Running head: SERVICE-LEARNING IN MIDDLE SCHOOL SOCIAL STUDIES
The Potential of Service-Learning as an Effective Instructional Strategy in
Middle School Social Studies Classrooms
Hui Liu
Vanderbilt University
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SERVICE-LEARNING IN MIDDLE SCHOOL SOCIAL STUDIES
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Abstract
This paper examines the current research and theories concerning service-learning and its
potential as an effective instructional strategy in middle school social studies classrooms.
Traditional social studies classrooms rely mostly on textbooks and class lectures. Students learn
knowledge by rote memorization, without seeing their learning connected to real-world settings.
However, in recent years researchers and teachers have paid increasing attention to studentdirected investigation methods and see their potential as instructional strategies in K-12
classrooms. One of these methods is service-learning, which combines authentic community
services with integrated academic outcomes. Although service-learning has been used for
teaching various subjects to students of all ages, the goal of social studies and the unique
characteristics of middle school students make it particularly suitable for middle school social
studies learners. This paper begins with the use of service-learning in a broader context. Then the
potential of using service-learning to teach social studies in middle school is addressed through
four specific elements: learning context, learner, curriculum and instructional strategy, and
assessment. Next, the concerns and limitations of service-learning are presented. Last, this paper
concludes with the recommendation of using service-learning as an effective instructional
strategy in middle school social studies classrooms.
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Service-Learning as an Instructional Strategy
Although John Dewey planted the seeds of service-learning in the early 20th century, it
was not until the 1980s that people began to notice the idea of service as an important part of the
school curriculum (Thomsen, 2006). Since then, there has been increased popularity of servicelearning programs for students of all ages. However, among those schools claiming to offer
service-learning, “the actual experiences of students range from intensive community
experiences with close integration into academic study to brief ‘add on’ service activities largely
unconnected to classroom discourse” (Eyler, 2002, p.518). Because service-learning has been
defined in numerous ways in the literature, in order to avoid the ambiguity, this paper uses the
definition proposed in the National and Community Service Act of 1990. It defines servicelearning as a learning method that students develop knowledge and skills through organized
service activity that

“is conducted in and meets the needs of a community;

is coordinated with an elementary school, secondary school, institution of higher
education, or community service program, and with the community;

helps foster civic responsibility;

is integrated into and enhances the academic curriculum of the students, or the
educational components of the community service program in which participants are
enrolled;

provides structured time for the students or participants to reflect on the service
experience” (NCSA, 1990).
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Among the key elements in this definition, it is curriculum integration and reflection that really
sets service-learning apart from community service (Wade, 2000).
The IPARD Framework
Service-learning belongs to student-directed investigation. Unlike traditional teachercentered classrooms that rely heavily on teacher’s lectures, student-directed investigation
involves the real world problems and allows for student ownership, so that students are active
learners while teachers are facilitators (Larson & Keiper, 2011). Although the forms of servicelearning projects vary in different contexts, these projects are conducted with a similar procedure.
The National Youth Leadership Council (2013) summarizes this procedure using the IPARD
framework that contains (I) Investigation, (P) Planning & Preparation, (A) Action, (R)Reflection,
and (D) Demonstration.
According to the IPARD framework (NYLC, 2013), pre-service stage includes
Investigation and Planning & Preparation. Through research and inquiry, a genuine community
needs and its root causes are identified by students under the facilitation of community partners
and teachers. Based on the initial research, a meaningful service project is identified and planned.
For example, through research and inquiry, students in a high school in Oregon tackled an
important community problem – family violence as part of their civic education curriculum
(Wade & Yarbrough, 2007). The service stage requires students’ Action, when students
implement the plan through direct, indirect, or advocacy-based services. In the example above,
students learned about laws regarding family violence and its negative impact through research
and interviews. The post-service stage is equally, if not more, important, which includes
Reflection and Demonstration. Throughout the process, students reflected on their learning both
by themselves and with classmates. As the result of their research and reflection, a video and
SERVICE-LEARNING IN MIDDLE SCHOOL SOCIAL STUDIES
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posters were created to publicize the knowledge of violence prevention. They also developed a
forum to discuss the issue with community officials, survivors of domestic violence, and other
stakeholders.
Values of Service-learning
Many research efforts have been taken to find out the evidence of service-learning
projects’ positive effects on students. Mixed findings exist due to the variation in the definitions
of service-learning, local implementations, and research designs (Richards et al, 2013). However,
after analyzing the K-12 service-learning literature, Furco and Root (2010) point out that studies
that have been able to produce “possible evidence” and “strong evidence” defined by the U.S
Department of Education show a consistent set of outcomes for students in the following areas:
improved academic achievement; improved student engagement at school; enhanced civic
responsibility and citizenship; and enhanced personal and social skills. More research needs to be
done to strengthen the evidence, especially those ensuring that the intervention under study
qualifies as high-quality service-learning (Furco & Root, 2010).
Service-learning in Middle School Social Studies Classrooms
In spite of the increasing popularity and positive evidence of service-learning, a majority
of the programs target college students, and service learning are found in less than 30% of K-12
schools in the United States (Spring, Grimm, & Dietz, 2008). Also, the current emphasis on
academic standards and accountability pushes schools to pay most of their attention to high-stake
subjects such as reading and math, while less time and efforts are devoted to the innovative
instruction of subjects like social studies. As a result, research efforts specifically concerning
middle school social studies classrooms have become rarer, and less complete.
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However, well-designed service-learning programs can not only help to achieve the goal
of middle school social studies, but also lay foundations for students’ college and career
readiness. On one hand, service-learning projects can provide adolescents first-hand experiences
and knowledge about human endeavors and human relations so as to foster their informed and
ethical participation in society— the goal of middle school social studies program (NCSS, 1991).
On the other hand, through service-learning, students develop skills like problem solving and
communication that are critical for them to get into college or pursue their career. For example,
according to Common Core English Language Arts Standards, students who are college and
career ready in reading, writing, speaking, and listening & language can do the following:

