Running head: LAUGHTER AND AMUSEMENT’S BUFFERING EFFECT
Laughter and Amusement’s Buffering Effect on Stress: An Experimental Design
Nora Kline
Vanderbilt University
Under the Direction of Dr. Leslie Kirby and Craig Smith
Vanderbilt University
April 14, 2015
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LAUGHTER AND AMUSEMENT’S BUFFERING EFFECT
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Abstract
There is currently a significant amount of hype surrounding laughter and its effects, but
there is a lot less excitement concerning the positive emotion that tends to compel laughter:
amusement. The purpose of the current study was to make the distinction between laughter and
amusement and observe the stress buffering effects of those different components. First, I
examined if amusement and laughter have a buffering effect. I then examined if forced
laughter, with no amusement, has a buffering effect of stress. Finally, I examined if amusement,
in the absence of laughter, has a buffering effect. The study employed a 2x2 between subjects
design, which crossed an amusing video and bored video with instructions to act amused and
instructions to act bored. Results showed that participants who experienced amusement and
laughter together had significantly less negative affect than those who did not experience
amusement or laughter. This points to a buffering effect of co-occurring laughter and
amusement. Results showed a main effect of expressivity (instruction type) on amusement and
positive affect levels post-stressor task; those who were told to express amusement, regardless
of internal emotion, experienced significant increased levels of amusement and positive affect.
Therefore perhaps the method used to isolate amusement (without laughter) was only
suppressing participants’ experience of amusement. A future direction is proposed to combat
this issue.
Keywords: laughter, amusement, stress, buffering.
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Laughter and Amusement’s Buffering Effect on Stress:
An Experimental Design
Humans experience a myriad of emotions on a daily basis. Nearly anything can elicit an
emotional response, from a casual ten-minute conversation with a neighbor to witnessing a
gruesome car accident. The emotions that result from these experiences, however, most likely
differ in valence and intensity. Appraisal theory states that emotions are generated from one’s
interpretation of a specific situation. Appraisals involve two main parts, primary and secondary
appraisal. Primary appraisal refers to one’s evaluation of the event in terms of aligning with
one’s personal motives; secondary appraisal refers to one’s processing of the event in terms of
one’s ability to cope with it (Smith & Lazarus, 1990). If one’s primary appraisal of a situation
is that the situation is not conducive to one’s personal goals, but one’s secondary appraisal of
the situation is that one has the proper resources to handle and cope with it, then one’s resulting
emotion will be altered. If a person does not have the appropriate resources to handle the
situation he/she will feel more negatively. One’s appraisal of a situation can completely change
on a day to a day basis if one’s motives or resources to cope change as well. If humans can
control how they perceive situations, then they can alter their emotional responses.
While the adaptive nature of negative emotions, such as fear and anger, might be
intuitive, the purpose of positive emotions is more vague and inexplicit. Positive emotions and
their corresponding functions are less differentiated than negative ones (Ellsworth & Smith,
1988). It seems fairly easy to differentiate between the elicited behaviors of being anxious
versus annoyed, but a little more difficult distinguishing between what one does when they are
inspired versus in awe. Ellsworth and Smith (1988), however, believe in the profound
beneficial power of positive emotions. Surprise, for example, serves to focus a person on an
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important, yet unexpected event, whereas interest stimulates curiosity and greater understanding
(Ellsworth & Smith, 1988). Research by Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi (2000) shows that
optimism specifically has a positive relationship with subjective well-being, which refers to
people’s feelings regarding their lives and existence. Optimistic people tend to interpret their
experiences in positive and constructive ways, which leads to more positive emotions. People
who have high optimism overall have better moods, more success, and better health than those
who do not experience high levels of optimism. Optimistic people behave in ways that elicit
positive relationships, which in turn create social support and resources that can enhance one’s
coping capacity for both mental and physical challenges and adversity (Seligman &
Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). This supports the evolutionary and beneficial purposes of positive
emotions.
Another way in which positive emotions serve an adaptive purpose is through their
“broadening and building” functions. The Broaden-and-Build theory posits that experiencing
positive emotions allows people to be more creative, resourceful, and skillful (Fredrickson,
2001). When someone appraises a situation as in align with his personal goals he feels a
positive emotion. Say for example that a man just won the lottery. Although he may
experience a number of positive emotions, his primary feeling is most likely one of intense
happiness. Because he feels happy perhaps he has the urge to spark up a conversation with an
old friend, hold the door for a stranger, or even go for a run. Happiness, and positive emotions
in general, allow him to expand his thought-action repertoire. This means the thoughts and
potential actions coming to mind in that moment, multiply. One benefit of experiencing
positive emotions is that a person is more able to exploit and utilize personal resources, which
leads to healthier coping strategies and overall productivity. Pride, for example, expands one’s
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thought action repertoire by urging one to share one’s achievements with others and envision
future success (Fredrickson, 2001). Not only do positive emotions broaden thoughts and
potential behavior, but they also help us regulate negative emotions. The “undoing hypothesis”
refers to the ability of positive emotions to counteract the lingering effects of negative emotions
(Fredrickson & Levenson, 1998). This ability of positive emotions has several beneficial
implications concerning resiliency and overall well-being.
There is increasing research on positive emotions and their distinct beneficial effects,
but there is little research on the specific positive emotion of amusement. People commonly
associate amusement with the physical act of laughing. It is natural to assume that if people are
laughing, something or someone is amusing them. There is a lack of research examining
amusement, but there is research observing the relationship between laughter and affect. A
study by Kuiper and Martin (2002) specifically looked at the link between laughter frequency
and affect. They instructed participants to complete a daily laughter record, the PANAS
(Positive and Negative Affect Scale), and the daily stress inventory for three days. They told
participants to record each instance of actual laughter along with the source of that laughter.
