Running head: LITERATURE CIRCLES
The “How-to?” and “Whys?” of Literature Circles
Megan Elizabeth Richards
Capstone Experience
Peabody College at Vanderbilt University
Spring 2008
Literature Circles 1

Abstract
Curriculum Rationale
Literature Review
Introduction
Theoretical Framework
Teacher’s Role
General Organization
Getting Started
Assessment
Conclusion
Curriculum Overview
Table of Contents
References
Classroom Resources and Materials
Journal Response and Discussion Topics
Discussion Guidelines/Elements
Weekly Group Evaluation Form
Student Self-Evaluation Form
Teacher Group Observation Form
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Literature Circles 3
Abstract
Literature circles are an important component of the literacy curriculum in elementary classrooms. Literature circles are small groups of students with heterogeneous abilities talking together about a shared text. The look and sound of literature circles varies widely across classrooms. In general, however, they involve student-led discussions driven more by students’ questions and connections with the text than by the teacher’s agenda. Literature circles provide an opportunity for students to co-construct the meaning of a text. Research has shown that literature circles allow students to engage in discussion topics that are important and meaningful to them and in doing so promote a deeper understanding of the text. Having a dialogue surrounding literature helps students recognize a purpose for reading and allows them to act as readers in an authentic situation. In the process, students use language in multiple ways and engage in higher order thinking. Unfortunately, many teachers avoid implementing literature circles in the classroom because of the work and time involved in setting them up and because of the classroom management they require. However, with careful preparation teachers can overcome the difficulties to provide students with all of the benefits of literature circles.
This project further explores literature circles and provides the author’s vision of how she would implement literature circles in her own third grade classroom. The literature review provides the theoretical basis providing the foundation for literature circles. In addition, the literature review addresses the practical aspects of literature circles including the teacher’s role, the general organization, how to get started with implementation, and how to assess students. Following the literature review is a sample curriculum overview outlining the transition into literature circles in a third grade

Literature Circles 4 classroom and a rationale that more explicitly connects theory and practice. Additional materials for use in the classroom are included.

Literature Circles 5
Literature Review
Introduction
Literature circles are becoming a common framework in many elementary classrooms in the United States. The benefits associated with literacy development and instruction are numerous. Learners become purposeful and reflective, developing critical thinking skills in a positive classroom community learning context. A strong curriculum using quality literature and critical response engages students in authentic literacy practices in which educators can accurately assess learner knowledge and development.
Theoretical Framework
A transactional view of reading, found in reader response theory, is embedded within the use of literature circles. The transactional view suggests that meaning is not solely in a text but rather in the transaction between the reader and the text. “Readers are not passive spectators of the text but are active performers with the text…During the reading activity, the reader and the text mutually act on each other, each affecting and conditioning the other” (Karolides, 1977, p. 8).
An important assumption of reader response theory is that stance is important.
The stance a reader takes when reading a text will have an influence on the meaning that the reader takes away. A learner taking an aesthetic stance reads with attention to the experience and what he/she is thinking and feeling during the reading. Rosenblatt (1991) calls this the “lived through experience.” On the other hand, with an efferent stance the reader’s primary goal is to acquire information. The purpose is to learn something more than experience something (Rosenblatt, 1991; Spiegel, 1998).

Literature Circles 6
The aesthetic and the efferent are opposite ends on a spectrum but should not be viewed as dualistic. Any reading is likely to be a blend of the two stances. Students need to develop the ability to adopt a stance on the continuum that is appropriate to the text, the situation, and their own personal purposes. Many times textbook and teacher questions emphasize an efferent stance and hurry children away from the lived-through experience (Rosenblatt, 1991). While as a whole, the curriculum needs to address both the aesthetic and efferent in texts, literature circles provide an ideal opportunity for students to experience literature. The opportunity to exchange ideas and engage in authentic dialogue gets students actively involved. Responding to a text becomes personally meaningful rather than a passive act of reciting answers to questions that may not be relevant in students’ lives. The free and open exchange of ideas that occurs in discussion promotes a deep understanding of a text (Almasi, 1996).
Another important assumption of reader response theory is that, while grounded in the text, meaning is personal and multiple interpretations are to be expected. Each reader comes to a situation with different background knowledge and various experiences that he/she uses to interpret the information available in a text. Spiegel (1998) lists possible perspectives entering into the equation of meaning-making including the author’s, each individual student’s, and the “changing interpretation within one reader when faced with challenges to her or his interpretation from the text or from others” (p.
43). Response, then, is not a one time occurrence. Responses will change over time and are likely to be influenced by other people and experiences. Following interactions with others, responses will deepen and change (Rosenblatt, 1976 as cited in Maloch, 2000).

Literature Circles 7
In literature circles, students enrich their original interpretations as they hear the ideas of their peers (Day, Spiegel, McLellan & Brown, 2002). In rethinking meanings and connections that they want to share in their groups, children often reread parts of a text and look again at important issues. They have an opportunity to stand back and gain new meanings (Kaufman & Yoder, 1998). Hearing multiple interpretations promotes in students the ability to think critically and consider various perspectives. In addition, students develop the ability to confirm, extend, and modify interpretations as they are exposed to classmates’ considerations (Almasi, 1996). These reader-oriented discussions of multiple interpretations are empowering for students because there is not one strict authority that needs to be adhered to for an answer. The teacher is not the arbiter of meaning. Therefore students take responsibility for identifying, exploring, and resolving their own questions and for monitoring their own meaning-making (Spiegel, 1998).
Another theoretical framework active within the use of literature circles is that of sociocultural theory. Sociocultural theory is grounded in the understanding that cognitive activity is socially defined and interpreted. Such a framework suggests that social interactions determine how we think and that the optimal zone for learning is what we can do with the support of others (McGee & Richgels, 2000). Vygotsky calls this the
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) and defines it as “The distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers…The ZPD defines those functions that have not yet matured but are in the process of maturation” (Vygotsky, 1978 as cited in Maloch,