respond to the varying demands of audience, task, purpose, and discipline;

value evidence;

come to understand other perspectives and cultures;

comprehend as well as critique;

use technology and digital media strategically and capably (CCSS, 2014).
Due to the lack of research specifically addressing the service-learning practices in middle
school social studies classrooms, this paper will discuss the potential of using service learning
effectively in this specific context through examining the current research and practices in a
broader context. Many of these practices are applicable to middle school social studies
classrooms. Four areas will be explored: 1) learning context, 2) learner, 3) curriculum and
instructional strategies, and 4) assessment.
Choosing a Learning Context
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Traditional middle school social studies classrooms are based almost exclusively on
textbooks and lectures where students are required to “read, write answers to end-of-chapter
questions, and periodically take tests covering the textbook material and class lectures” (Wade,
2000, p5). This practice goes against the goal of promoting civic competence in social studies
classrooms. However, effective service-learning projects treat service and learning inseparably.
Students learn in rich contexts when they do real work with real people, rather than simulations
or case studies (Eyler, Root & Giles, 1998). It has the potential to be used as an important
vehicle to promote students’ civic competence, building in them both problem-solving skills and
a sense of civic responsibility. There are several aspects to consider for choosing a proper realworld learning context.
Service first or learning first. Community services can happen in numerous contexts,
such as tutoring younger students, building houses for homeless people, and so on. However,
these contexts are not meaningful service-learning contexts unless they are closely linked with
academic goals and address authentic community problems (Thomsen, 2006). Even under a
meaningful service-learning context, there is a heated debate regarding the role of service and
learning in these projects. Sigmon (1996) has summarized the differentiations as follows:

Service-LEARNING focuses primarily on learning goals and secondarily on service;

SERVICE-learning focuses on service primarily and learning secondarily;

Service learning treats service and learning goals separately;