Sources of laughter ranged from spontaneous incidences to actual jokes. Kuiper and Martin
found that people who laugh more, and who experience an increased number of negative events
(increased stress), do not experience more negative affect. This alludes to laughter’s ability to
protect people from the effects of negative emotions and events. Similarly, researchers have
also attempted to observe the relationship between laughter and well-being. While numerous
studies have produced insignificant results, a number of potential theoretical mechanisms have
emerged. Some researchers in the field believe that laughter may induce a myriad of other
positive emotions, which in turn produce a number of positive effects, which were mentioned
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earlier (Martin, 2002). Martin (2002) posits that in order to effectively test the effects of humor
and laughter, specifically in regards to stress and health risks, researchers must create studies
that can control for the elicitation of general positive emotions. It is therefore necessary to
make a distinction between physical laughter and the positive emotions underlying that
laughter.
As mentioned earlier, positive emotions have a number of benefits, including their
interaction with stress. Prolonged stress is one of the greatest threats to a human’s health.
Stress has numerous impacts on physical and mental health. Research shows that chronic stress
negatively affects the nervous system, hormonal system, and immune system. Consistent stress
can cause a series of aches and pains, specifically headaches and joint dysfunction (Seaward &
AAOS, 2000). Those who experience extreme stress may also develop digestion issues and
ulcers. In regards to disease and illness, chronic stress increases susceptibility to the common
cold; it may also cause heart disease and possibly cancer by affecting the productivity of white
blood cells (Seaward & AAOS, 2000). A study on veterans showed that those who had PostTraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) were more likely to experience the negative physical effects
of stress two years after returning home than non-traumatized veterans. Veterans reported their
symptoms through the Health Symptom Checklist and Brief Symptom Inventory; the two most
frequent health issues were headaches and aches and pains. A large number of veterans also
reported stomach discomfort and frequent incidences of the common cold and/or flu (Wagner,
Wolfe, Rotnitsky, Proctor, & Erickson, 2000). While stress has direct negative effects on
physical health, it also leads to unhealthy behaviors, which in turn threaten health. A study by
Kaplan, Madden, Mijanovich, and Purcaro (2013) evidenced that people of low socioeconomic
status, experiencing stress caused by financial troubles and lack of social support, participate in
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harmful behaviors such as substance abuse, violence, and uncontrolled eating. These stress
induced behaviors lead to poor health outcomes. In terms of mental health, which is a main
factor in determining quality of life, research shows that stress can cause low self-esteem, which
can lead to depression (Seaward & AAOS, 2000). A study by Bovier, Chamot, and Perneger
(2004) evidenced a strong correlation between high stress and low internal resources, such as
mastery and self esteem, in terms of mental health. Participants with high stress and low social
support ranked low in mental health on the SF-12 health survey. This measure consists of
mental health and physical health components; it surveys general health, energy levels,
difficulty with activities, and emotional problems. Researchers concluded that when they
controlled for internal resources and social support, stress still had a strong impact on mental
health.
Positive emotions interact with stress through buffering and blunting. Blunting refers to
the idea that our appraisals and emotional reactions can affect our subsequent emotional
reactions. Blunting is an emotion’s ability to counteract the effects of a subsequent emotion
with an opposite valence (Pe & Kuppens, 2012). For example, if one appraises a situation and
experiences happiness, that appraisal and emotional experience of happiness spill over and
affect one’s appraisal of a subsequent situation that causes anger. This means someone would
have a less intense experience of anger than if he/she just experienced anger without first
experiencing happiness. In a similar regard, the buffering hypothesis refers to the idea that
positive emotions can both protect us from subsequent negative emotions as well as decrease
presently occurring negative emotions. For example, if a person is experiencing stress from
financial issues, experiencing happiness, caused by support from relatives or comic relief, can
decrease the negative emotions concurrent with stress. Positive aspects of people’s lives, such
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as social support and resourcefulness, can protect people against the negative emotional and
physiological aspects of the stress response (Cohen & Wills, 1985). Thus, people who overall
experience more positive emotions have increased well-being and react less negatively to stress
than those who do not experience frequent positive emotions. A study by Yovetic, Dale, and
Hudak (1990) evidences a buffering effect of humor and amusement. The researchers
employed deception and told the participants that they would be shocked during the experiment,
but the shock would not cause any physical damage. The experimenters used heart rate,
zygomatic electromyogram potentials, and self-report to assess participant’s anxiety and stress
levels for 12 minutes during the supposed waiting period. Participants who experienced
amusement, evoked by a humorous audio tape, while waiting for the supposed shock showed
and reported less anxiety and stress during the wait than those who did not hear the amusing
tape.
While this alludes to a buffering effect of humor in a laboratory setting, humor and
laughter are also used as a coping strategy and therapy technique in the real world. Skevington
and White (1998) observed the coping strategies, psychological well-being, and overall pain of
patients with rheumatic diseases to see if humor and laughing have a positive effect on their
symptoms and quality of life. Patients filled out numerous self-report questionnaires such as
The Coping Humour Scale and The Sense of Humour Scale in order for experimenters to assess
sense of humor and coping patterns. Results show that patients with chronic arthritis who
employ laughter and humor as a coping strategy feel overall less pain, and are less likely to be
depressed, than those who do not rely on humor or laughter to manage the symptoms and
hardships of their disease. Research such as this evidences the positive effects of laughter when
managing a physical health condition.
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Laughter therapy has also become very popular in the new age. Because of its cost
effectiveness and accessibility, many people are attracted to the idea of using laughter to
medicate. Several researchers have examined the effects of laughter on depression and overall
quality of life. A study by Ko and Youn (2011) observed the effects of laughter therapy and the
psychological differences between participants in a laughter therapy group and participants in a
control group. Laughter therapy consists of facial muscle relaxation exercises, clapping,
dancing, singing, and laughter meditation. The researchers examined laughter therapy’s effects
on depression, insomnia, cognition, and overall health and well-being. Most significantly,
results showed a decrease in mean depression scores on the Geriatric Depression Scale (GDS15) for the laughter therapy group. This evidences the positive effects of short time periods of
high frequency laughter, but what is missing is what exactly is causing these positive results.
The driving mechanisms underlying the positive effects of laughter are under-researched.
