence; using tools to gather, analyze and interpret data; proposing answers, explanations and predictions; and communicating the results. (p. 2) Alderman and Green (2011) concluded that student motivation and achievement surge when teachers provide a great number of meaningful science learning activities. Children’s literature is “good-quality trade books for children from birth to adolescence, covering topics of relevance and interest to children of those ages, through prose and poetry, fiction, and nonfiction” (Lynch-Brown, & Tomlinson, 2008, p. 4). Engaging in the reading of a wide variety literature relevant to the act of science is a powerful tool in deepening conceptual understanding within an inquiry-based curriculum (Fang, Lamme, & Pringle, 2010). Fang, Lamme, and Pringle (2010) describe a curriculum abundant in children’s literature as “richer, more coherent, and more authentic” (p. 36). Scientific literacy, for one and for all, cannot be achieved by a science curriculum that superficially touches on snippets of information about an inexhaustible number of topics. After all, education is intended to engender “meaningful knowledge, not surface knowledge,” (Bosma, Devries Guth, 1995, p. 3). Fortunately, the use of children’s literature in teaching science can provide unabated depth of detail. It also provides a CHILDREN’S LITERATURE IN THE PRIMARY SCIENCE CURRICULUM 9 real context through which to view science as it happens in the world, an increased sense of interest, motivation, and engagement, and access of information to students with a range of backgrounds, learning preferences, and abilities (Goerss, 1998; Fang, Lamme, & Pringle, 2010). Developmentally Appropriate Practice What we know about how children learn and develop influences what we consider developmentally appropriate tools and methods for the early elementary curriculum. A developmentally appropriate practice is one that is “attuned to the way children develop and learn” (Bredekamp, & Copple, 1997, p. 5). The inclusion of children’s literature in the study of science for young learners is grounded in developmentally appropriate practice. The philosophies of educational theorists Piaget, Vygotsky, Gardener, and Dewey bolster the practice of using literature to construct science understanding (Bosma, & DeVries Guth, 1995; Butzow, & Butzow, 2000). A developmentally appropriate, child-centered education considers the development of the learner and provides fitting learning experiences (Butzow, & Butzow, 2000). Academic, physical, and social needs are different for every child. As primary teachers plan learning goals and activities, it is necessary to consider the characteristics of pre-operational learners, or children younger than eight years old (Butzow, & Butzow, 2000). Pre-operational learners, as described by Jean Piaget in 1970, are egocentric, meaning they observe the world solely through their own eyes and experiences, and need to witness events first-hand in order to grasp abstract information (Butzow, & Butzow, 2000). Children in this stage rationalize in an orderless way, and have difficulty seeing transformation (Butzow, & Butzow, 2000). When children learn science through literature, including concepts from the water cycle and growing vegetables, to CHILDREN’S LITERATURE IN THE PRIMARY SCIENCE CURRICULUM 10 the phases of the moon and different types of rocks, information becomes apprehensible and is “conceptually compatible with the child’s developmental stage” (Butzow, & Butzow, 2000, p. 4). Howard Gardener’s research on intelligence tells us that children have different strengths, abilities, and preferences for learning (Bosma, & DeVries Guth, 1995). Because the goal of an inquiry-based education is to build conceptual knowledge, teachers must begin education “in terms of children’s existing knowledge and abilities” (Butzow, &Butzow, 2000, p. 5). It is futile to hope children understand material that they are not developmentally or conceptually capable of understanding. Constructivist theory of learning is the idea that “humans construct or build meaning into their ideas and experiences as a result of an effort to understand or to make sense of them” (Martin, Sexton, & Franklin, 2009, p. 47). This theory of human learning can be related to building a house; with no foundation, there can be no walls, roof, or chimney. When teachers use the available quantity of children’s literature in teaching science they can meet the needs of each individual learner, regardless of whether a foundation, walls, or a roof is needed. The use of children’s literature in the science curriculum is developmentally appropriate for this reason; it is accessible to a variety of different learners. When child brain development is considered, children’s literature is a developmentally appropriate practice because it also becomes a necessary bridge between old and new information. Bosma and DeVries Guth (1995) recognize that “curriculum planning should