Literature Circles 8
2000, p. 6). It is within social environments and through interactions that learners observe higher level cognitive processing that may be within their ZPD.
Scaffolding, a common instructional feature, fits well within a sociocultural perspective. The basic processes of scaffolding “involve the negotiation of meaning and the transfer of responsibility for learning within a social context” (Maloch, 2000, p. 9).
Cooperative learning groups like literature circles serve as a curricular scaffold for students (Alwood, 2000). They serve as a social environment in which group members can work together to collaboratively construct meaning. Students begin to internalize interpretive, higher level thinking behaviors as they participate in the process of constructing meaning (Almasi, 1996). The more opportunities that students have to use language to construct and communicate meaning, the greater the development of higher order thinking (McMahon, 1996).
Teacher’s Role
In a traditional classroom learning context, the majority of interactions occur in an
I-R-E pattern. The teacher initiates the interaction with a question, the student responds, and then the teacher evaluates the student’s response for correctness. In such interactions, teacher-talk dominates. The teacher is the leader and orchestrator of interaction. It is the teacher who decides what child can speak, whom they can speak to, when they can speak, and about what (Wiencek, 1996). The I-R-E pattern directly opposes the goals of decentralized discussion formats like literature circles that allow for greater student responsibility and more room to talk (Maloch, Green, Tuyay, Dixon, &
Floriani, 2004). Wiencek (1996) reminds us that the teacher’s presence and style of interacting with students has a strong impact on the content and direction of student

Literature Circles 9 conversation by determining when and where to start a discussion, directing turn-taking, and emphasizing particular curricular goals.
Maloch (2000) suggests that the teacher’s role in literature circles should be
“responsive rather than directive” (p. 52). In other words, the role that the teacher plays at any particular moment should depend on the needs of the students and the teacher’s goals for students based on their perceived needs. The overall role of the teacher is to ensure that students continue to learn, develop, and apply interactive and interpretive strategies during discussion (Wiencek, 1996). What this looks like will differ depending on the students and will likely change over time. The teacher needs to assess the students’ understanding and performances in literature circles and then act in a way to support and extend their learning. Essentially, the teacher must scaffold student growth.
Sometimes this may require a great deal of support and other times the teacher can be more removed from the discussion.
Short, Kaufman, Kaser, Kahn, & Crawford (1999) outline various teacher roles that they identified based on an examination of teacher talk in literature circles, including teacher as facilitator and teacher as participant. As a facilitator, the teacher encourages student interaction and talk and helps to monitor social interactions that interfere with literature discussion. This may involve the teacher encouraging students to expand their ideas or asking a student who cannot be heard to speak more loudly. The teacher may ask probing questions, prompt students, and/or elaborate student responses. Likely in this role, the teacher is sitting just outside of the circle of students and making comments and suggestions only as needed.

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As a participant in a literature circle, the teacher has genuine interactions with the other readers. The teacher sits in the discussion group and contributes to the discussion just as students are expected to do. For instance, the teacher may share his/her own personal experiences and connections to the text and ask “real” questions. McGee (1996) describes these “real” questions as ones that we do not have answers to and truly want to know what students think. As an active participant, the teacher might try sharing his/her own ideas with tentative language, hedging comments with “maybe”, “I’m not sure but…”, or “I wonder…”, so as to clarify for students that the teacher’s ideas are not the only correct answers or interpretations. As a co-participant, teachers model their own thought processes through think-alouds and demonstrations of their own meaning construction (Wells, 1995). This becomes an opportunity for the teacher to model appropriate interactions and literary language. Maloch (2000) labels this teacher role as
“knowledgeable participant” (p. 41). The teacher provides the literary discourse for what student groups are already doing and discussing. In such a manner, the teacher introduces an academic discourse that may not naturally arise if the teacher were not present. Similar to the role of facilitator, the teacher as a participant is still able to encourage student participation and monitor social interactions, but it just occurs less explicitly as the teacher partakes in a genuine book discussion with the students.
There are additional roles besides participant and facilitator that teachers may assume in literature circles. Wiencek (1996) includes teacher as a “coach from the sidelines” (p. 216) as a possible role. Wiencek and O’Flahavan (1994) remind us that
“coaches do their best work when they assess a performance, teach before and after significant chunks of performance, and adjust their teaching from performance to

Literature Circles 11 performance” (p. 355). This role of coach fits into their version of literature circles that they refer to as the Conversational Discussion Group Framework. Their framework has three parts to it: an opening, the discussion, and a debriefing. During the opening, the teacher leads the small group by recording discussion guidelines that the teacher and group agree upon. During the discussion, the teacher sits outside of the circle and takes notes on the group process and conversation topics. Serving as a note-taker, the teacher is able to evaluate the types of talk and thinking that are occurring among students.
Following the discussion, the teacher leads the debriefing portion of the framework by sharing the notes he/she took during the discussion. Based on what is observed during the discussion, the teacher “coaches” by providing feedback and suggestions for the next discussion. In the Conversational Discussion Group Framework, the opening and debriefing phases of the framework provide an opportunity for direct instruction.
It is important to remember that even with a student-directed format like literature circles, some direct teaching is necessary (Wiencek, 1996). A role of teacher as “leader”
(Maloch, 2000, p. 48) provides the opportunity for explicit instruction. Particularly in the beginning stages of literature circle implementation, the teacher may need to explain to students the concept of small-group text discussions and demonstrate the new processes and interaction patterns that are involved (Maloch, 2000). In addition to explicit teaching of conversation strategies such as turn-taking and discussion initiation, direct instruction will also likely be necessary to introduce curricular standards like reading strategies and literary language such as characters, setting, flashback, and point of view (Wiencek,
1996). However, even when the teacher is the “leader” it is not the traditional role of leader in which the teacher “guides the discussion by checking readers’ comprehension