In order to examine what is driving the effects of laughter it is necessary to make a
distinction between the effects of amusement and the effects of the act of laughing. The
purpose of the current study was to examine if these two separate components protect people
from stress differently. I examined if forced laughter, with no amusement, has a buffering
effect of stress. This forced laughter refers to the type of laughter that is not evoked by humor or
amusement, rather it may emerge for other reasons, such as the sake of being polite or perhaps
by a feeling of awkwardness and uncertainty. This forced laughter and laughing on cue is also a
large component of laughter therapy. So does the behavior of laughing, regardless of emotion,
have positive effects? Furthermore I examined if amusement and laughter have a buffering
effect on stress. Does experiencing amusement, in a way that one physically laughs, have
positive outcomes? This would refer to laughter evoked by humorous videos, amusing personal
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interactions, scripted jokes, etc. And finally, I examined if amusement, in the absence of
laughter, has a buffering effect. Perhaps laughter is irrelevant, and the real driving force of
these positive effects is simply an emotion, not a physical behavior. Moments in which people
feel amused but do not laugh could be situations in which it would not be appropriate to laugh.
For example, if one recalls a humorous moment with a deceased loved one at that loved one’s
funeral, it would not be socially acceptable to laugh even though one feels amused in the
moment. By making the distinction between the physical act of laughter and the emotion of
amusement it will hopefully be possible to pinpoint the driving mechanisms of the positive
effects of laughter.
VIDEO PILOT
The purpose of the pilot study was to identify which amusing and which neutral video to use in
the main study’s manipulation. The video that maximized amusement in participants was used
as the amusing video in the main study. The video that minimized amusement in participants
was used as the neutral video in the main study.
METHODS
Participants
A total of 27 undergraduate students, between the ages of 18-22, at Vanderbilt
University (16 females, 11 males) participated in the pilot experiment. Participants were
recruited by lab members. All participants gave informed consent to participate in the study.
Materials
The Discrete Emotion Adjective List (DEAL). After giving informed consent and after
completion of each video participants completed a modified version of the DEAL. This survey
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is meant to assess 33-discrete emotions (DEAL; Smith & Kirby, 2010). Participants ranked, on
a Likert scale (0-9; not at all – extremely) how much they felt each emotion at the present time.
The emotions were presented in clusters containing 1 – 3 words. We pilot-tested the videos
using a modified version of the DEAL (assessing happiness, amusement, gratitude, tranquility,
anger, fear, sadness, disgust, embarrassment, and boredom). See Appendix A for these items.
Study data were collected and managed using REDCap electronic data capture tools hosted at
Vanderbilt University. REDCap (Research Electronic Data Capture) is a secure, web-based
application designed to support data capture for research studies, providing: 1) an intuitive
interface for validated data entry; 2) audit trails for tracking data manipulation and export
procedures; 3) automated export procedures for seamless data downloads to common statistical
packages; and 4) procedures for importing data from external sources (Harris et al., 2009).
Videos. The participants watched 5 videos. The amusing videos were a clip from the film,
Bridesmaids (2:18 min) and a clip from the television show, Scrubs (2:29 min). The boring
videos were a clip from a woodshop tutorial (2:30 min), a clip from a movie about an ecosystem
(2:16 min), and a clip from a weather report (2:29 min).
Video Camera. While the participants watched the videos they were also recorded using a
video camera to mimic the environment of the main/experimental study.
Procedure
Upon entering the lab the participant was seated at the computer. The experimenter told
the participant the purpose of the current study is to test materials, which will be used in future
studies to elicit emotions. The experimenter then told the participant that we are trying to
identify a really funny/amusing video and a really boring/uninteresting video. The
experimenter then gave the participant the consent form and instructed the participant to read
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through the form thoroughly, ask any questions that may arise, and then to sign it. The
experimenter collected and stored the signed consent form. The experimenter then instructed
the participant to complete the designated online questionnaire (modified DEAL) in order to
assess the participant’s perceptions when he/she entered the lab.
After the participant finished the questionnaire the experimenter set up the first video,
turned on the video camera, and left the room. The order in which the participants watched the
video was randomized using an online randomizer. After the participant finished the video the
experimenter pulled up the corresponding questionnaire (modified DEAL). After the
participant finished the questionnaire the experimenter set up the next video, and then the
corresponding questionnaire afterwards. This procedure repeated until all five videos and
questionnaire were completed. The experimenter then pulled up the ranking questionnaire so
the participant could rank the funny/amusing videos and rank the boring/uninteresting videos.
See Appendix B for a full script of the study.
Results
All of the participants’ DEAL ratings were averaged for each emotion in order to
identify which video elicited the highest amusement score average and which video elicited the
highest boredom score average.
Results showed that the Bridesmaids video was more amusing to participants compared to the
Scrubs video.
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Figure 1. Mean Scores for DEAL Rating Post-Bridesmaids Video.
Results show the Weather Report video was the least amusing/most boring video to participants
compared to the Woodshop Tutorial video and the Ecosystem video.
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Figure 2. Mean Scores for DEAL Rating Post-Weather Report Video.
MAIN STUDY
METHODS
Participants
A total of 136 undergraduate students, between the ages of 18 – 22, at Vanderbilt
University (82 females, 54 males) participated in the experiment in exchange for course credit.
Participants were recruited through the Department of Psychology’s subject pool (SONA
software system). The SONA title was “Social Perception” in order to mask the true purpose of
the study. All participants gave informed consent to participate in the study.
Materials
The Discrete Emotion Adjective List (DEAL). After giving informed consent and after
completion of the stressor task the participants completed the DEAL. This survey is meant to
assess 33-discrete emotions (DEAL; Smith & Kirby, 2010). Participants ranked, on a Likert
scale (0-9; not at all – extremely) how much they felt each emotion at the present time. The
emotions were presented in clusters containing 1 – 3 words. The DEAL was administered on a
computer through REDCap (Research Electronic Data Capture) (Harris et al., 2009). See
Appendix A for the DEAL used in this study.
Videos. This study utilizes two videos. The amusing video was a video clip from the film,
Bridesmaids (2:18 min). The neutral video was a video clip of a weather report (2:29 min). We
used the funny video that maximized amusement in participants and we used the neutral video
that minimized amusement in participants.
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Video Camera. While the participants watched their assigned video they were also recorded
using a video camera. The participants were given the instructions to either convince an
observer that the video they are watching is amusing or convince the observer the video they are
watching is uninteresting and bland.