embrace the potential of the brain in searching for common patterns and relationships” (p. 3). With every new event, the brain must receive information and try to connect it to what is already known. Using children’s literature, scientific concepts can be presented in a manner that allows children to make connections between what is learned and where it fits into what they already know about the world (Bosma, & DeVries Guth, 1995). CHILDREN’S LITERATURE IN THE PRIMARY SCIENCE CURRICULUM 11 Interaction with peers and adults is a critical component of human learning. Reading and discussing literature in the early grades is an ideal time for such interaction. Even as children in an inquiry-based curriculum construct meaning for themselves, research supports frequent and varied interaction with peers (Bosma, DeVries Guth, 1995). Educators in an early elementary setting consider the “social nature of human learning,” an idea advanced by the research of Lev Vygotsky (Bosma, & DeVries Guth, p. 2). Vygotsky also suggested supporting cognition through interaction with more skilled readers (Cummins, & Stallmeyer-Gerard, 2011). Educational researcher John Dewey called for a curriculum that integrates meaningful knowledge and authentic experiences (Bosma, & DeVries Guth, 1995). The use of children’s literature in the content areas is one way that teachers integrate the seemingly disparate disciplines into an authentic, comprehensive whole. Bosma and DeVries Guth describe integrated learning as “the incorporating of language development and content, with emphasis on the interrelatedness of subject and skill areas, concepts and topics, within personal and shared contexts” (p. 1). They also characterized literature as the “authentic voice that unites the curricular objectives” (p. 2). Students must realize how what is learned in school relates to real life, if they are to apply that information to other contexts (Bosma, & DeVries Guth, 1995). Children’s books are authentic models of how it all gets tied together. When teachers recognize this, their curriculum reflects the philosophy that all disciplines are connected in real life and are not randomly segmented into different times of the day (Bosma, & DeVries Guth, 1995; Butzow, & Butzow, 2000). CHILDREN’S LITERATURE IN THE PRIMARY SCIENCE CURRICULUM 12 Children’s Literature in an Integrated Curriculum Science and literacy are two academic disciplines that are especially practical for curricular integration (Bosma, & Brower, 1995). Acquisition of scientific literacy and language literacy requires development of parallel cognitive skills. Martin, Sexton, and Franklin (2009) write, “Science process skills are remarkably similar to those skills used in reading comprehension” (p. 21). McKee and Ogle (2005) affirm the notion that scientific literacy and language literacy involve “setting purposes, questioning, predicting, analyzing evidence and drawing conclusions, and communicating results” (p. 3). Prior to choosing a book, young readers must decide the purpose for reading, whether they want to be entertained or informed. Likewise, young scientists must determine purpose before planning the processes and materials for use in investigations. After reading a book, children engage in discussions with others about notable characters, conflicts, and resolutions. A distinctive feature of science inquiry is the discussion of puzzlement and hypotheses and communication of experiment results. Reading authentic children’s literature within an inquiry-based science curriculum fosters these critical thinking skills and prepares young learners for scientific literacy (Bosma, & Brower, 1995). Curricular integration of science and language literacy profits both teacher and student (Bosma, & Brower, 1995). In the same way a scientifically literate person uses knowledge and skills to think about and solve problems, a language literate person is one who has “the ability to use reading and writing, speaking and listening sufficiently well to engage in thinking and to communicate ideas clearly” (McKee, & Ogle, 2005, p. 2). For these reasons, reading literature in a science curriculum is a good fit for young learners on account of the many analogous characteristics of science literacy and language literacy (McKee, & Ogle, 2005). CHILDREN’S LITERATURE IN THE PRIMARY SCIENCE CURRICULUM 13 Literacy development through reading within an elementary science curriculum has proven to raise student achievement in both subject areas (McKee, & Ogle, 2005; National Council of Teachers of English, 2011). A study by Guthrie, Schafer, and Huang (McKee, & Ogle, 2005) determined that literature integration into the elementary science curriculum results in “increased reading comprehension, stronger conceptual development and problem-solving skills in science, and heightened motivation to read in general” (p. 5). A policy research brief by the National Council of Teachers of English (2011) contends that reading