Literature Circles 12 and ‘covering’ the story” (Wells, 1995, p. 135). Instead, the dialogue is still collaborative. Before and after literature group discussions, the instruction may take the form of “interactive lecture” (Kong, 2002, p.14) in which the teacher gets the students actively involved in demonstrations and the practicing of new skills and strategies.
This description of teacher-roles is not exhaustive and even these are all overlapping. Their “definitions” vary depending on the teacher/researcher discussing them, and there is not necessarily a right or wrong way to fill each role. In addition, different teachers will rely on different roles to varying degrees. Some teachers might choose to be a “leader” initially and then transition into a co-participant role. Other teachers may start out as a knowledgeable participant and eventually leave the group completely to function on its own. Alwood (2000) suggests that after students have an understanding of how literature circles function, there should be a balance between when the group meets with the teacher and when they meet on their own. Again, this is a matter of teacher opinion and preference based on the perceived needs of the students in the class.
General Organization
The structure of literature circles is very dependent upon the classroom environment and learning context in which they are implemented. They can differ in a variety of features: size and make-up of the groups, how materials are selected, how often groups meet and for how long, what the topics of discussion are and who chooses them, and the academic components embedded within the structure.
Conversational goals for literature circles impact the number of students in each group. Larger groups of six to eight students allow for more perspectives and more topics to be raised. However, as groups get bigger there is the risk of distractions and

Literature Circles 13 management inefficiencies taking over. In a smaller group each member has more responsibility and participants might have more opportunity to develop their own individual perspectives more deeply (Hanssen, 1998). The ultimate goal is a productive group which balances active participation with a good diversity of ideas (Daniels, 2002).
The general consensus in the trade literature about forming groups is to form them around student book choice and the teacher’s knowledge of the students. A common practice is to introduce a text set with book talks about each text and have students vote for their top three choices. Then the teacher arranges the groups, taking into account student preference as well as potential group dynamics based on the social and academic development of the individual students (Gilbert, 2000; Maloch, 2000; Wiencek, 1996;
Moss, 1995). After students have finished a text, sometimes they choose another text together as a group (Calkins, 2001). In other classrooms, groups are rearranged for each literature circle cycle as students make text choices individually (Raphael, Florio-Ruane
& George, 2001). In having a say in the text they read, learners take ownership of the groups and are more motivated to participate in discussions (Daniels, 2002).
Often teachers choose text sets around a common theme or unit of study. Books grouped within an instructional unit provide the class with a shared focus, and the link to other curricular materials can elicit insightful comparisons (Roser & Martinez, 1995).
Another option is to choose texts based on students’ voiced interests or questions.
Regardless, in deciding on text sets teachers need to choose high quality books that will invite discussion (Wiencek, 1996). Different books tend to lend themselves to different types of discussion. Roser and Martinez (1995) suggest that stories can be seen as experience, message, or object. As an experience, books foster discussion about the

Literature Circles 14 world of the story – its characters, their motivations, and tensions as a lived-through experience. Books with dramatic plot structures and problems that students can identify with tend to promote “story as experience” discussions. Books that are multi-layered and deal with dilemmas or that call values into play and do not have one simple solution lend themselves more to “story as message” types of thinking in which central truths and themes are explored. Story as an object, on the other hand, focuses more on the writer’s craft; how the story was written and how it works. Texts surrounding an author study or texts with unique formats may promote these types of insights from students (Roser &
Martinez, 1995).
Once materials have been selected and students are in groups, the teacher needs to consider the schedule of the book discussions and the academic components embedded within them. Students may read an entire book independently and then join to discuss it after they have finished reading (Wiencek & O’Flahavan, 1994). Another option is for students to read the book together in their groups and discuss as they go along. This tends to work well particularly with younger students who need more reading support
(Peralta-Nash & Dutch, 2000). Still another possibility is that students set a schedule for how many pages or chapters to read on their own and then meet after they have read the set pages (Day et al., 2002; Gilbert, 2000; Maloch, 2000). Regardless, groups should meet on a regular, predictable schedule so that students get into a routine and come prepared for discussions (Calkins, 2001).
The discussion format will influence how long each meeting lasts and how often the groups meet. In Day’s classroom (2002) her book clubs meet just once per week with discussions lasting twenty to thirty minutes. The same is true in the classroom in which

Literature Circles 15
Maloch (2000) completed her thesis. On the days of the week that groups do not meet, other literacy activities take place during the language arts time. One component of those literacy activities is silent sustained reading, in which students can read their book club text if they choose to do so. Whereas all of Day’s groups meet on the same day, the teacher in Maloch’s study assigns each group to one day of the week. Wiencek (1996) also chooses to have groups meet on different days so that she can be present within the groups to help monitor interactions. Book Club Plus, a program created by Raphael,
Florio-Ruane, & George (2001), on the other hand, occurs three days/week. In this format, students read, write in journals, and discuss on each of the three days. The students are given about fifteen minutes to read independently or with a partner, about ten minutes to write responses and prepare for discussion, and between ten and twenty minutes to discuss as a group what they read. Speigel (1998) brings up an important issue to consider, however, when reading occurs on the day of the discussion. He suggests that sustained silent reading is a self-paced activity, and when readers are expected to finish within a common time frame some students may rush in order to get through the text.
They may end up with superficial and incomplete understandings. He argues that meaning takes time, so readers need ample time to reflect.
As in Book Club Plus (Raphael, Florio-Ruane, & George, 2001), along with the small-group discussion, many teachers choose to have students participate in written responses before meeting with their groups. In his early writing about literature circles,
Daniels (2003) suggests each student in a group have a specific role. He provides examples such as a questioner, a connector, an illustrator, a word-wizard, and suggests a worksheet or written response that goes along with each role. The purpose of such roles

Literature Circles 16 is to get students thinking like readers and to supply discussion topics. Use of such roles has received criticism, however, as they often end up being misused. Many teachers feel as though specific roles stifle discussion and create a round-robin format of sharing in discussion groups as opposed to authentic conversations (Daniels, 2002). As an alternative, writing in journals prior to discussion may work more effectively than rolesheets to stimulate discussion. Other teachers have students use post-it notes or bookmarks to document their thinking as they read (Daniels, 2002).
Writing in response to reading can help learners analyze and synthesize what they have read. Students have time to think and get their ideas on paper before they begin the discussion. This allows groups to move beyond simple retellings to deeper topics (Day et al., 2002). At the same time, journal writing keeps all students accountable without assigning particular roles. Another benefit is that if teachers choose not to be present when groups meet, journal responses can offer insight into students’ thoughts and literary understandings about the text (Porter, 1998).
Some teachers prefer to offer students journal prompts whereas others have students respond freely. Day et al. (2002) suggest that good writing prompts can be used with any book as a way to think about the text. Prompts might encourage students to make personal connections to the text or express their feelings about a text with questions such as: What did the story remind you of? Is there any character that is like you and how? Is there a character you would want to be friends with and why? How did the story make you feel – which parts and why? A prompt may also ask students to identify important elements from the text. For example, a student might respond to questions such as: What do you think are one or two of the most important ideas from the story?