J-Word Stressor Task. Participants were told to list as many words, excluding pronouns, as
they can starting with the letter “J” in 2-minutes. Participants were told, “The average
Vanderbilt undergraduate can list about 30-words in 2-minutes.” The J-words were tallied and
the number of repeated words, pronouns, and non-words were noted as “error-words.” The
error-words were subtracted from the tallied J-words to create a total J-word count.
Audio Recorder. During the stressor task, the participants were recorded using a computerrecording device called Amadeus. The experimenter also used a pen and paper to record how
many target words the participant produces during the task.
Design
This study used a 2x2 between-subjects design. The independent variables were the
type of video and designated instructions for expressivity. Participants were randomly assigned
to 1 of 4 conditions. The 4 conditions were neutral video – express disinterest/boredom (n=31;
15 males, 16 females), neutral video – express amusement (n=33; 12 males, 21 females),
amusing video – express disinterest/boredom (n=40; 19 males, 21 females), and amusing video
– express amusement (n= 32; 8 males, 24 females). The dependent variables were the
amusement, positive affect, and negative affect ratings from the DEAL.
Procedure
Upon entering the lab the participant was seated at a computer. The experimenter told
the participant the purpose of the study is to examine social perception, the process by which
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people make judgments and inferences about others, and the different types of cues people use
to make social judgments. Experimenters used this cover story to mask the true purpose of the
experiment and to avoid any potential biases. After the experimenter gave a fairly detailed
explanation of social perception and how we are testing it in this experiment the experimenter
gave the participant the consent form. The experimenter instructed the participant to read
through the form thoroughly, ask any questions that may arise, and then to sign it. The
experimenter collected and stored the signed consent form. The experimenter then instructed
the participant to complete the designated online questionnaire in order to assess the
participant’s perceptions when he/she entered the lab. Participants were informed that they
would take this same survey at the end of the experiment. Participants were then instructed to
notify the experimenter when they completed the survey.
The experimenter then revealed the assigned video (either amusing or neutral) on the
computer. The experimenter instructed the participant to watch this video and to either
convince an observer that the video is amusing and funny or convince an observer that the video
is uninteresting and bland. The experimenter then went over to the video camera, instructed the
participant that he/she can begin when the experimenter had left the room and closed the door,
and then pressed record.
After the participant notified the experimenter that the video was complete the
experimenter then administered the stressor task. The task was presented as a verbal fluency
task in order to mask the true purpose of the activity. The experimenter told participants that
they will have to name as many words beginning with the letter “J” that they can in 2-minutes.
The experimenter said that the average Vanderbilt student could list about 30 J-words in this
time frame. This statement is incorrect, but it contributed to the stressful atmosphere of the
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activity. The experimenter then audio-recorded the task as well as recorded the number of Jwords on a piece of paper.
Once the stressor task was complete the participant was instructed to fill out the
questionnaire once again in order to make comparisons between his/her previous responses.
After completion of the questionnaire the participant was debriefed and informed of the true
purpose of the study, which was to observe the buffering effects of laughter and amusement and
the distinction between the two. See Appendix C for a full script of the study.
To compute the positive affect score on the DEAL, the following items were compiled:
4 (relieved, unburdened), 5 (tranquil, calm, serene), 7 (determined, persistent, motivated), 8
(love, affection), 9 (amused), 10 (grateful, appreciative, thankful), 11 (interested, engaged), 13
(hopeful, optimistic), 16 (proud, triumphant), 18 (compassionate, empathetic), 22 (awed,
wondrous, amazed), 24 (joyful, happy, eager), 25 (eager, enthused, excited), 27 (satisfied,
content). Participants’ ratings of these items were summed to get an overall positive affect
score. The positive affect score had high reliability (14 items; a = 0.90). To compute the
negative affect score on the DEAL, the following items were compiled: 2 (guilty, culpable), 3
(defeated, resigned, beaten), 6 (schadenfreude), 12 (mad, angry, annoyed), 14 (bored, detached,
uninterested), 15 (nervous, anxious, apprehensive), 17 (afraid, frightened, scared), 19 (sad,
downhearted, blue), 20 (ashamed, disgraced), 21 (disgusted, repulsed, revolted), 26
(embarrassed, humiliated). Participants’ ratings of these items were summed to get an overall
negative affect score. The negative affect score had high reliability (11 items; a = 0.89).
In order to compute inter-rater agreement scores we randomly assigned 3 raters, from a
pool of 8 total raters, to score each participant video using a Likert scale from 1-7 on how
amused the participant seemed and how genuine the participant seemed. The sound on the
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videos was removed in order to mask what condition the participant was in. The raters were
trained on what were good examples of high amusement and high genuineness and what were
poor examples. High amusement was defined as sustained laughter and smiling. Low
amusement was defined as sustained bored or blank facial expressions. High genuineness was
defined as consistent facial expressions and consistent focus (eye gaze) on the video. Low
genuineness was defined as inconsistent displays of emotion (infrequent spurts of laughter
followed by blank facial expression) as well as eye contact with the video camera or other
aspects of the room. We measured inter-rater agreement, rather than inter-rater reliability
because of the nature of the unbalanced design, the several raters, and the fact that not every
video was scored by every rater. Agreement parameters assess the measurement error in
repeated measures (related to variability), while reliability parameters assess how
distinguishable participants are, notwithstanding the measurement errors (de Vet et al, 2006).
Fleiss’s kappa produced a very high rater agreement in regards to how amused participants
seemed ( =0.924), but low rater agreement in regards to how genuine participants seemed (
=0.350). This low rater agreement for genuine scores is most likely due to individual’s
differing opinions on what qualifies as “genuine”. It is fairly obvious to tell when someone is
amused, whereas it is more difficult to assess when a person is genuine. This is a current
limitation in our study.
Research Hypotheses
Buffering Effect (Laughter vs. Amusement). To restate our hypotheses, we hypothesized that
those participants who watched the amusing video and who were given amusing instructions
would be least stressed by the J-word stressor task, and therefore would have lower negative
emotions ratings than those in other conditions. In terms of a 2x2 ANOVA, this would signify a
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significant interaction between video type and instruction type. We hypothesized that those
participants who watched the amusing video and who were given the boring instructions would
have significantly different negative affect ratings than those participants who watched the
boring video and who were given the amusing instructions. In terms of a 2x2 ANOVA, those
who watched the boring video and were given the boring instructions would experience the least
amount of buffering (highest negative affect) and there would most likely be a main effect of
video type (based on pilot data) and possibly instruction type.