SERVICE-LEARNING focuses equally on service and learning, each enhancing the
other.
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According to Thomsen (2006), the goals of those service-focused projects are students’ personal
development— such as character building— while those learning-focused projects aim at
developing students’ critical thinking and problem solving skills, creating opportunities for
students to put their subject knowledge into practice. Since middle school social studies
programs carry the double responsibility of character-building and learning, teachers can choose
various service-learning projects depending on the desired focus of course units.
Building partnerships within community. According to the National Youth Leadership
Council (2008), effective service-learning projects involve a variety of community partners,
where students and partners collaboratively develop and implement action plans to address
community needs. Sometimes the community partnerships determine the sites of service-learning
projects. For example, “Salven El Desierto” (Save the Desert) is a middle school service learning
project in Arizona. Partnered with Arizona Sonoran Desert Museum, students worked alongside
with adult volunteers to provide information on the desert to the visitors of the museum (Schukar,
1997). In this case, Arizona Sonoran Desert Museum is both the community partner and the
students’ service site. Therefore, choosing proper community partners according to the learning
goals is very important for service-learning teachers, especially for middle school social studies
teachers who have relatively fewer resources and support at school. Bailis (2000) points out that
the service-learning projects bringing most benefits should be derived in a partnership that is
long-term, well-designed, and mutually beneficial. Collaborative communication and interaction
between stakeholders should happen frequently and community resources should be used
properly.
Developing personal contact with recipients. Some service-learning projects require
direct service. For example, middle school learners studying immigration issues can volunteer at
SERVICE-LEARNING IN MIDDLE SCHOOL SOCIAL STUDIES
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the local library, tutoring recent immigrants to pass their U.S. Citizenship tests (Wade, 2000).
Some other service-learning projects involve indirect services, such as producing a product in
class for community members. Although both types of services can achieve positive effects,
research suggests that students’ attitudes experience more positive change when they have direct
personal contact with the beneficiaries of their efforts (Moore & Sandholtz, 1999). Although
face-to-face contact is not the norm of service-learning projects due to the limit of resources, if
possible, teachers should include the contact between students and those receiving service.
Situating the Learners
Service-learning projects have the strong potential to be effective in middle schools from
the perspective of the cognitive and social development of early adolescents. On one hand,
middle school students (around 11 years old) are transitioning into the formal operational period
when they begin to be able to think abstractly and act in a culturally competent way (Newman &
Newman, 2007). On the other hand, the period of early adolescence is characterized by its focus
on group and social identity (Newman & Newman, 2007). However, through collaboration with
peers, teachers, and community partners in service-learning projects, students can form good
relationships with others so as to foster their social and group identity. In order to effectively
address the needs of early adolescents in service-learning projects, teachers should pay extra
attention to two elements concerning learners: youth voice and diversity of learners.
Valuing youth voice. Research indicates that youth have stronger academic and civic
engagement when their voice is heard in all phases of their service-learning projects (Billing,
Root & Jesse, 2005). Accordingly, National Youth Leadership Council (2008) points out that
service-learning projects should engage youth in generating ideas and decision-making
throughout service-learning processes, creating an environment that supports trust and open
SERVICE-LEARNING IN MIDDLE SCHOOL SOCIAL STUDIES
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expression of youth voice. At the same time, teachers act as facilitators by posing guiding
questions, providing intermediate structures, and monitoring to keep youth on track (Larson, et
al., 2005). This is particularly important for early adolescents as middle school years are the right
time for students to develop skills like historical inquiry and perspective taking.
Many instructional ideas are available for encouraging youth voice in service-learning
projects. For example, activities like brainstorming, picture prompts, written prompts, role
playing, and pair/share are useful for students to generate ideas; activities like agenda-setting,
action planning, and meeting facilitation can involve students in the decision-making process;
and activities like collectively establishing ground rules and regular reflection can help to create
an environment where students are free to express their opinions (NYLC, 2008). Also, many
service-learning projects have achieved success by giving full play to youths’ abilities. For
example, a school in Georgia developed an interdisciplinary service-learning unit on the Trail of
Tears, the forced removal of the Cherokee Indians from Georgia (Terry and Panter, 2011). In the
inquiry stage, students’ previous understanding was tapped through note cards, when they came
to face some of their own prejudices. Instead of imparting the knowledge in the textbook to