Literature Circles 17
Who do you think is the most important character and why? Does the title fit the story and why?
In many cases, journal writing serves as a starting point for discussions once students are in their groups. The type of talk that occurs in literature circles can range greatly from a focused discussion on the characters/plot of the story to the readers’ personal connections, and/or the writer’s craft or literary elements. In a study by Short,
Kaufman, Kaser, Kahn, and Crawford (1999), the researchers coded transcripts from literature circle discussions. They encountered talk that fell into the following categories: personal opinion, text evaluation, personal connections, intertextual connections, broad thematic statements, inferences, style of writing/illustration, retelling, clarification and extension, inquiry questions, restatements, and conversational maintenance. In literature circles, learners articulate and clarify confusion, use their own experiences to elaborate on the text, make inferences, and evaluate the text (Day et al., 2002). Sometimes talk will evolve to the exploration of content beyond the direct focus of the books. Students have an opportunity to discuss important issues in their lives. In addition to talk about the text, discussion groups can serve as an arena to talk about the reading process and specific reading strategies (Gilles, 1998).
In most classrooms, literature circles involve more than just the small group meetings. Usually the structures begin and end with whole-class meetings. These meetings serve as an opportunity for mini-lessons on reading and communication strategies in addition to reflection as to how things are going within the groups. Wholeclass meetings are an opportunity to talk explicitly about the how and what of literature discussions. For example, teachers can provide instruction on literary elements and how

Literature Circles 18 to incorporate them into discussions (Maloch, 2000; Maloch, Green, Tuyay, Dixon &
Floriani, 2004; Raphael et al., 2001; Day et al., 2002). Literary lessons might include studying the author’s craft or the components of a mystery. More procedural lessons, on the other hand, might involve what to write about in a response journal or how to get discussions started, for instance (Daniels, 2002).
Getting Started
Literature circles, without a doubt, are complex structures and take a lot of work on the front end to implement effectively. Students need to be prepared for a different type of classroom interaction than they may be accustomed to. The manner in which teachers prepare students varies widely, but in reviewing several trade publications, there seem to be some common features.
There is a shared understanding in the field that a feeling of community within the classroom is a prerequisite for effective group work (Day et.al., 2002; Gilbert, 2000;
Maloch, 2000; Short & Kaufman, 1995; Short & Pierce, 1998; Steinke, 2002). Creating a sense of community means taking time to let students get to know one another, establishing basic behavior expectations, and negotiating class norms (Steinke, 2002).
Most teachers begin the year right away with an abundance of read-alouds and whole-class discussions during and after the read-alouds. Sharing read-alouds provides an opportunity to develop a positive classroom community and set up appropriate discussion norms (Gilbert, 2000). The teacher and students negotiate the various types of comments and discussion topics that are appropriate for book discussions. Read-alouds and class discussions are an ideal situation to model asking “real” questions or turning back to the text, for example.

Literature Circles 19
Moreover, read-alouds help to build a community by providing shared stories and understandings (Kaufman & Yoder, 1998). Students share read-aloud texts as common experiences and can respond to new texts in light of previous ones (Short & Kaufman,
1995). Read-alouds and whole group discussion then serve as a scaffold into literature circles. Many teachers choose to make the transition into small group discussions gradually. For example, once the class has had ample experience with whole-class discussions, some teachers choose to still use a read-aloud but break students into small groups for discussion as opposed to discussing the text all together. The whole class still discusses the same text, but students gain experience working in small groups. Teachers may even provide an open-ended prompt at this point to help students get the discussion initiated (Day et al., 2002).
As another transitional step, all the students may still read the same text, but do so independently before meeting with their groups (Maloch, 2000). Exchanging ideas about useful questions and specific discussion topics is easier when each group has read the same text (Steinke, 2002). Other teachers choose to scaffold by starting with partner discussions before small-group discussions so that interaction strategies are less complex
(Maloch et al., 2004). Beginning with picture books or short stories before having students read novels is another way to ease the transition into literature circles (Daniels,
2002).
In addition to the implicit instruction that occurs through read-alouds, many teachers also provide explicit instruction of discussion guidelines prior to implementing the small-group structure. For example, as part of a whole-group lesson, teachers may have students generate discussion guidelines and then follow with role-playing of

Literature Circles 20 appropriate and inappropriate discussion behaviors (Daniels & Steinke, 2004). Having a posted list or chart of interpretation and interaction strategies can serve as a reminder for small groups as they begin discussions (Wiencek, 1996). Mini-lessons surrounding problem-solving, conflict management, listening skills, and equitable participation can prepare students for both large and small group interactions (Maloch, 2000). Fish-bowl activities, in which one small group conducts a literature circle while the rest of the students observe, can serve as a powerful example of group interactions. Following a fish-bowl activity, the whole class addresses the positive features and what discussion skills could have been improved (Calkins, 2001).
There is not one “right” way to begin literature circles. However, in some manner, literature circle preparation should include an explanation of how literature circles work and why they are important, ample demonstration of how they look and sound, lots of practice, and time to reflect on the process (Daniels, 2002).
Assessment
Various purposes drive assessment. The use of assessment to understand students’ strengths and needs in order to determine the next instructional step is of primary importance (Day et al., 2002). Assessment also provides teachers, as well as students, parents, and administrators with evidence of student learning. With the goals and format of literature circles teachers cannot rely on traditional multiple choice, literal text comprehension exams in order to assign a grade. Teachers must ask what it is that we are trying to assess. Constructive assessment in general should reflect and encourage good instruction. Assessment should reinforce teaching methods and goals (Daniels,
2002).