in content areas is “essential to learning” and is needed for “mastering concepts” (p. 16). Although teachers used to the traditional science approach share concerns about extra time needed for integration of literature (Scharer, 1995). However, the nature of integration itself means that it is not an addition to an overburdened school day, but rather a reorganization of structure and content (Bosma, & DeVries Guth, 1995). Children’s Literature and Motivation Within an inquiry-based science curriculum, children’s literature can become part of a cycle of motivation for learning. When children read a plurality of literary texts, they expand their background knowledge and become more motivated to learn and read (Bosma, & DeVries Guth, 1995). The collection of children’s literature available is so large that young learners receiving an inquiry-based science education can learn as much about the world as they desire. McKee and Ogle (2005) declare that children become motivated to seek and read additional books when teachers incorporate authentic literature into disciplines like science. Integration of literature not only motivates scientific understanding, but also motivates a child to comprehend. When a child has the desire to learn information that matters to her, she CHILDREN’S LITERATURE IN THE PRIMARY SCIENCE CURRICULUM 14 will be more impelled to utilize the reading strategies at her disposal when she encounters difficult text (McKee, & Ogle, 2005). This is a strong argument for making a variety of highquality science literature available, including informational texts, which are particularly interesting to young children (McKee, & Ogle, 2005). Surely any person would prefer to read about a topic that is personally interesting. Children’s literature ensures that every child can find a text that is personally and academically motivating. Children’s Literature and Engagement Engagement in education, according to Guthrie (2004), means that children are “energized” while activating “cognitive strategies” and “conceptual knowledge” (p. 4). Children’s literature engages young learners because there are books about subject matter that is exciting to diverse tastes (Goerss, 1998). When read-aloud at the beginning of a science unit or experiment, literature can spark interest in and conversation about what is going to be learned through upcoming inquiry (Cummins, & Stallmeyer-Gerard, 2011). Young learners are more likely to remain engaged in literature about science topics, more so than textbooks, because the material is often written in more aesthetic, interesting formats (Goerss, 1998). Authentic literature also includes the more “personal voice of an author instead of the impersonal voice of a textbook (Bosma, & DeVries Guth, 1995, p. 1). Bosma and Brower (1995) contend that the comedy and buoyancy of children’s literature can sustain the attention of even the seemingly uninterested students. Guthrie (2004) found that students who actively engage in reading tend to be more academically successful. Typically, these students “spend 500% more time reading than disengaged students,” and so teachers “should attempt to increase engaged reading time by 200% CHILDREN’S LITERATURE IN THE PRIMARY SCIENCE CURRICULUM 15 - 500%” (Guthrie, 2004, p. 1). Access to a large amount of quality literature within science classrooms is a sure way to increase student engagement. Not only will children be driven to learn to read, but they will also be driven to read to learn, an important development in one’s scientific literacy. Children’s literature also has the ability to promote further action. Reading authentic literature that shows the scientific process encourages students to engage in further scientific inquiry (Fang, Lamme, & Pringle, 2010; Bosma, & DeVries Guth, 1995). Often times, children’s literature can provide information that could never be acquired through classroombased inquiry, “such as an exploration of faraway rainforests” (Fang, Lamme, & Pringle, 2010, p. 35). After reading a book about forest degradation, for example, children will often ask about what they can do to help. Children’s literature can promote further engagement and can be used to confront the issues we face today (Zappy, 2011). Children’s Literature as an Authentic Model of Science In order to grow into scientifically literate adults, children must be aware of how science is a part of everyday life and should feel capable of engaging in science when the opportunities arise. Children’s book author, Erica Zappy (2011), summarized the sentiment felt by so many when she wrote, “Along the way, science had never been presented to me as something current… I was never given the impression that science, short of seeing pictures of men wearing goggles and messing around with beakers… was something I could make a career of – and would I even want to?” (p. 33). Education that fails to model the real act of science or convince children that they can play a part