students directly, the teacher asked students thought-provoking questions like how to define
“survival”. Different perspectives were discussed and valued. In the planning & preparation
stage, activities such as group research and debate were used to develop students’ critical
thinking skills. In fact, it was the students themselves that decided the action of service when one
student learned about the potential closings of several historic Cherokee sites. In the action stage,
students wrote advocate letters and gave presentation in front of the state’s Natural Resources
Committee while teachers facilitated and monitored students’ actions. In the end, students
SERVICE-LEARNING IN MIDDLE SCHOOL SOCIAL STUDIES
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reflected individually and in groups about their learning, whose knowledge and attitude towards
the Cherokee Indians had been changed in the process.
Diversity of learners. Kraft and Krug (1994) report that service-learning works on both
high-achieving and underachieving students, but those vulnerable and underachieving students
especially benefit from the authentic curricula that connect school experience with the real world.
Flanagan (2004) comes up with a similar conclusion, pointing out that service-learning projects
provide an alternative approach for students who are not gifted in sports or academics to excel
and to connect with peers. In addition, compared with traditional teacher-centered classrooms,
service-learning can help to meet the needs of ethnically and culturally diverse learners. With
their diverse backgrounds, these learners are able to bring their ideas and cultural perspectives to
the classrooms, and even work on projects that are relevant to them (Larson & Keiper, 2011). In
fact, because services often expose students to a variety of different people in their communities,
students who are engaged in service-learning report more acceptance of diversity (Flanagan,
2004).
In spite of service-learning’s contribution to the diversity of learners, teachers should still
use techniques of differentiated instruction to make service-learning experiences work better for
everyone. For example, service activities need to be culturally sensitive since service-learning is
an unfamiliar concept in many cultures (Vang, 2004-2005). In addition, Scales et al. (2000) point
out that the nature of service activities might offer different experiences for boys and for girls. So
activities such as collecting oral histories from town residents that involve language and
relationship skills are often of more interest to girls than boys (Scales et al., 2000). Diverse
learners also bring both opportunities and challenges for group tasks, as will be discussed in the
next session.
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Utilizing Instructional Strategies
Curriculum integration. According to Billings, Root and Jesse (2005), the linkage of
service-learning to content standards or curricular objectives is one of the strongest predictors of
students’ academic achievement. Although service-learning is not directly referenced in middle
school social studies standards, it can be used to achieve the specific outcomes of those standards
(Schukar, 1997). For example, the National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS) standards
under the theme of individual development and identity suggest that social studies classrooms
include experiences that enable the learner to describe personal connection to places associated
with community, nation and world (NCSS, 1994). Similarly, service-learning projects connect
students with local communities through their work with community partners (Schukar, 1997).
Instead of learning through reading, listening to lectures, or accessing electronic media, students
acquire the required knowledge and skills in middle school social studies standards from direct
experiences (Scales et al., 2000).
National Youth Leadership Council (2007) recommends a method for teachers to link
curriculum and service-learning together. First, teachers should list the standards or objectives
they wish to achieve according to Common Core State Standards (CCSS) or NCSS standards.
This is in accordance with the idea of backward design that the design of curriculum unit should
begin with determining the desired outcomes first (Wiggins & McTighe, 2005). Second, teachers
should connect these standards to genuine community needs with the help of students. For
example, students can conduct research through local media or talking to community members.
Third, teachers and students together develop criteria for selecting the genuine need to be
addressed. The criteria include elements like fitting students’ interests, being realistic, and
SERVICE-LEARNING IN MIDDLE SCHOOL SOCIAL STUDIES
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addressing the root cause of community problems. Last, students can develop and evaluate their
own service-learning projects that fit the criteria (NYLC, 2007).
With the end goal in mind, teachers can identify the learning tasks that specifically
address the desired learning goals (Wiggins & McTighe, 2005). Although many instructional
strategies have been used to facilitate students learning, two strategies – cooperative learning
tasks and reflection – are critical and used throughout every stage of service-learning projects.
Cooperative learning tasks. Service-learning projects generally involve students work
together in small or large groups to carry out various aspects of the projects (Wade, 2000). In
order to maximize learning as a group, students need to learn to use critical social skills, conflict
resolution strategies and decision –making techniques, which can be transferable to real civic
