Running Head: Multiple Intelligences in Third Grade Mathematics
Multiple Intelligences in Third Grade Mathematics
Monica L. Waters
Peabody College, Vanderbilt University
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Running Head: Multiple Intelligences in Third Grade Mathematics
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Abstract
Today’s American schools are in a constant battle. In the context of standardization and
accountability, educators must attempt to produce measurable results on State-mandated tests,
while at the same time educating the whole child. Standardized tests often focus on the skills
needed for Language, Literacy, and Mathematics achievement. In 1983, Howard Gardner
introduced the Theory of Multiple Intelligences in his book, Frames of Mind. Gardner (1983)
purposed that human beings possess eight different capacities for processing information—eight
different ways of being “smart”. Gardner defined each “intelligence” as the capacity to solve
problems or create products. While Gardner never intended for his theory to be a curriculum
model, the idea of students being smart in different ways provides many implications for
classroom practice. This paper investigates the implications of Howard Gardner’s Theory of
Multiple Intelligences in a third grade Mathematics classroom. An overview of the theory
provides a brief definition and background information about each of the eight intelligences.
Then, the paper applies the Theory of Multiple Intelligences to the teaching and learning of third
grade Mathematics as prescribed by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM).
The paper analyzes practical applications of the theory to learners and learning, learning
environments, curriculum and instructional strategies, and assessment. Through a glance at
schools actively using the Multiple Intelligences Theory, the paper analyzes the ways in which
schools can individualize instruction and allow students to use their many intelligences in order
to prepare students for their futures, both in and out of school. The research finds that educators
can apply the Theory of Multiple Intelligences to the area of Assessment by allowing students to
show evidence of learning in multiple ways, but that further research needs to occur in order to
show the true effectiveness of the theory on classroom practice.
Running Head: Multiple Intelligences in Third Grade Mathematics
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Multiple Intelligences in Third Grade Mathematics
As I entered a small independent school in Nashville, TN on the first day of my practicum
experience, I did not know what to expect. What I definitely did not expect was for a group of
first graders to topple me on the stairway excitedly working in teams to catch slaves on the
Underground Railroad. After catching my balance and moving past all the excitement, I asked
one of the students what was going on. An enthusiastic six year old gave me the best explanation
of the events surrounding the Civil War and the Underground Railroad that I have ever heard!
How did the students learn so much? How did the teacher get them so engaged? Do the teachers
do everything in this manner at this school? How did the teacher make such a complicated
subject manageable for such young children? I was very curious! As I proceeded through the
halls of the school, I noted more students judging each other on newly created guitar melodies
and another group searching for geometric shapes in the architecture of the building. Others were
painting self-portraits while another group enjoyed a ping-pong tournament. As I continued to
get to know the administrators of the school, observe classes, and learn about the theories and
practices that drive the curriculum, I gained a deep interest in the theory that underlined
everything at this school. I wanted to know more about the Theory of Multiple Intelligences
(Gardner, 1983).
As a new teacher, I realize that I am setting out on a great adventure, wanting to achieve that
far-reaching goal of making the world a better place by influencing the lives of children.
However, I also understand that I have much to learn about children, their learning needs, and
the best instructional strategies that will help them grow and meet their goals. Bransford’s (2000)
research in How People Learn focuses on helping individuals meet their fullest potential.
Bransford provides a guide for teaching and learning that includes learning theory, learning
Running Head: Multiple Intelligences in Third Grade Mathematics
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environments, and assessment strategies. I would like to use the research in How People Learn
as a framework to analyze how educators use the Theory of Multiple Intelligences in the
classroom.
I know that I will probably never know enough about what learning is, what people need to
know, and how they best learn it, but several theories of learning will help put me a little closer
to that goal. Campbell (1999) suggests that achieving these aspirations will be difficult without
knowledge of human intelligence, so I intend to understand Gardner’s notion of Intelligence as it
applies to teaching and learning. Eisner (2004) states that the current school climate—driven by
concerns about school performance and student achievement—causes difficulties in meeting the
needs of individuals. Therefore, I will analyze how current educational professionals can use the
Theory of Multiple Intelligences in schools to improve individual achievement. I believe that the
Theory of Multiple Intelligences calls for educators to “re-think what is taught, how it is taught,
and how learning is assessed” (Bransford, 2000, p. 13).