in it is one that will never produce a scientifically literate society. CHILDREN’S LITERATURE IN THE PRIMARY SCIENCE CURRICULUM 16 Children’s literature has enormous potential in bringing authenticity to a primary grade science curriculum, as it joins “the impersonal subject matter and the personal connections to be made by the student” (Bosma, & DeVries Guth, 1995, p. 7). Education serves no purpose if the student does not realize how it applies to real life. High-quality literature that shows characters experiencing some sort of scientific phenomenon demonstrates to children that “science is a part of the lives of ordinary people” (Butzow, & Butzow, 2000, p. 4). The characters in children’s literature are not confined to experiencing science within a classroom or a laboratory, but in real settings and situations that are familiar to young learners (Bosma, & DeVries Guth, 1995; McKee, & Ogle, 2005). After reading about science in real life, children will be able to imagine and realize when science touches their own lives. When chosen thoughtfully, teachers can use trade books to model the practice of science as it really happens; “scientists formulate questions and seek answers to these questions through both hands-on and minds-on explorations” (Fang, Lamme, & Pringle, 2010, p. 35). In real life, scientific inquiry is certainly not a neat process that can be executed with a specified number of steps. An important recognition in becoming a scientifically literate adult is that science can be quite an unpredictable exploit. Attempts to solve scientific mysteries are “not always clean, exact, certain, definitive, unequivocal, and uncontested” (Fang, Lamme, & Pringle, 2010, 35). Reading authentic literature about scientific experiences helps young learners understand that the uncertain nature of science, where questions lead to answers and more questions, is the very characteristic that is helpful to us in advancing the human condition. CHILDREN’S LITERATURE IN THE PRIMARY SCIENCE CURRICULUM 17 Children’s Literature vs. Textbooks As the primary source for teaching science (Goerss, 1998), textbooks go over an extensive range of topics with shallow depth (McKee, & Ogle, 2005). Because textbooks include so many different scientific topics, there is usually little room for detailed explanation of concepts, devoting only a page or two to any given topic. This characteristic of textbooks can present a challenge for learners, considering that classrooms contain students of varying reading abilities (McKee, & Ogle, 2005). Although knowledge of facts and content is needed for scientific literacy, the ability to understand how they connect to each other and the greater world is even more of a necessity (Butzow, &Butzow, 2000). Authentic literature, on the other hand, is more advantageous to students in many regards. Informational trade books can explain a specific topic in great detail, providing “background information, illustrations, quantitative and qualitative data, explanations, and concrete examples,” (Fang, Lamme, & Pringle, 2010, p. 35). Fictional children’s literature also supports understanding because, as Butzow and Butzow (2000) write, “children may find it easier to follow ideas that are part of a story line” (p. 4). They also add that “a story puts facts and concepts into a form that encourages children to build a hypothesis, predict events, gather data, and test the validity of the events” (p. 4). The information in a trade book is also more current and more specific, which is more likely to “engage students, promote inquiry learning, and foster critical thinking” (Fang, Lamme, & Pringle, 2010, p. 36). In addition to providing depth of detail, children’s literature promotes scientific understanding more so than do textbooks because it is more accessible to students. While science textbooks are comprehended by students who read on grade level, children’s literature is CHILDREN’S LITERATURE IN THE PRIMARY SCIENCE CURRICULUM 18 accessible to all students because they “are better able to accommodate the needs of students with varying reading abilities” (Fang, Lamme, & Pringle, 2010, p. 36). In other words, a child will be unable to glean the written information if she is unable to read the text on the page. A teacher can provide many trade books about the solar system, for example, some that are suitable for beginning readers and some that are suitable for more skilled readers. Taking into account that a portion of the students in any classroom may not read at grade level, teachers need to make “available texts with varying degrees of difficulty” (National Council of Teachers of English, 2011, p. 17). Even the most skilled readers use illustrations to support their comprehension. The illustrations found in picture books for children can help young readers access meaning from what otherwise can be quite difficult scientific information to understand (Goerss, 1998). When teachers introduce students to a variety