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For literature circles, assessment needs to be multi-leveled and should include assessment of content, language, thought, and conventions (Watson, 1998). The teacher’s data collection can take any form, but it should address a variety of issues. In many cases it is helpful to develop a rubric. It may address questions including: Do students understand the purpose of discussion? Do they articulate what confuses them?
Do they understand different perspectives? Are students interacting well during discussion? Are they willing to disagree, how do they do so? Do they ask questions of others? What is the nature of students’ thinking? Do they look for multiple explanations?
Do students use literary language (terms such as character, setting, tone, theme, foreshadowing) in discussions? (Day et al., 2002). These and other similar criteria can be created based on grade-level standards and the teacher’s goals for students.
A similar rubric can be used by students themselves to reflect upon their own participation. Effective thinkers and problem solvers constantly self-evaluate and monitor. Setting learners up with tools to do so helps students take increasing responsibility over their own learning. Students may fill out an evaluation form daily or weekly, taking note of what happened in the book club, what went well, and what they can improve upon. Such a form might include criteria such as come prepared, listen actively, ask follow-up questions, have original ideas, and support your ideas with the text (Daniels, 2003). Having students reflect on these issues regularly ensures assessment is process-oriented and continuous.
Another option that McMahon (1996) suggests is audio-taping or video-taping student discussions so groups can go back to listen to and critique their own process and progress. By listening back, students can reflect on areas such as discussion initiation,

Literature Circles 22 turn-taking, and topic selection. Teachers can also look back at taped sessions when they cannot be present within the groups.
There needs to be a wide range of evidence of student-learning. After a cycle of literature circles, there should be enough material available to create a portfolio for each student. It might include the teacher’s observational notes and checklists and student-self evaluations, in addition to any journal entries or written notes taken by the child before, during, and after discussions (Watson, 1998). Creating portfolios of work samples, conferences, anecdotal notes, and checklists provides a self-referenced growth measure rather than one that is norm- or criterion-referenced. Tracking student progress in this way better informs instruction so that it can build upon students’ strengths.
Teachers in today’s classrooms deal with a lot of pressures surrounding accountability and assessment. While literature circles may require a different kind of assessment than what teachers are accustomed to, they also provide great evidence of students’ reading, learning, and thinking. Instead of thinking of assessment as one more challenge to the implementation of literature circles, teachers should view assessment activities in literature circles as an integral part of instruction.
Conclusion
Literature circles can play an important part in a balanced literacy program. They are reader response centered constructs that create space for student independence, responsibility, and ownership. Literature circles provide an opportunity for students to use reading and writing skills in an authentic situation. Together with their peers, students co-construct meaning and develop a deep understanding of text while sharpening their critical thinking skills. Students engage in meaningful conversations and explore

Literature Circles 23 diverse reader and text-based interpretations. As complex structures, literature circles take time to set up in the classroom and require constant reflection, problem-solving, and adjustment. However, they are well worth the time and effort in the student learning outcomes they produce.

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Curriculum Overview
Objectives
1.
Students will participate actively in discussions where they are participants of equal status
2.
Students will make personal, textual, and real-world connections with literature
3.
Students will develop ownership of what they read and their responses
4.
Students will expand their repertoire of responses to literature
5.
Students will listen to and respect the ideas of their peers
6.
Students will gain an appreciation for multiple interpretations
7.
Students will become active readers who are thoughtful and reflective about what they read
Transition into literature circles
To begin in October-
Stage 1: The text ( Rules by Cynthia Lord) is chosen by the teacher and read-aloud by chapters. Discussion takes place as a whole-group.
Stage 2: Continued text ( Rules by Cynthia Lord) is read-aloud. Discussion takes place in small groups.
Stage 3: One new text is chosen by the teacher for the whole class. Reading takes place independently but on a time-schedule set by the teacher. Discussion takes place in small groups.
Stage 4: Groups are formed based on student-choice of text. Reading takes place independently but on a schedule set by the teacher. Discussion takes place in small groups.
Stage 5: Groups are formed based on student-choice of text. Student groups set their reading schedules. Discussion takes place in small groups.
Starting schedule (Stages 1 and 2)
Day 1:
1.
Have students gather on the read-aloud carpet for introduction of the new novel
2.
Introduce the book – give brief background, activate background knowledge
3.
Read aloud chapters 1 and 2 of Rules
4.
Begin discussion with an open-ended question – What do you think of the story so far?
5.
As teacher, avoid jumping into the conversation too much. Ask prompting questions as the discussion starts to slow down.

Literature Circles 25
6.
Have students pick one thing we talked about in the discussion or something else they would have liked to have talked about and write more in their journals about it.
Day 2:
1.
Have students bring their journals to the carpet. Ask volunteers to share what they wrote about from the previous day following the discussion.
2.
Explain to students that they will be using their journal writing as a way to start discussions.
3.
Create a list of open-ended journal response topics based on students’ and teacher suggestions that would make for good discussion topics (see attachment for possible questions).
4.
Read aloud chapters 3 and 4 of Rules
5.
Have students do a quick-write response to one of the prompts we came up with or one of their own prior to our discussion
6.
Discuss chapters as a whole group. As students are responding, jump in occasionally to name what they are doing (Ex. I like how John listened to Susie and built his response off of hers; Jessica, at this point you might want to ask Joe a follow-up question; Tom, thank-you for waiting for Jim to finish speaking before you began, etc.)
Day 3
1.
Gather students on the carpet and read aloud chapter 5 and 6 of Rules
2.
Have students write for 10 minutes in their journals.
3.
Have a student get the discussion started by sharing his/her ideas. Tell the students that you are planning to stay out of the discussion and just watch so you can point out things you notice (like on day 2).
4.
Continue with language from the previous day and making suggestions to improve the conversation (ex. Jessica, now might be a good time for you to ask
Joe a follow-up question. You might say, ‘what made you feel that way?’; Mark, that was a great question, it really got the group thinking. Now you need to wait for their answers before you continue talking, etc.)
5.
As discussion winds down, commend students on a productive discussion. Ask them to list things they noticed that helped the discussion go smoothly. As the students name strategies, list them on chart paper. (See attachment for example of possible guidelines and strategies)
6.
Finish by having students role-play good and bad examples of discussion behaviors.
Day 4:
1.
Tell students that today we will read another chapter aloud. However, after reading and responding in their journals, they will meet in small groups to discuss the chapter.
2.
Read aloud chapters 6 and 7 of Rules
3.
Have students write in their journals