I believe that Howard Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences (MI) (1983) will help to
answer my questions and provide some guidance to the instructional decisions that I will have to
make in the future. In the pages that follow, I will investigate the basic principles of Gardner’s
theory, discuss the importance of MI’s contribution to education, and explore its application to
learners in third grade Mathematics classrooms. As I look at practical applications of MI to
learners and learning, learning environment, curriculum and instructional strategies, and
assessment, I will analyze the use of MI at a school that focuses on MI, as well as other schools
around the country who have dubbed themselves “MI Schools,” and investigate its implications
on our current education system. Essentially, many of the questions that I intend to answer were
asked by Elliot Eisner (2004):
Running Head: Multiple Intelligences in Third Grade Mathematics
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What would it mean for a school to take Multiple Intelligences seriously? How
would such a school be organized? What would it value? What would it expect
regarding student performance? What would its curricula look like? How
would teaching take place and what would teaching ability itself mean in a
view that acknowledged differences in the ways in which teachers might be
smart? In short, what does Gardner’s theory mean for schooling? (p. 32).
While answering all of these questions in one short essay would be an impossible task, I
believe that I can create a basic framework for practical application of MI to the third
grade mathematics classroom.
Multiple Intelligences: Theory and Definitions
In 1983, Harvard University professor, Howard Gardner, published a book, entitled Frames
of Mind, that presented a new way of thinking about Intelligence. This new model challenged the
old idea of the intelligence quotient and identified different ways of being smart (Gardner, 1999).
Gardner argued, “What it means to be intelligent is a profound philosophical question, one that
requires grounding in biological, physical, and mathematical knowledge” (p. 21). Gardner
realized that the idea of intelligence was something that drew the interests of scholars from many
different fields—not just psychometric researchers—and recognized the brain as a “highly
differentiated organ that harbors an indefinite number of intellectual capacities” (p. 20).
Howard Gardner defined intelligence as “the ability to solve problems or to create products
that are valued within one or more cultural settings” (Sternberg, 1998, p. 19). He later revised
his definition to state that ‘intelligence is a bio-psychological potential to process information
that can be activated in a cultural setting to solve problems or create products that are of value in
a culture” (Gardner, 1999, p. 33). Gardner’s theory recognizes eight different “intelligences” that
Running Head: Multiple Intelligences in Third Grade Mathematics
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each person possesses. The intelligences that Gardner framed include 1) verbal-linguistic, 2)
logical-mathematical, 3) musical, 4) visual-spatial, 5) bodily-kinesthetic, 6) interpersonal, 7)
intrapersonal, and 8) natural intelligence. Gardner pointed out that the intelligences are
independent constructs of each other and strength in one does not predict strength in another.
Some intelligence may be stronger in certain people, but we all have the capacity to use all of
them, and most people can become relatively competent in all eight areas (Armstrong, 2000).
While they are independently functioning constructs, one frequently uses multiple sets of
intelligence simultaneously to solve problems and create products. “An intelligence never exists
in isolation from other intelligences: All tasks, roles, and products in our society call on a
combination of intelligences, even if one or more may be highlighted” (Sternberg, 1998, p. 21).
Sternberg (1998) recognizes that there are multiple ways to perceive the world and make sense
of one’s experiences. Some people may be able to create visual representations, while others may
be good with words, problem solving, or learning mathematics formulae (Munro, 1994). Each
person’s intelligence profile will look different and we cannot build a model or prototype of a
typical individual (Stanford, 2003).
Armstrong (2000) named three main factors that determine whether an intelligence develops
to its fullest capacity: 1) Biological endowment, 2) Personal life history and 3) Cultural and
historical background. Other environmental influences, such as access to resources and mentors,
historical and cultural factors, geographic factors, familial factors, and situational factors can
also affect the rate at which an intelligence develops. Cultural influences can play a major role in
the development of certain intelligences as well. Individual cultural groups place value on certain
constructs and praise unique behaviors that lead to the development of a person as “intelligent”.
Gardner pointed out that some definitions of intelligence seem odd from a western viewpoint that
Running Head: Multiple Intelligences in Third Grade Mathematics
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honors linguistic and mathematical abilities as “intelligence”. Eisner (2004) explained the impact
of cultural values by paraphrasing Plato: “What is honored in a culture will be promoted there”
(p. 32).
Intelligences are intellectual capacities linked to neurological functions that respond to
content in the world (Sternberg, 1998). We cannot measure or count these capacities, but various
experiences and decisions activate them, and a variety of different fields put them to good use.
This cognitive model does not necessarily describe the best ways that students learn, but
describes how someone can use their intelligences to create products (Armstrong, 2000).