of authentic reading materials, like “essays, primary sources, fiction, scientific reports, [and] inventories” (National Council of Teachers of English, 2011, p. 17), they equip students with the ability to gain information about science from materials found in their everyday lives (Fang, Lamme, & Pringle, 2010). Students and their families can develop scientific knowledge with access to an ever-growing variety of trade books in libraries, stores, and elsewhere. Although the ideal integrated curriculum would utilize only authentic children’s literature for science and reading needs, textbooks still have a ubiquitous presence in today’s schools. It is possible still to provide literature in concert with proscribed textbooks. Butzow and Butzow (2000) recommend using picture books and trade books to demonstrate the concepts of textbooks in more meaningful and authentic contexts. The teacher who decides to use children’s literature CHILDREN’S LITERATURE IN THE PRIMARY SCIENCE CURRICULUM 19 in the science curriculum can obtain the books from the local or school library, or can purchase them with personal funds, growing his or her own library of authentic children’s literature. Evaluating and Gathering Quality Children’s Literature The books that students read in the science curriculum have substantial influence on the students themselves. Fang, Lamme, and Pringle (2010) express their belief that children’s literature – or any text, for that matter – can affect what children “learn, their attitudes toward learning, and how they write and think” (p. 36). The power of books to affect student learning should cause educators to consider carefully the quality of the books they use to teach science concepts. It is important to evaluate the merit of children’s literature used in a science curriculum in terms of content and writing (Fang, Lamme, & Pringle, 2010). Butzow and Butzow (2000) suggest exercising judgment about texts based on their quality of “content, accuracy and authenticity, theme, setting, characterization, plot, style, [and] illustrations” (p. 7-8). Mayer (1995) offers a cautionary word of advice about selecting children’s literature that does not further science understanding, but rather continues and reinforces student misconceptions. After interviewing sixteen children about the information they gleaned from a fictional children’s book about whales, Mayer (1995) determined that the book was ineffective in promoting science understanding about whales. Misconceptions included the ideas that “whales can jump from ponds to oceans, whales eat shrimp and fish, whales have either white or yellow bottoms, whales can have names, [and] blue whales do not let people pet them” (Mayer, 1995, p. 17-18). Teachers must carefully examine the literature they include in their science programs so that they do not cause students to build faulty understandings of the world. To this end, Mayer CHILDREN’S LITERATURE IN THE PRIMARY SCIENCE CURRICULUM 20 (1995) developed a checklist useful in gauging the scientific accuracy of children’s literature (See Appendix A). Knowing the grounds for using children’s literature in teaching and learning science, teachers must make the effort to discover and gather the books (Bosma, & DeVries Guth, 1995). In addition to resources like the school and local library, professional organizations provide suggestions about the books they have determined to be high-quality literature. Award committees, consisting of a variety of educational professionals and disciplinary experts give “annual awards and honors that recognize outstanding science trade books” (Fang, Lamme, & Pringle, 2010, p. 36). One quite useful resource is the National Science Teacher Association Outstanding Science Trade Books for Students K-12 (National Science Teacher Association, 2011). This is particularly helpful to teachers incorporating children’s literature in the science curriculum because the books are arranged in accordance with the National Science Content Standards, including “unifying concepts and processes, science as inquiry, physical science perspectives, life science, earth and space science, science and technology, science in personal and social perspectives, and the history and nature of science (Fang, Lamme, & Pringle, 2010, p. 37). Children’s Literature in an Inquiry-Based Learning Environment The full potential of children’s literature to promote science understanding can be realized only in an interactive learning environment that fosters construction of knowledge, rather than in an environment that emphasizes passive acquisition of facts. In order to develop learners who desire to ask questions and learn through their own actions, teachers must thoughtfully consider the climate and physical arrangement of their classrooms (Bosma, & CHILDREN’S LITERATURE IN THE PRIMARY SCIENCE CURRICULUM 21 DeVries Guth, 1995). McKee and Ogle (2005) assert that a combination of investigation-based science and flexibly