Literature Circles 26
4.
Review list of discussion behaviors and assign groups (4 groups of 5 students)
5.
Circulate the room as the groups are discussing. Keep discussion time short- approximately 10 minutes.
6.
Reconvene on the carpet to debrief. Have groups share what topics they discussed and what went well.
Day 5:
1.
Read aloud chapters 8 and 9 of Rules
2.
Students write in journals
3.
Students meet as groups for discussion while teacher circulates
4.
Introduce students to the group evaluation form created based on their suggestions about what makes a good discussion (see attached form)
5.
Put the evaluation form on the overhead so groups can refer to it as they debrief on their discussion.
Day 6:
1.
Explain to students that we are beginning to work our way towards our full-blown literature circles. Explain how the weekly schedule will work- alternating days between reading/journal writing and discussions.
2.
Today is an independent reading day. The students will have 30 minutes to read chapters 10 and 11 and respond in their journals. (If they don’t finish, they can finish it at another point in the day or for homework).
Day 7:
1.
Select a student group to serve as a model for the class. Explain the fish-bowl activity in which one group will have their discussion while the rest of the class acts as observers.
2.
After the fish-bowl activity, fill out a group evaluation form as a class. Discuss what went well, what could have been improved, other things students noticed.
Day 8:
1.
Independent reading of chapter 12 and 13 followed by journal writing.
Day 9:
1.
Mini-lesson: brief mini-lesson on something noticed from fish-bowl activity. If teacher noticed disconnected discourse, for example, explain and model follow-up questions.
2.
Group discussions of chapters 12 and 13
3.
Whole-class debrief
Day 10:
1.
Finish the text and journal writing
Day 11:
1.
Mini-lesson on “agreeably disagreeing” (or other necessary topic)

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2.
Group discussions
3.
Whole-class debrief
Continued weekly schedule (Stages 3, 4, and 5)
Monday/Wednesday/Friday:
Whole-class mini-lesson on discussion or reading strategy (5-15 minutes)
Group discussions (20 minutes)
Whole-class debrief (5-10 minutes)
Tuesday/Thursday:
Silent Sustained Reading and Journal Writing (40 minutes)
Everyday: Additional literacy block activities (Reading aloud, shared reading, guided reading, guided and independent writing).
On-going Assessment
-Students will fill out group and self-evaluation forms weekly, following debriefing on
Friday (See attached forms)
-I will observe 2 groups per day during discussions, each for 10 minutes to fill out teacher evaluation chart (See attached form). By the end of two weeks, I will have seen each group 4 times.
-I will read students journals on a rotating schedule on Tuesdays and Thursdays as they are reading independently. I will take notes on strategies to address in focus lessons.

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Curriculum Rationale
I have set up five stages for a transition into literature circles in a third grade classroom. You will notice that the concept of literature circles is not being introduced until the students are more than a month into the school year. The purpose for this is to have the beginning of the year to establish classroom behavior and interaction norms so there is an appropriate learning context to begin literature circles. During the first month of school, the students will be taking part in a variety of literacy activities that include read-alouds, ample independent and partner reading, guided reading, responding to reading with writing, guided writing, and independent writing. A love of literature and meaningful talk about text will be a central theme of the classroom right from the beginning. By starting literature circles once we are a little ways into the school year, the students will have a shared background of experiences as a foundation from which to build. Within a community of learners the students know each other, value what each has to offer, and share responsibility and control. In starting literature circles, the students will already have somewhat of a feel for generating things to talk about when they read and how to respond to what others say.
My plan for the transition into literature circles outlines several stages. This demonstrates the use of the pedagogical approach of scaffolding in which responsibility is transferred gradually to the students as they become more and more capable. In the first stage, the teacher holds the majority of the responsibility and control by choosing the text, reading the text aloud, and facilitating discussion.
Once students have an initial understanding of the text and of appropriate discussion topics and behaviors, they will transition into small-group discussions

Literature Circles 29 surrounding the same text that the teacher is reading aloud. The read-aloud ensures that all students have access to the text, eliminates any timing/scheduling issues, and continues to develop of a sense of community among the whole class.
In stage three, when students begin the reading for literature circles independently, the teacher is still the one who decides how many chapters will be read prior to each discussion in order to model for the students appropriate time-management.
In this stage each small group is still reading the same text. This serves to facilitate continued whole-class conversations about the text as student-groups are still refining their discussion strategies.
More responsibility is released in stage four when the student groups choose the text they would like to read. I have chosen to keep the students in the same groups and have them choose a text as a group. The purpose is to help them create their own community within the small group. By staying in the same group for two texts, their conversations can be layered with insights from previous ideas and discussions. Finally, by stage five, literature circles will be in full swing.
The book I have chosen to begin literature circles is Rules by Cynthia Lord. It is about a ten year old girl, Catherine, that has conflicting feelings about her younger brother who is autistic. While she loves him, she is also embarrassed by his behavior and feels neglected by their parents. When a new girl moves in next door, Catherine hopes that the girl will become her friend but is nervous about her reaction to her younger brother. Throughout the book, Catherine begins to understand that normal is hard to define and that the acceptance of others is more important. It is a story about being different, feeling different, and finding acceptance.
I have chosen this text because, as a

Literature Circles 30
Newbery honor book and winner of the Schneider Family Book Award, it addresses many topics that students will relate to (friendship, family relationships, feeling insecure), while at the same time providing an opportunity to develop an understanding of people perhaps different from themselves. The text lends itself well to a variety of discussion topics and allows for multiple perspectives.
In addition to the transition overview, I have provided a more in-depth look at what I imagine the early lessons in the transition to literature circles would look like. I decided to include this overview because the structure is slightly different than the actual literature circles will be when they are in full swing. Day one and two serve as an introduction for the students. The new text is introduced, discussion topics are explicitly modeled, and writing in a journal for the facilitation of discussion begins. Days two and three address interaction norms for discussion groups. Interactional pedagogic techniques such as signaled modeling, directives, and elaborative explanations (Maloch, et.al, 2004) provide students with additional interactional strategies to add to their discussion repertoires. On day three, the students also spend time role-playing good and bad discussion behaviors to clarify new procedures. On day four, the students meet in small groups for the first time for discussion after the read-aloud and journal writing.
I have decided to organize four groups of five students (or as close as possible, depending on the class size). Five in a group will facilitate each member of the group having ample opportunity to speak and share their ideas while still providing multiple points of view. In addition, four groups will be most manageable for me, as a new teacher, to meet with on a regular basis so that I can monitor their progress.