practices (Larson & Keiper, 2011). In addition, one of the most consistent findings about
cooperative learning’s positive impact is that student show increased respect and liking for others
who come from different cultural backgrounds when they work together in a group toward a
common goal (Larson & Keiper, 2011). However, in spite of the benefits of cooperative learning
tasks, practices in classrooms can lead to counteractive effects. For example, some students have
to do all of the work while some other students do not contribute to group tasks at all. Groups,
thus, can “create resentment, reinforce stereotypes, and benefit some students to the detriment of
others” (Larson & Keiper, 2011, p.170). Therefore, teachers still play an important role in
structuring cooperative learning tasks in service-learning projects. Five “essential elements” are
developed by Johnson, Johnson and Holubec (1994) to help teachers structure and facilitate
cooperative learning tasks:
1. positive interdependence
2. face-to-face interactions
SERVICE-LEARNING IN MIDDLE SCHOOL SOCIAL STUDIES
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3. group goals and individual accountability
4. interpersonal and small group skills
5. group processing.
First, positive interdependence within a group is achieved when students understand that
others are indispensible for the accomplishment of the tasks and their own learning. Teachers can
foster positive interdependence by assigning roles within the group, such as a coordinator, a
checker, a recorder, and a skeptic (Larson & Keiper, 2011). Second, it is during face-to-face
interactions in service-learning that students develop several democratic skills, including
respectful deliberation and dialogue, coalition building, and development of creative solutions
that meet everyone’s needs (Wade, 2000). Third, group goals and individual accountability helps
to ensure fairness in the group work. Techniques for holding individual accountable include
randomly picking one member to answer for the entire group, and dividing a large group project
into smaller tasks so that each member knows clearly what his or her role is (Larson & Keiper,
2011). Fourth, teaches should be able to identify the “uncooperative” groups and purposefully
help students in those groups learn the interpersonal skills that are necessary in the group works
(Johnson, Johnson & Holubec, 1994). Last but not the least, teachers are suggested to assign the
group as heterogeneously as possible considering the ethnicities, genders, and ability levels of
students, and so on. It is these cooperative tasks when students collaborate with others and
constantly refine their thinking that really make middle school social studies classrooms
laboratories of democracy— the civic mission of the subject of social studies(NCSS, 1994).
Reflection. Standing in a critical transitional period, middle school students show strong
concerns with self, for right and wrong, for others, and even for the world. Teachers should
facilitate students to properly address these concerns for the development of their self-esteem,
SERVICE-LEARNING IN MIDDLE SCHOOL SOCIAL STUDIES
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ethics, other-centeredness, and a global perspective (NCSS, 1991). Reflection is “a means for
reliving or recapturing our experiences in order to make sense of it, to learn from it, and to
develop new understandings, and appreciation” (Wade, 2000). ). It is not only a key element in
service-learning projects but also an effective way for middle school students to address their
concerns. However, oftentimes the structured reflection is conducted only as a final project or
paper instead of being continuously integrated into the service-learning projects (Eyler, Roots &
Giles, 1998). According to the National Youth Leadership Council (2008), service-learning
reflection should occur before, during, and after the service experiences in various forms, which
prompts students to think deeply about complex community problems. Because reflection under
various situations can play different roles in a service-learning project, Eyler (2002) introduces a
structured reflection method that helps people think about reflection “in terms of both social
context (i.e., with whom to conduct the reflection) and chronology (i.e., before, during and after
service)” (p.524).
According to Eyler (2002), pre-service reflection can help heighten students’ awareness of
their assumptions and expectations about the issues in communities so that they are able to notice
ways in which their experiences conflict with their expectations. Reflection before service can
make students more observant and thoughtful, which will constantly refine their thinking during
service. Reflection in this period is often conducted by individual students, who can write their
thoughts and expectations in a letter to themselves or in a journal entry. For example, the
Georgia Cherokee history unit mentioned above begins with students writing their thoughts in
their note cards so that they can confront their own stereotypes about Cherokee Indians. Students
can also reflect with their classmates by sharing their perspectives. The different viewpoints
among peers can help them have a better understanding of the complexity of the community
SERVICE-LEARNING IN MIDDLE SCHOOL SOCIAL STUDIES
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issues they are going to explore. What's more, Eyler (2002) finds out that students’ reflection
before service with community partners has an extra benefit of motivating students. Reflection
with community partners through methods like creating contract and assessing needs will help
students “clearly see how what they are doing will be genuinely useful, so they want to do and
know more” (Eyler, 2002, p.526).