consistent routines creates a classroom that is conducive to integrated learning. While policy-makers and other outside groups might have influence over a number of educational matters, only the teacher can create an environment that is appropriate and nurturing to young learners. Teachers, more than anyone, are responsible for determining the structure of the learning environment, and their personal view of the way children learn can be seen through the set up of their classrooms (McKee, & Ogle, 2005). Educational theorist Jean Piaget recognized the importance of the environment in regards to human learning and development and called for classrooms to be supportive (Bosma, & DeVries Guth, 1995). Teachers can create a supportive learning environment by involving students in the active construction of knowledge and responding to student differences in ability, learning styles, and interests (McKee, & Ogle, 2005). The implication for teachers of knowing human learning and development is to create a context in which the combination of investigation and children’s literature regularly enhance children’s natural motivation to learn. The overall environment and routines of a classroom accommodate the physical and cognitive needs of learners, and foster curiosity and active learning (McKee, & Ogle, 2005; Bosma, & DeVries Guth, 1995). Because of the tendency by many schools to emphasize math and reading, the teacher and student will benefit from the design of a regular, workable schedule of study in place from the beginning of the school year (McKee, & Ogle, 2005). Routine inquiry-based experiences that promote scientific knowledge can and should be a consistent part of a supportive learning environment. CHILDREN’S LITERATURE IN THE PRIMARY SCIENCE CURRICULUM 22 In creating the learning environment, teachers should consider what materials would need to be accessible to students so that they may play an active role in their own learning. To this end, students need access to supplies – scientific and literary – that will support them in the process of becoming a scientifically literate adult. A substantial collection of reading materials, which are written for a range of reading levels and discuss a wide variety of scientific content, is the keystone of such an environment (McKee, & Ogle, 2005). Up-to-date science periodicals for children and science trade books of different genres should be displayed in an organized, appealing, and accessible manner (McKee, & Ogle, 2005). Bookshelves, magazine racks, and leveled containers organized by content help to highlight interesting texts that reflect the act of science (McKee, & Ogle, 2005). The books and artifacts displayed not only come from the teacher, but can also be supplied by the students themselves, including student work samples and favorite items from outside of school (McKee, & Ogle, 2005). A collection of interesting books to which the students contribute helps to nurture “a sense of belonging and ownership” (McKee, & Ogle, 2005, p. 14). Bookshelves can be arranged to be part of science and reading centers that allow children opportunities to “read, to experiment, to discover, and to think” (McKee, & Ogle, 2005, p. 14). Learning centers are tables or bookshelves in specified areas of the classroom in which independent students use a variety of hands-on materials to merge and apply what they have learned in authentic, meaningful ways (McKee, & Ogle, 2005). McKee and Ogle (2005) suggest maintaining regularly rotating centers that “pique curiosity, with elements inviting the students to look, touch, and explore” (p. 16). The inquiry-based, literary rich classroom is not one in which the students sit motionless in traditional straight rows of desks. Part of creating an interactive learning environment is CHILDREN’S LITERATURE IN THE PRIMARY SCIENCE CURRICULUM 23 allowing students to engage in a cooperative manner with peers and adults. Physical arrangement of different areas of the room can support this goal. A cooperative classroom, according to Bosma and DeVries Guth (1995) will have a variety of working areas that include spaces for individual, group, and whole-class interaction. Within an early elementary classroom, the whole-group area can be designated by a rug (McKee, & Ogle, 2005), a space in which all students and the teacher join to listen to read-alouds, engage in spontaneous discussions, learn from direct instruction, and present student projects (Bosma, & DeVries Guth, 1995). The cooperative, interactive nature of the learning environment reflects scientific inquiry because it encourages students to ask questions, use tools and processes to investigate answers, and communicate with others. Curricular Strategies for Using Children’s Literature Teachers can employ a variety of strategies to promote scientific understanding through the use of authentic children’s literature. These teaching practices correspond fittingly with the language arts standards