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Day five introduces some of the paper work that will be an important component of literature circles: the group evaluation form (See attached form). The students are to fill out the group evaluation form weekly at the end of their Friday discussions. The students begin reading independently on day six. We are moving towards what will be our regular literature circle schedule in which they have two days per week reserved for reading and responding in their journals. The next day, day seven, I will have chosen one group to be a model for the rest of the class. Following their reading from class six, I will have one group carry out a discussion while the rest of the class observes. With this
“fishbowl” technique, the class gets to reflect on a live transcript. On day eight the regular literature circle schedule begins. From here on, the students will read the assigned pages and write in their journals on Tuesdays, Thursdays, and over the weekend in preparation for discussion on Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays.
On discussion days, the class will begin with a whole-group focus lesson. During this time, I will typically be in a “leader” role, doing a brief mini-lesson on a reading or discussion strategy. These will typically last between five and fifteen minutes. I will likely follow Lucy Calkins’ (2001) mini-lesson structure beginning with a connection of how the topic fits into the work we have been doing. Following that, I will teach the students something I would like them to try out in their literature circles and give them an opportunity to practice the skill. They may practice it within the lesson with role-playing or “fish-bowling,” or they may just go directly into discussions and try it there. The strategies I teach will come directly from my observations of students in their groups. As
I mentioned for day nine, for example, if I notice that groups are struggling with disconnected discourse, I might do a brief lesson on asking follow-up questions. Other

Literature Circles 32 potential mini-lessons include making a reading calendar, asking good questions, referring back to the text, dealing with unprepared members, noticing powerful language in texts, looking at characterization, etc. (Daniels & Steinke, 2004).
After a mini-lesson, each group will go into their discussions. I have allotted approximately twenty minutes for discussions. As discussions are winding down, I will call students back to the carpet as a whole-group for a debriefing session. Each day after literature circles, we will have an opportunity to reflect as a class about how things are going. This will serve as a time to reinforce ideas from the mini-lesson, share insights about texts, and clear up any issues that arose during the small group discussions.
Finally, within my curriculum overview, I have included an outline for assessing student progress. The students will be active participants in the evaluation process. Each week, each individual student will fill out a form to reflect on his/her own participation and contributions to the discussion groups. In addition, each group will fill out an evaluation form together weekly in order to consider the group interactions. I plan on sitting in on two group discussions per day. Unless it seems necessary, I will not act as a participant or facilitator, but rather as an observer. I will fill out my own assessment chart in order to track individual and group progress. During my observations, I will be paying attention to both social interactions as well as reading and response strategies. I will have additional insight into students’ thoughts about the text by reading their journal responses on a rotating basis.
I have purposely left my curriculum overview open-ended as it will necessarily need to be adapted based on the students in my classroom as well as the school environment that I am in. However, the structures I have put into place, while general

Literature Circles 33 and flexible, demonstrate my understanding of students as learners, the learning environment, curriculum and instructional strategies, and assessment. As I continue to grow professionally and gain experience with literature circles in the classroom, it will be important for me to stay up-to-date on the latest research and findings regarding literature circles. My instructional strategies will likely evolve and adapt as I continue to learn about student responses and discourse strategies, classroom participation structures, and assessment techniques.

Literature Circles 34
References
Almasi, J.F. (1996). A new vision of discussion. In L.B. Gambrell & J.F. Almasi (Eds.),
Lively Discussions (pp. 2-23) . Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
Alwood, C.S. (2000). Exploring the role of the teacher in student-led literature circles.
(Publication No. ED 442 748). Retrieved November 5, 2007, from Education
Resources Information Center: http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICDocs/data
/ericdocs2sql/content_storage_01/0000019b/80/16/48/04.pdf.
Calkins, L.M. (2001). The art of teaching reading.
New York: Longman.
Daniels, H. (2002). Literature circles: Voice and choice in books clubs and reading groups (2 nd
edition).
Portland, Maine: Stenhouse Publishers.
Daniels, H. (2003). How can you grade literature circles? Voices From the Middle, 11 (1).
Daniels, H. (2006). What’s the next big thing with literature circles?
Voices From the
Middle, 13 (4).
Daniels, H. & Steinke, N. (2004). Mini-lessons for literature circles.
Portsmouth, NH:
Heinemann.
Day, J.P., Spiegel, D.L., McLellan, J., & Brown, V.B. (2002). Moving forward with literature circles . New York: Scholastic Professional Books.
Gambrell, L.B. (1996). What research reveals about discussion. In L.B. Gambrell & J.F.
Almasi (Eds.),
Association.
Lively Discussions (pp.25-38) . Newark, DE: International Reading
Gilbert, L. (2000). Getting started: Using literature circles in the classroom. Primary
Voices K-6, 9 (1).
Gilles, C. (1998). Collaborative literacy strategies: “We don’t need a circle to have a group.” In K.G. Short and K.M. Pierce (Eds.),
Talking about books (pp. 55-70).
Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Hanssen, E. (1998). Planning for literature circles: Variations in focus and structure. In
K.G. Short and K.M. Pierce (Eds.), Talking about books (pp.199-209).
Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Karolides, N.J. (1977). Reading process: Transactional theory in action. In N.J.
Karolides (Ed.), Reader response in elementary classrooms: Quest & discovery
(pp. 3-28) . Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