The key to effective in-service reflection is continuity so that it can prevent students from
resisting the implications of the discrepancies between their assumptions and current experiences
(Eyler, 2002). Using a reflective journal is an obvious and common practice for students to
reflect alone, but without guidance students are likely to merely describe their service
experiences instead of constantly refining their thinking. Kolb’s (1984) reflection circle is a
helpful tool for teachers to structure students’ reflective journals. Basically students are asked to
write down “what” to describe their experiences, “so what” to discuss the implications of their
experiences, and “now what” to identify next steps. Teachers can also ask guiding questions
specific to the community issues to provoke students’ higher order thinking. In-service reflection
can also be conducted with peers in the form of discussion groups facilitated by the teachers,
during which students can exchange observations and delve into some critical problems together.
What’s more, although on-site reflection with community partners is often neglected, it is very
helpful for transferring students’ learning to a broader context (Eyler, 2002).
Post-service reflection is an opportunity for students to share what they have learned with
peers, teachers, and community partners. It is part of demonstration in the IPARD framework,
but also a common method in service-learning to assess student learning, as will be discussed in
the next session. Many common practices are available for reflection after service, including
individual reflection papers, team presentations, and presentations to community partners.
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Assessing Learning Outcomes
As early as 20 years ago, NCSS (1991) suggested that performance assessment could be
the most effective assessment method in middle school. However, its complexity in practice and
the public focus on high-stake statewide assessments made promoting performance assessment
less attractive than the improvement of students’ language arts and math scores in public
education’s agenda. In recent years, however, with the popularity of service-learning, more
attention has been put on the value of performance assessment. The current research on middle
school social studies assessment is incomplete, and more research needed to be conducted in this
area to further inform its practice.
Performance assessment. Performance assessment is the common assessment method
used to evaluate what students have learned from the service-learning projects (Cumbo &
Vadeboncoeur, 1999). Instead of selecting from a set of answers, performance assessment
requires students to construct responses that focus on the process of problem solving rather than
just on the end result (Larson & Keiper, 2011). For example, in the planning and action stages of
service-learning projects, teachers observe and take notes on how students collaborate with each
other using the problem-solving skills outlined in the educational standards. In the demonstration
period, students’ presentation of the projects allows students to directly perform the skills and
knowledge the teachers want them to learn, such as communication skills and the content
knowledge of geometry (Cumbo & Vadeboncoeur, 1999).
In order to ensure the fairness and reliability of the performance assessment, a set of
criteria describing the levels of quality should be explained explicitly at the beginning of the
service-learning projects (Cumbo & Vadeboncoeur, 1999). A rubric is a useful tool here to help
students and teaches define “quality” and reduce subjective or biased grading (Larson & Keiper,
18
SERVICE-LEARNING IN MIDDLE SCHOOL SOCIAL STUDIES
2011). National Youth Leadership Council (2008) suggests that teachers and students can
develop the rubric together as a way to increase the youth voice in the service-learning projects.
In addition, Cumbo and Vadeboncoeur (1999) propose that referencing educational standards in
designing the rubric can help link service-learning to standards-based curriculum.
Formative assessment and summative assessment. Both formative assessment and
summative assessment can be integrated into the performance assessment in service-learning
projects. Formative assessment occurs continually during the projects for teachers to monitor
student learning while summative assessment occurs at the end of the project as an attempt to
determine the total of student learning and tie the learning to grades (Larson & Keiper, 2011).
In the service-learning projects, reflection is often used as formative assessment for
teachers to monitor student learning and provide feedback (Eyler, 2002). Exit cards, interviewing
students individually or in groups, and asking students to summarize the main ideas they have
taken away from a discussion are also common methods for formative assessment (Larson &
Keiper, 2011). For summative assessment in service-learning projects, student presentations,
specific products, project papers and other writing assignments are common forms of
assessment. No matter what methods teachers choose, the key is that teachers should choose the
proper ones based on the desired outcomes of learning, so that assessment can provide a
systematic approach for guiding student learning rather than merely a grading tool.
.
Concerns with Service-Learning
Much current research is supportive of service-learning’s positive academic and social
outcomes. The potential of using service-learning in middle school classrooms is also supported
by its natural fit with the goal of social studies and the characteristics of middle school students.
SERVICE-LEARNING IN MIDDLE SCHOOL SOCIAL STUDIES
19
However, there are some major concerns that need to be addressed for the sake of effective
practice.