described by the International Reading Association and the National Council of Teachers of English, and demonstrate the connections that can be made between science and language education for young learners (McKee, & Ogle, 2005) (See Appendix B). Children’s literature is a valuable teaching tool that supports the brain’s effort to make real connections between newly learned knowledge and prior experiences (Bosma, & DeVries Guth, 1995). When a child reads stories about characters experiencing science in their everyday lives, he or she can begin to see how the science content is relevant. Shipley (1978) writes that, to accomplish these meaningful connections, children must have opportunities to “listen to stories and study the illustrations,” “ relate [their] own versions of them,” and “ask questions and ponder about meanings” (p. 49). Teachers can provide these opportunities in a variety of ways. CHILDREN’S LITERATURE IN THE PRIMARY SCIENCE CURRICULUM 24 When teachers plan for specific techniques to use, McKee and Ogle (2005) suggest to first determine the science learning goals, then think about what literacy processes are involved and necessary to accomplish them. In some cases, a trade book could play a brief role in the learning process or could play a part throughout the entire length of a project or unit (Goerss, 1998). A read-aloud of a piece of children’s literature can be a powerful tool used to ignite interest in a new concept during the beginning of a unit, for example (Goerss, 1998). If children have never experienced in interesting scientific phenomenon that is experienced by characters in a book, they will likely develop relevant questions that they will want to explore for themselves. Fang, Lamme, and Pringle (2010) write that trade books can be used to help children ponder questions that initiate a science investigation and can also become the resources for collecting information and verifying information once the inquiry has begun. Fang, Lamme, and Pringle (2010) offer numerous methods for promoting science learning. A “unit study using informational books” is one example (p. 41). During such a unit, students read many books to find information about a topic of their own choosing, or could make contributions to a whole-class exploration of a single topic. Other examples by Fang, Lamme, and Pringle (2010) include using biographies to explore the lives of scientists, genre explorations of science-related poetry, and role-playing of scientific ideas. McKee and Ogle (2005) suggest using “guided reading groups, literature circles, and writers’ workshop” to include children in their own active learning of science (p. 11). Teachers use these literature-based experiences to help students develop the complex reading skills needed for comprehending informational texts (Fang, Lamme, & Pringle, 2010). Not only does children’s literature help develop interest in and enthusiasm for learning during a unit of study, but it encourages young learners to continue exploring and learning on CHILDREN’S LITERATURE IN THE PRIMARY SCIENCE CURRICULUM 25 their own, beyond what they have learned in class. The transfer of exploration in school to individual exploration in other contexts is especially possible when children access authentic science-related literature available at home, or at libraries and bookstores (McKee, & Ogle, 2005). Authentic literature can then be a reliable tool that children use to continue expanding knowledge on their own. Children’s Literature and Assessment of Student Learning The use of children’s literature in the science curriculum provides opportunities for formative assessment, or “an approach to examining young children that holds assessment is an ongoing process” (Mindes, 1996, p. 144). Teachers can use frequent literature-based interactions, like discussion and writing, to evaluate students’ progress on the road to scientific literacy and also to guide future instruction. The answers to open-ended questions, asked before, during, and after reading, demonstrate student understanding or misunderstanding (McKee, & Ogle, 2005). Information on student learning can also come from teacher observations of students (Cummins, & Stallmeyer-Gerard, 2011). This sort of assessment informs teachers not only about whether students grasp content and process knowledge, but also provides information about student attitudes toward science (Martin, Sexton, & Franklin, 2009). McKee and Ogle (2005) contend that writing is useful “in assessing students’ science learning and thought processes,” because “writing is a way of slowing thinking and making it visible” (p. 4). Whether writing an informational piece on how simple machines make work easier or a story about the life of a raindrop, students will reveal the extent and accuracy of their understanding. Both means of formative assessment, oral and written, provide teachers with the ability to evaluate student progress and determine appropriate future