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Kauffman, G. & Yoder, K. (1998). Celebrating authorship: A process of collaborating and creating meaning. In K.G. Short and K.M. Pierce (Eds.),
(pp.135-156).
Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Talking about books
Kong, A. (2004). Scaffolding in a learning community of practice: A case-study of gradual release of responsibility from the teacher to the students.
Paper presented at the 47 th
annual meeting of the International Reading Association: San
Francisco, CA. Retrieved November 5, 2007, from Education Resources
Information Center:http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICDocs/data/ericdocs2sql
/content_storage_01/0000019 b/80/1a/27/bb.pdf.
Maloch, A.E. (2000).
Scaffolding student talk: The teacher’s role in literature discussion groups in a third-grade classroom . (Doctoral dissertation, Peabody College of
Vanderbilt University).
Maloch, B., Green, J., Tuyay, S., Dixon, C., & Floriani, A. (2004). One teacher’s journey: transitioning into literature discussion groups. Language Arts, 81 (4).
McGee, L.M. (1996). Response-centered talk: Windows on children’s thinking. In L.B.
Gambrell & J.F. Almasi (Eds.), Lively Discussions (pp. 194-207) . Newark, DE:
International Reading Association.
McGee, L.M. & Richgels, D.J. (2000). Literacy’s beginnings. Supporting young readers and writers (3 rd
ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
McIntyre, E. (2007). Story discussion in the primary grades: Balancing authenticity and explicit teaching. The Reading Teacher, 60 (7).
McMahon, S.I. (1996). Guiding student-led discussion groups. In L.B. Gambrell & J.F.
Almasi (Eds.), Lively Discussions (pp. 224-249) . Newark, DE: International
Reading Association.
Moss, J.F. (1995). Preparing focus units with literature: Crafty foxes and authors’ craft.
In N.L. Roser & M.G. Martinez (Eds.), Book Talk and Beyond (pp. 53-65).
.
Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
Nussbaum, N. & Puckett, L. (1998). Literacy through interaction. In K.G. Short and K.M.
Pierce (Eds.), Talking about books (pp. 83-102).
Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
O’Flahavan, J.F. (1994). Teacher role options in peer discussions about literature. The
Reading Teacher, 48 (4).
Peralta-Nash, C., & Dutch, J.A. (2000). Literature circles: Creating an environment for choice. Primary Voices K-6, 8 (4).

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Porter, C. (1998). Student-centered units: Choice, collaboration, and connections. In K.G.
Short and K.M. Pierce (Eds.),
NH: Heinemann.
Talking about books (pp. 103-120).
Portsmouth,
Raphael, T.E., Florio-Ruane, S. & George, M. (2001). Book Club Plus : A conceptual framework to organize literacy instruction. Language Arts, 79 (2).
Rosenblatt, L.M. (1991). Literature-S.O.S.! Language Arts, 68 (6).
Short, K.G. & Kauffman, G. (1995). “So what do I do?”: The role of the teacher in literature circles. In N.L. Roser & M.G. Martinez (Eds.), Book Talk and Beyond .
Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
Short, K., Kauffman, G., Kaser, S., Kahn, L.H., & Crawford, K.M. (1999). “Teacherwatching”: Examining teacher talk in literature circles.
Language Arts, 76 (5).
Spiegel, D.L. (1998). Reader response approaches and the growth of readers. Language
Arts, 76 (1).
Waston, D.J. (1998). Show me: Whole language evaluation of literature groups. In K.G.
Short and K.M. Pierce (Eds.),
NH: Heinemann.
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Wells, D. (1995). Leading grand conversations. In N.L. Roser & M.G. Martinez (Eds.),
Book Talk and Beyond (pp. 132-139) . Newark, DE: International Reading
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Wiencek, J. & O’Flahavan, J.F. (1994). From teacher-led to peer discussions about literature: Suggestions for making the shift. Language Arts, 71 (7).
Wiencek, J. (1996). Planning, initiating, and sustaining literature discussion groups: The teacher’s role. In L.B. Gambrell & J.F. Almasi (Eds.),
Lively Discussions (pp.
208-223) . Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
Cited Children’s Literature:
Lord, C. (2006). Rules . New York: Scholastic Press.

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Classroom Resources and Materials
Journal Response and Discussion Topics
Making personal connections:
1.
What did the story remind you of?
2.
What kind of reader would like this book? Why?
3.
Is there any character like you? How?
4.
How does the character feel? Have you ever felt like that?
5.
Do you think the character did the right thing? What other options did he/she have? What would you have done?
6.
Is there a character that you would want to be friends with? Why?
Identifying important elements:
1.
What are one or two of the most important ideas from this book/chapter? Why do you think so?
2.
Who do you think is the most important character? Why?
3.
What surprised you in the chapter/story? Why?
4.
Does the title fit the chapter/story? Why? What would you rename it?
5.
What do you think will happen next in the story? Why?
Expressing feelings about the story:
1.
How did the chapter/story make you feel? Which parts and why?
2.
Would you recommend this book? Why?
3.
Would you read another book by this author?
4.
Which character did you like best or least? Why?
5.
What would you want to ask the author?
6.
If you could change something in the story/book, what would you change?
Discussion Guidelines/Elements
Active listening
Share ideas
Ask questions
Piggy-back off others’ ideas
Be open to other ideas
Avoid interrupting
Disagree constructively
Support your opinions with the text
Encourage others to participate

Literature Circles 38
Weekly Group Evaluation Form
Date: ___________
Group Members:
Book: Pages Read:
Check the appropriate box for each category and provide comments when necessary
Everyone participates
The group is supportive and respectful of each member
Yes No Sometimes Comments
Group members come prepared and ask questions
The group stays on task
The group helps each other learn and understand the reading
The discussion and cooperation skills we used well are: ________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Our goals for improvement next week are: __________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

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Student Self-Evaluation Form
Name:
Week of:
I come prepared for discussion by reading and writing in my journal
I share my ideas and offer my opinions
I give reasons for my opinions
Yes Sometimes No
I listen to other members in the group
I connect my ideas with those of other group members
I ask for clarification when I don’t understand
I remain on topic and help keep the group focused
The discussion skill I used particularly well this week is: (provide examples if possible)_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
The discussion skills I need help with include: _______________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

Literature Circles 40
Group Observation Form
Student names
Comes prepared
Listens actively
Stays on topic
Asks follow-up questions/encourages participation
Shares ideas and questions
Additional comments

Literature Circles 41