RESULTS
Behavioral Outcomes
We analyzed the results of this 2x2 between subjects design using two-way ANOVAs.
Results indicate that there was a significant main effect of condition on raters’ scores of
participants’ apparent amusement (F(1, 134) = 22.80, p < 0.001). Participants who watched the
amusing video and were given the amusing instructions and participants who watched the
boring video and were given the amusing instructions had significantly higher amusement
scores than participants who watched the amusing video and were given the boring instructions
and participants who watched the boring video and were given the boring instructions (Table 1).
This was a successful manipulation check, since we expected that those participants who were
given the instructions to act amused would be laughing and smiling. Results indicate that there
was a significant main effect of condition on raters’ scores of participant’s apparent genuineness
(F(1, 134) = 4.23, p < 0.05). Perceived genuineness was higher for those who watched the
amusing video and were given the amusing instructions than for those who watched the boring
video and were given the amusing instructions (Table 1). This was to be expected because
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participants in the former condition were instructed to behave in accordance with amusement,
while those in the other condition were not.
Table 1
Mean Amusement Scores and Genuine Scores Across Conditions
Condition
Mean Amusement Score
Boring Video/Boring Instructions
1.10
Boring Video/Amusing Instructions
5.87
Amusing Video/Boring Instructions
1.18
Amusing Video/Amusing instructions
5.86
Mean Genuine Score
5.10
5.42
4.86
6.17
Similarly, those who watched the boring video and were given the boring instructions were
instructed to behave in accordance with boredom/disinterest and those who watched the
amusing video and were given the boring instructions were instructed to behave not in
accordance with their internal amusement. This is reflected in the genuine scores (Table 1).
In regards to the J-word stressor task, there was no significant main effect of condition
on number of total J-words (F(1, 133) = 1.43, p > 0.10). There was also no significant main
effect of condition on total number of error words (F(1, 133) = 1.62, p > 0.10).
Emotional Outcomes
Amusement, positive affect, and negative affect were analyzed in order to assess the
effects of video type and instruction type. ANOVA results indicate that amusement scores at
baseline differed significantly (F(1,133) = 6.82; p < 0.05) as well as positive affect scores at
baseline (F(1,131) = 4.31; p < 0.05). Negative affect scores at baseline did not differ
significantly (F(1,133) = 2.32; p > 0.05). Results of a 2x2 ANCOVA with baseline amusement
scores as a covariate indicate that there is a significant main effect of instruction type on
amusement (F(1,130) = 6.57; p < 0.05). Results indicate that participants who watched the
boring video and were given the amusing instructions (condition 2) (t(32) = 2.91; p < 0.01) and
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participants who watched the amusing video and were given the amusing instructions (condition
4) (t(31) = 4.71; p < 0.001) experienced significant increases in amusement post-stressor
(Figure 3). There is, however, no significant main effect of video type on amusement or a
significant interaction between video type and instruction type on amusement.
Figure 3. Mean DEAL Amusement Difference Scores for all Conditions.
There is a significant mean difference between the post-stressor amusement scores of those who
watched the boring video and were given amusing instructions (condition 2) and those who
watched the amusing video and were given the amusing instructions (condition 4) (t(64) =
0.02); those who watched the boring video and were given the amusing instructions had
significantly higher post-stressor ratings of amusement, even though the difference score is
smaller.
Results of the 2x2 ANCOVA with baseline positive affect scores as a covariate indicate
that there is a significant main effect of instruction type on positive affect scores (F(1,126) =
7.72; p < 0.01). Results indicate that all participants experienced decreased positive affect poststressor. Participants who watched the boring video and were given boring instructions (t(28) =
LAUGHTER AND AMUSEMENT’S BUFFERING EFFECT
22
-4.70; p < 0.001), participants who watched the boring video and were given amusing
instructions (t(32) = -2.31; p < 0.05), participants who watched the amusing video and were
given boring instructions (t(36) = -6.90; p < 0.001), and participants who watched the amusing
video and were given amusing instructions (t(30) = -3.98; p < 0.001) all experienced
significantly less positive affect after the stressor task (Figure 4). This was to be expected due
to the stress of the J-word task.
Figure 4. Mean DEAL Positive Affect Difference Scores for all Conditions.
Results indicate that those who watched the boring video and were given amusing instructions
(condition 2) had significantly more positive affect post-stressor than those who watched the
amusing video and were given boring instructions (condition 3) (t(62) = 2.42; p < 0.05). There
was, however, no significant main effect of video type or a significant interaction between video
type and instruction type on positive affect.
Results of a 2x2 ANCOVA with baseline negative affect scores as a covariate indicate
that there is no significant main effect of video type or instruction type on negative affect and
there is no significant interaction between the two. Participants did experience significantly
LAUGHTER AND AMUSEMENT’S BUFFERING EFFECT
23
more negative affect post-stressor. Participants who watched the boring video and were given
boring instructions (t(30) = 4.30; p < 0.001), participants who watched the boring video and
were given amusing instructions (t(32) = 3.26; p < 0.01), participants who watched the amusing
video and were given boring instructions (t(36) = 5.66; p < 0.001), and participants who
watched the amusing video and were given amusing instructions (t(30) = 3.35; p < 0.01) all had
significantly more negative affect after the stressor task (Figure 5). This makes logical sense
due to the stress of the J-word task.
Figure 5. Mean DEAL Negative Affect Difference Scores for all Conditions.