instruction. CHILDREN’S LITERATURE IN THE PRIMARY SCIENCE CURRICULUM 26 Conclusion and Recommendations As has been demonstrated through this essay, the use of children’s literature is a valuable tool for developing the scientific literacy of young learners. Not only does this practice stimulate engagement and motivation, but it also provides access to content information about uncountable science concepts and demonstrates the act of science through authentic representation of science in the real world. The soundness of this practice is assured by research on human learning and development. Using children’s literature in the primary science curriculum nurtures the development of young children with a variety of needs and abilities because it promotes concrete, active learning through interaction with peers and teachers in meaningful learning contexts. Still, there are additional issues that need to be explored in order to provide these kinds of learning opportunities for every child. First, how can the use of children’s literature become accepted by a greater number of school administrations and policy-makers? We know that this practice has proven to raise student achievement in science, so why are so many of the nation’s schools continuing the traditional textbook approach that clearly fails to produce satisfactory results? Second, how could a school that embraces this approach acquire a sufficient collection of high quality children’s literature with scientific themes? Although libraries and bookstores are available to supply the needs of many schools, what about schools in areas without convenient access? It will be important for schools to support this approach without placing all of the financial and time burden on teachers. Third, how could professional development prepare teachers to use trade books that do not come with step-by-step instructions and end-of-chapter assessments typically found in CHILDREN’S LITERATURE IN THE PRIMARY SCIENCE CURRICULUM 27 textbooks? Most likely, teachers will need support with finding the books that are relevant to each science concept and with developing assessment strategies useful in this kind of integrated curriculum. Professional development both within and outside of school districts could provide resources and training to address these concerns. The purpose of this essay is to provide the rationale for using children’s literature as a bridge between a child’s natural curiosity about the world to a citizen’s ability to pursue and use scientific knowledge. Because science will only become more important in serving the needs of society, science education must develop understanding of and appreciation for science beginning in the very first years of school. Reading children’s literature within the early elementary science curriculum is a powerful and appropriate strategy in accomplishing this goal. CHILDREN’S LITERATURE IN THE PRIMARY SCIENCE CURRICULUM Appendix A Checklist for Evaluating Children’s Literature (Mayer, 1995, p. 18-19) “Is the science concept recognizable?” “Is the story factual?” “Is fact discernable from fiction?” “How many misrepresentations does the book contain?” “Are the illustrations accurate?” “Are characters portrayed with gender equality?” “Are the animals / objects portrayed naturally?” “Is the passage of time referenced adequately?” “Does the story promote a positive attitude toward science and technology?” 28 CHILDREN’S LITERATURE IN THE PRIMARY SCIENCE CURRICULUM 29 Appendix B International Reading Association and National Council for Teachers of English Literacy Standards that Connect to Teaching Science (McKee, & Ogle, 2005, p. 29) 1. “Students read a wide range of print and nonprint texts to build an understanding of texts, of themselves, and of the cultures of the United States and the world; to acquire new information; to respond to the needs and demands of society and the workplace; and for personal fulfillment. Among these texts are fiction and nonfiction.” 2. “Students conduct research on issues and interests by generating ideas and questions, and by posing problems. They gather, evaluate, and synthesize data from a variety of sources (e.g., print and nonprint texts, artifacts, people) to communicate their discoveries in ways that suit their purpose and audience.” 3. “Students use a variety of technological and information resources (e.g., libraries, databases, computer networks, video) to gather and synthesize information and to create and communicate knowledge.” 4. “Students use spoken, written, and visual language to accomplish their own purposes (e.g., for learning, enjoyment, persuasion, and the exchange of information.” CHILDREN’S LITERATURE IN THE PRIMARY SCIENCE CURRICULUM 30 References Adlerman, G.L., & Green, S.K. (2011). Fostering lifelong spellers through meaningful experiences. The Reading Teacher, 64(8), 599-605. American Association for the Advancement of Science. (1990). 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