First, service-learning is difficult to implement effectively in public schools. On one
hand, accountability and the ever-shifting state priorities make teachers confused and frustrated.
The teachers have to strike a balance among state mandates for improved test scores and
standard-based curriculum, the social education and service-learning initiatives, and many other
creative projects (Koliba, Campbell & Shapiro, 2006). Therefore, many of them treat servicelearning as an “add-on” task that they do not have time for. On the other hand, because “servicelearning occurs in settings more difficult to structure and control than the anchored instruction
models studies” (Eyler, Root & Giles, 1998, p.98), many teachers lack the skills and knowledge
to make it work in their classrooms. For example, teachers need to know how to find community
agencies that can engage students in meaningful work, how to match students’ experience in the
field with issues studied in the class, how to guide student-directed inquiry, and many other
logistic issues like transportation (Eyler, Root & Giles, 1998). This requires teachers to take
extra efforts in preparation, adding pressures to their already busy schedules. What is the worse,
unlike teachers of high-stake subjects, social studies teachers receive even fewer resources and
support from schools in terms of professional development and instructional innovation, which
in turn makes the implementation of service-learning more difficult.
Second, apart from the practice in public schools, there are also some concerns regarding
the impact of service-learning itself. According to Wade (2000), too many service-learning
projects focus on indirect activities such as fund-raising and collections that focus on charity
instead of learning and building citizenship. As a result, students feel good about themselves
after service-learning projects but real and lasting impact does not occur. The lack of time adds
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20
more doubts to many service-learning projects, as research indicates that service programs often
have negligible effects if they involve less than 40 hours of student engagement (Richards et al.,
2013). More research is needed to build evidence-based models that can sustain effective
service-learning projects.
Last, despite of the high-level of community support for service-learning projects, some
people, including some parents, have expressed strong reservations about service-learning as an
instructional strategy (Koliba, Campbell & Shapiro, 2006). Parent support is a key to the success
of service-learning projects, but the traditional mindset of schooling where students acquire
knowledge in classrooms makes service-learning an unfamiliar and unwelcomed element in the
mind of parents. It is not surprising that some parents consider service-learning a waste of time
and recourses occurring in the school that cannot improve the learning ability of their children.
Conclusion: Recommending Using Service-Learning in Middle School Social Studies
After comparing the practices of service-learning in general and the specific context of
middle school social studies classrooms, this paper supports the use of service-learning in this
context in view of the following reasons.
First, the democratic features in service-learning contribute to the promotion of civic
participation—the mission of social studies education. Second, middle school students’
collaboration with peers, teachers, and community partners is beneficial for forming group and
social identity— the developmental needs of early adolescents. Third, the real-world problems in
service-learning provide opportunities for students to develop higher-order thinking and problem
solving skills, and they can transfer what they have learned in the classroom to a broader setting.
Last, performance assessment gives full play to students’ abilities, transforming assessment from
a grading tool to a learning tool.
SERVICE-LEARNING IN MIDDLE SCHOOL SOCIAL STUDIES
21
This paper also points out several major concerns regarding the use of service-learning in
K-12 classrooms, including the difficulties in implementing and sustaining service-learning
projects, and the public mindset about traditional education. Fortunately, increasing numbers of
research have been conducted trying to address these issues. For example, Moore and Sandholtz
(1999) support the use of service-learning in pre-service teacher education programs, so that not
only these future teachers benefit from service-learning themselves, but they can also practice
this instructional strategy before their teaching career. If service-learning becomes a common
practice in teacher education programs, it will be easier for these future teachers to design and
implement service-learning projects in their own classrooms. What is more, some practices
mentioned in this paper (such as choosing proper contexts, valuing youth voice, reflection and
cooperative tasks) can also help make service-learning projects more effective.
The current limitations existing in service-learning demonstrate exactly that much more
needs to be done. For service-learning to become a common practice in middle school social
studies classrooms, more research is needed to strengthen learning outcomes through evidencebased models. Resources and collaboration among teachers to share effective practices are also
indispensable for service-learning to thrive in the future. “Service-learning programs may not rid
society of its ills, yet the limited gains they do accomplish can be heartening” (Wade, 2000, p96).
Effective service-learning contributes to more public buy-ins, which will in turn make a larger
impact on students and their communities.
SERVICE-LEARNING IN MIDDLE SCHOOL SOCIAL STUDIES
22
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