There was no significant difference between the negative affect scores of those who watched the
boring video and were given the amusing instructions (condition 2) and those who watched the
amusing video and were given the boring instructions (condition 3) (t(64) = -0.12; p > 0.05),
which was not expected. We expected a significant difference, which would have allowed us to
identify if laughter or amusement is essential to less negative affect. Based on these results, we
cannot make any claims in regards to this. There was also no significant difference between the
negative affect of those in the boring video/boring instruction condition (condition 1) vs. boring
LAUGHTER AND AMUSEMENT’S BUFFERING EFFECT
24
video/amusing instruction condition (condition 2) (t(61) = 1.88; p > 0.05) or those in the boring
video/boring instruction condition (condition 1) vs. amusing video/boring instruction condition
(condition 3) (t(56) = 1.93; p > 0.05). There was, however, a significant difference between the
negative affect of participants who watched the boring video and were given the boring
instructions (condition 1) and of participants who watched the amusing video and were given
the amusing instructions (condition 4) (t(56) = 2.37; p < 0.05). Because there was no significant
difference between these conditions’ baseline negative affect scores this points to a stress
buffering effect of laughter and amusement together, versus the control. This partially supports
our hypothesis that those who watched the amusing video and received amusing instructions
would have significantly less negative affect than those in all conditions. There was, however,
no significant difference between those participants’ negative affect in this condition and those
in the boring video/amusing instructions condition (condition 2) (t(62) = 0.39; p > 0.05) and the
amusing video/boring instructions condition (condition 3) (t(68) = 0.57; p > 0.05). Because of
the significant difference between the negative affect scores of those in the control condition
and those in the amusing video/amusing instruction condition, we can deduce that there is some
sort of buffering effect occurring.
DISCUSSION
This study examined the buffering effects of laughter and amusement. While we did not
observe a buffering effect of sole laughter or a buffering effect of sole amusement, we did
observe a buffering effect of laughter and amusement together (amusing video/amusing
instructions), based on mean differences. This points to the conclusion that perhaps laughter
and amusement have to co-occur in order to protect people against the negative affect that stress
induces. Perhaps we did not observe a buffering effect of sole amusement because telling a
LAUGHTER AND AMUSEMENT’S BUFFERING EFFECT
25
participant to act bored or disinterested blunts the positive effects of amusement. Because we
did not see any significant main effect of video type, even though our pilot test results indicated
that the Bridesmaids clip is highly amusing, we can suppose that encouraging someone to
suppress amusement cancels out the amusement they feel from the video alone. Such
instructions could affect a person’s emotional experience. The significant increase in
amusement and positive affect post-stressor task for those in conditions that encouraged
laughter and smiling and the insignificant change in amusement and positive affect post-stressor
task for those in conditions that encouraged bored expressivity and disinterest leads us to
conclude that instruction type and expressivity influenced participants’ internal emotions in
some way. This additionally shows that laugher in and of itself may cause these positive effects.
The current study has a few limitations that require mentioning. As stated earlier, the
inter-rater agreement on how genuine participants seemed during the manipulation was low.
This is most likely due to discrepant opinions on what represents genuineness. While the raters
were trained on what to look for and what were good and bad examples of genuineness it is
evident that more specific training should have been implemented. This will be addressed in a
follow-up rating analysis. Another limitation is the uneven representation of males across
conditions. While conditions 1, 2, and 3 had fairly comparable numbers of male participants,
condition 4 (amusing video and amusing instructions) only had 8 male participants (and 24
female participants). Even though the pilot study evidenced that both males and females
generally considered the Bridesmaids clip an amusing video, there may be gender differences in
regards to abiding by the amusing instructions. Based on the current data there is no significant
gender difference, but higher male numbers could reveal significance. It is possible females in
general laugh more in response to the instructions than males do or vice versa. Therefore the
LAUGHTER AND AMUSEMENT’S BUFFERING EFFECT
26
uneven gender makeup of this condition is a limitation in our analysis. This limitation will be
addressed by further data collection until all conditions have comparable male and female
representation.
If instructing someone to act bored and unamused dilutes that person’s internal
experience of amusement, our method to isolate amusement should be modified. Rather than
telling participants to behave as though what they are watching is extremely boring and bland,
we could tell participants to not outwardly express what they are feeling. This would be a more
neutral instruction and would not encourage participants to actively suppress their amusement.
Perhaps then we would observe a buffering effect of sole amusement. And in terms of further
examining this effect of instruction (expressivity) on amusement and positive affect, it would be
interesting to see if instructions can damper the experience of other emotions as well. Further
exploring the findings found in this experiment will allow for a greater understanding of how
instructions, amusement, and laughter affect our experience of stress.
LAUGHTER AND AMUSEMENT’S BUFFERING EFFECT
27
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LAUGHTER AND AMUSEMENT’S BUFFERING EFFECT
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APPENDIX A
DEAL
Below are a number of clusters of adjectives that describe different emotions or feelings. Each
group of adjectives is meant to get at a SINGLE basic feeling or emotion. Please indicate the
extent to which each cluster of adjectives characterizes the way you feel RIGHT NOW. Please
use the nine-point scale depicted below. Indicate your ratings by writing the appropriate
number (1 to 9) in the space provided next to EACH cluster of adjectives.
1------2------3------4------5------6------7------8------9
generally does not
generally characterizes
generally characterizes
characterize my
my feelings
my feelings
feelings at all
somewhat
extremely well
Rating
1) _______ surprised
astonished
10) _______ grateful
appreciative
thankful
2) ______
guilty
culpable
11) _______ interested
engaged
3) ______
defeated
resigned
beaten
12) _______ mad
angry
annoyed
4)________
relieved
unburdened
13)_______
5) _______
tranquil
calm
serene
14) _______ bored
detached
uninterested
6) _______
schadenfreude
(pleasure at someone else’s
misfortune)
15) _______ nervous
anxious
apprehensive
7) _______
determined
persistent
motivated
16) _______ proud
triumphant
8) _______
love
affection
17) _______ afraid
frightened
scared
9) _______
amused
18) _______ compassionate
empathetic
hopeful
optimistic
LAUGHTER AND AMUSEMENT’S BUFFERING EFFECT
30
1------2------3------4------5------6------7------8------9
generally does not
generally characterizes
generally characterizes
characterize my
my feelings
my feelings
feelings at all
somewhat
extremely well
Rating
19) _______ sad
downhearted
blue
24) _______ joyful
happy
glad
20)_______
ashamed
disgraced
25)_______
eager
enthused
excited
21)_______
disgusted
repulsed
revolted
26)_______
embarrassed
humiliated
22) _______ awed
wondrous
amazed
23) _______ lust
desire
attraction
27) _______ satisfied
content
LAUGHTER AND AMUSEMENT’S BUFFERING EFFECT
31
APPENDIX B
VIDEO PILOT SCRIPT
Before Participant Arrives
1. Turn on the Mac computer in the front room.
2. Check the Participant Sheet to see what order the participant should watch the videos in.
3. Check on the Participant Sheet to see what Participant Number this participant is.
4. On the computer pull up the Bookmarks (in the correct order – from participant sheet) in
Firefox that read PRE-DEAL PILOT, DEAL WEATHER REPORT, DEAL
BRIDESMAIDS, DEAL ECOSYSTEM, DEAL SCRUBS, DEAL WOODSHOP, and
PILOT RANKING (PRE-DEAL PILOT should always be first and PILOT RANKING
should always be last).
a. Example: Participant Sheet reads that Participant #1 will watch the videos in this
order: 25134. I will pull up the PRE-DEAL PILOT tab first, then DEAL
BRIDESMAIDS, DEAL ECOSYSTEM, DEAL WEATHER REPORT, DEAL
WOODSHOP, DEAL SCRUBS, and then PILOT RANKING.
5. On all of the questionnaires type in the Participant Number on the first page (example:
the first participant will be 1, the seventh participant will be 7). Press next page and
leave it.
6. Open a new webpage on a different tab in order to mask the questionnaires until it is
time for the participant to fill it out.
7. Make sure the folder labeled “Videos” is on the Desktop of the computer.
8. Angle the video camera appropriately so that it faces the participant, and NOT the
computer screen.
LAUGHTER AND AMUSEMENT’S BUFFERING EFFECT
32
9. Get a consent form from the bottom drawer of the short file cabinet in the testing room
(front room with Mac computer). Place the consent form next to the computer with a
pen.
With Participant
1. [as Participant enters the lab] Hello, are you here for our study? Lead participant over
to Mac computer. Please take a seat here and get settled in.
2. So in this study we are pilot testing videos, which we will use in future studies to elicit
emotions. We need to find a really funny/amusing video and a really
uninteresting/boring video. You are going to watch five videos and fill out a
questionnaire after each video. Please provide us with your honest ratings on the types
of emotions the videos evoke. We will be video recording you to see your facial
expressions while watching the videos.
3. Please read through this consent form and sign it. Let me know if you have any
questions.
Baseline
1. You are now going to fill out this questionnaire so we can get your baseline emotion.
Please notify me when you are done.
2. Click on the PRE-DEAL PILOT tab.
Videos
1. [When the participant has finished the pre-deal] Open the folder labeled “Videos” on
the Desktop of the computer.
2. You are going to watch this video first. Click on the first video (Example: participant 1
will watch Bridesmaids first). Put the video in FULL SCREEN.
LAUGHTER AND AMUSEMENT’S BUFFERING EFFECT
33
3. I am now going to turn on the video camera.
4. Turn on the video camera. Make sure the video camera is angled on the participant.
5. Please notify me when you are finished watching the first video. You can click play
when you are ready.
6. When participant is finished watching the video, click on the questionnaire that
corresponds to the video.
7. Let me know when you are finished with this questionnaire.
8. When the participant is finished, open the next video (repeat this process for all videos)
9. When the participant is finished, open the next questionnaire (repeat this process for all
questionnaires)
10. When the participant is finished with the fifth questionnaire, turn off video camera.
11. Now I am going to have you rank-order the videos. Please answer this questionnaire
and let me know when you are finished.
12. Click on the PILOT RANKING tab.
13. When participant is finished:
a. The study is now complete. Thank you for your time!
When Participant Leaves
1. Sign the consent form and lock it in the middle drawer of the short file cabinet in the
testing room (front room with Mac computer). The keys should be on the shelf above
the cabinet.
2. Plug the video camera into the Mac computer (using the USB cord). It also needs to be
plugged into the power adapter (which is plugged into the wall to the right of the
computer).
LAUGHTER AND AMUSEMENT’S BUFFERING EFFECT
34
3. Open up the canon drive on the desktop and click on the video icon.
4. Scroll to the clip of the participant you just ran and open it in Quicktime.
5. Save the Quicktime file to the desktop in the folder labeled “pilot clips”. Label it as
“Participant #” (Example: the first participant’s clip was labeled “Participant 1”)
6. Exit out of Quicktime.
7. Eject video camera. Make sure that it is charged for the next participant. You can delete
some of the video clips to make room on the camera AS LONG as they are uploaded to
the computer.
LAUGHTER AND AMUSEMENT’S BUFFERING EFFECT
35
APPENDIX C
MAIN STUDY SCRIPT
Before Participant Arrives
1. Put “Please knock sign.” On the door.
2. Turn on the Mac computer in the room the participant will be sitting in.
3. Refer to participant info sheet to determine participant ID number and condition.
4. On the Mac computer pull up the Bookmarks in Firefox that read Pre-DEAL NK
(baseline emotion) and Post-DEAL NK.
5. On the first page of the Pre-DEAL fill out the appropriate information and click next
page. Open a new webpage on a different tab in order to mask the questionnaire until it
is time for the participant to fill it out.
6. On the Mac computer pull up the assigned video on the Desktop, labeled either VIDEO
1 (amusing video) or VIDEO 2 (neutral video). Cover the video with the Firefox
browser window.
7. Retrieve a consent form and place it in front of the computer with a pen.
8. Angle the video camera appropriately so that it faces the participant, and NOT the
computer screen.
9. Open audio recording application on the Mac.
a. Save the file as ‘Subject#’J in the desktop folder called J-task files.
10. Put on lab coat.
Baseline
14. [as Participant enters the lab] Hello, are you here for our study? Lead participant over
to Mac computer. Please take a seat here and get settled in.
LAUGHTER AND AMUSEMENT’S BUFFERING EFFECT
36
15. So in this study we are examining social perception. Social perception means the way in
which people make judgments and inferences about others. In other words, when we are
observing or interacting with another person, we make judgments about that person
based on his/her body language, facial expressions, tone of voice, etc. We’re specifically
interested in the types of cues people use to make social judgments. During this study,
you’ll be doing a couple of different activities that will help us better understand these
processes. First, you’re going to be asked to behave in a certain way while being
videotaped. Specifically, you’re going to watch a film clip, and, no matter what it is,
you’re going to try to persuade the viewer that what you are watching is really boring
and uninteresting (or hilarious and amusing — based on what condition the participant
is assigned to). In a separate phase of the study, another person is going to watch that
videotape we make of you, and we are going to examine his/her interpretation and
perception of your body language, facial expressions, noises, etc. After you watch the
video and we record your behavior, you’ll be performing a cognitive task related to
social perception.
16. [pick up consent form on the desk and hand it to the participant] Please read through this
consent form and ask me any questions that you have. Once you have done so, please
sign the form. I will be in the next room so just speak up when you are done.
17. [collect consent, sign page, and insert completed form into manila envelope]. Okay,
before we get started, we want to make sure how you behave while being videotaped is
only motivated by the instructions you are given, and not by any other perceptions of
your current environment or internal state when you entered the lab. So we’d like you to
fill out this questionnaire about your current thoughts before we begin. You will also
LAUGHTER AND AMUSEMENT’S BUFFERING EFFECT
37
complete this same questionnaire at the end of the study. Please let me know when you
have completed the questionnaire. Click on the Pre-DEAL NK tab to reveal the survey.
Mood Induction
1. You are now going to watch the video. During this video we want you to use different
persuasion techniques and strategies to try and convince an observer of something.
Depending on assigned condition the script is as follows:
a. Amusing/funny expressivity: While you watch this video, try and convince an
observer that the video you are watching is very amusing and funny to you.
Regardless of your internal feelings towards the content of the video, use your
behavior to convince the observer. The video camera can only see you, not the
actual video. Use any facial expressions, noises, and/or bodily movements in
order to portray as effectively as possible that this video is extremely humorous.
b. Uninteresting/bland expressivity: While you watch this video, try and convince
an observer that the video you are watching is very uninteresting and bland to
you. Regardless of your internal feelings towards the content of the video, use
your behavior to convince the observer. The video camera can only see you, not
the actual video. Use any facial expressions, noises, and/or bodily movements in
order to portray as effectively as possible that this video is boring.
2. Minimize the Firefox window to reveal the video.
3. Walk over to the video camera. You can begin the video when you are ready. Please
notify me when the video is over. I am now going to press record on the video camera.
4. Press record on the video camera.
Stressor
LAUGHTER AND AMUSEMENT’S BUFFERING EFFECT
38
1. Gather notepad and pen in order to administer J-word task. We are now going to have
you complete a verbal fluency test. Research shows that those with higher verbal
fluency have more control over and are more able to manipulate their facial expressions
and body language effectively and realistically. For the next two minutes, I would like
you to list as many words that begin with a certain letter that you can think of. This has
been shown in previous research to be a good measure of verbal fluency. In our lab,
we’re interested in measuring perceptions of and responses to this task. Just so you
know, the average Vanderbilt undergraduate can list about 30 words. I’ll be recording
your responses as you go. Please do not use any proper nouns. Click on the recording
application on the Mac computer. Start recording.
2. Your specific letter will be J. You may begin when I say “begin.”
3. Begin!
4. Tally the number of words the participant lists using the notepad. Pay attention to the
time on the recording application.
5. [After the 2-minutes is complete] Okay now I am going to have you fill out the same
questionnaire as before once more. Please let me know when you are finished. Click on
the Post-DEAL NK tab to reveal the questionnaire.
Debriefing Script
1. The study is now complete. I will now debrief you on the purpose of the study. There is
currently a lot of hype surrounding laughter therapy and adaptive humor styles in the
world of psychology. The purpose of this experiment is to pinpoint what is driving the
positive effects of laughter. So we are examining if it is the emotion of amusement, the
sole physical act of laughing, or a combination of both that is driving these positive
LAUGHTER AND AMUSEMENT’S BUFFERING EFFECT
39
effects (such as protection against stress, and increased well-being). We have 4
conditions in this study. One group of participants watches the neutral video and is
instructed to behave as if it is boring/uninteresting (this is the no amusement | no
laughter condition), one group of participants watches the neutral video and is instructed
to behave as if it is humorous/amusing (this is the no amusement | laughter condition),
one group of participants watches the funny video and is instructed to behave as if it is
uninteresting/boring (this is the amusement | no laughter condition), and one group of
participants watches the funny video and is instructed to behave as if it is
humorous/amusing (this is the amusement | laughter condition). [Now say which
condition the current participant was in]. We hypothesize that the participants who
watch the humorous video and who laugh will respond less negatively to the J-word task
compared to all other conditions. But we are most curious to see the difference between
the no amusement | laughter condition and the amusement | no laughter condition. The
point is to see what has a bigger positive effect when protecting us against stress: sole
amusement or sole laughter. In order to do this we will use your survey responses to
compare your baseline emotion to your emotion after the stressor task, which we masked
as the J-word verbal fluency.
2. Additionally, we fabricated that the average Vanderbilt undergraduate can list about 30
J-words in 2 minutes. This information was meant to add to the stress of the task.
3. Do you have any questions? Comments? Concerns? Thank you for participating in our
study!
When Participant Leaves
1. Grant the participant credit on SONA.
LAUGHTER AND AMUSEMENT’S BUFFERING EFFECT
40
2. Sign the consent form and lock it in the middle drawer of the short file cabinet in the
testing room (front room with Mac computer). The keys should be on the shelf above
the cabinet.
3. Plug the video camera into the Mac computer (using the USB cord). It also needs to be
plugged into the power adapter (which is plugged into the wall to the right of the
computer).
a. Open up the canon drive on the desktop and click on the video icon.
b. Scroll to the clip of the participant you just ran and open it in Quicktime.
c. Save the Quicktime file to the desktop in the folder labeled “pilot clips”. Label it
as “Participant #” (Example: the first participant’s clip was labeled “Participant
1”)
d. Exit out of Quicktime.
e. Eject video camera. Make sure that it is charged for the next participant. You
can delete some of the video clips to make room on the camera AS LONG as
they are uploaded to the computer.