Someone cannot merely feel musical or think mathematically, they must use those capacities to
create a product of some kind. Therefore, students can use their intelligences to create products
in the classroom to show evidence of their learning.
People have often compared Gardner’s theory to other theories of learning, and variations of
this theory have guided educators in many instructional decisions. Other theorists have also
helped to guide instruction, such as Sternberg, who named three independent abilities—analytic,
creative, and practical—that all people possess (Denig, 2004). Some researchers do not agree
with the validity of the MI theory. Morgan (1996) has called the MI theory a simple renaming of
cognitive styles, calling it a semantic change that appeals to teachers looking for new ways to
reach their students. Educators have also often correlated the theory with other models of
learning and instruction, such as Bloom’s taxonomy and the theory of learning styles.
Armstrong (2000) disagrees with these efforts to liken MI theory to these other learning
processes. He states the comparisons are “akin to comparing apples with oranges” (p. 10).
Armstrong continues to explain that, “our efforts may resemble those of the Blind Men and the
Elephant: each model touching on a different aspect of the whole learner” (p. 10). My position is
Running Head: Multiple Intelligences in Third Grade Mathematics
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that the emphasis on the end products or solved problems differentiates Gardner’s theory from
the learning styles theory that refers to “the different approaches that individuals take when
trying to make sense of diverse kinds of content” (Sternberg, 1998, p. 22). While learning styles
distinguish how students process and remember information, the intelligences refer to the kinds
of products and solutions that learning creates. Therefore, I believe that the largest implications
of MI in the field of education appear in the area of assessment. The intelligences provide
students with a variety of avenues to show what they know. I believe that one can easily make
associations to other educational theories that aide in providing individual children with the best
possible education to meet their needs, but it is important to understand key aspects of Gardner’s
theory in order to help students reach their full potential. Creating an MI learning environment
where students are free to show their learning in various formats will allow for more
individualized instruction.
A Closer Look at Each Intelligence:
Researchers and educators have been trying to define each of the intelligences since
Gardner’s original release of Frames of Mind. Some have analyzed the traits carried by people
who are strong in certain intelligences, others have looked for examples of products created by
people who are intelligent in certain areas, and still others have associated certain careers and
academic domains or successful individuals with the ways in which they are “smart.” While as
Armstrong (2000) stated, developing a person’s intelligence profile is difficult, we can analyze
the traits and possibilities of each in order to show how students can use their various
intelligences in the classroom and the world. Figure 1 displays a synthesis of the research
available defining each intelligence and shows the multiple ways to use each one.
Intelligences
Gardner’s
People who
Examples of
Running Head:
Multiple Intelligences
in Third
Mathematics
Definition
exhibit
the Grade
Ways
to use the
(1999)
intelligence
Intelligence
(Hoerr, p. 4)
(Armstrong, p. 4)
Associated
Learning
Methods
(Denig, p. 107)
Career Paths
9
(Armstrong,
p. 4)
Linguistic
the capacity to use
words effectively
Winston
Churchill
reading, writing,
storytelling,
rhymes
writing,
debating ideas,
Writer, Orator
LogicalMathematical
the capacity to
analyze problems
logically, carry out
mathematical
operations, and
investigate issues
scientifically
Bill Gates
estimating, logic
puzzles, strategy
games
working with
patterns and
relationships,
classifying,
categorizing
Scientist,
Mathematicia
n
Musical
skill in the
performance,
composition, and
appreciation of
musical patterns
Ray Charles
singing, rapping,
playing musical
instruments
working with
rhythm and
melody,
listening to
music
Composer,
Performer
BodilyKinesthetic
the potential of
using one’s body to
solve problems or
fashion products
Michael
Jordan
sports, building
models, dancing
touching,
moving, body
awareness
Athlete,
Dancer,
Sculptor
Spatial
the potential to
recognize and
manipulate the
patterns of space
Frank Lloyd
Wright
drawing, building,
reading maps
visualizing and
drawing
Artist,
Architect
Naturalistic
recognition and
classification of
numerous species
Jane Goodall
gardening, caring
for animals,
camping
exploring
living things
Biologist,
Animal
Activist
Interpersonal
capacity to
understand the
intentions,
motivations, and
desires of other
people
Martin Luther
King, Jr.
making friends,
helping others,
conversing
sharing,
interviewing,
cooperating
Counselor,
Political
Leader
Intrapersonal
capacity to
understand oneself
Anne Frank
independent work,
understanding
feelings
doing selfpaced projects,
reflecting
Religious
Leader
Figure 1: Synthesis of the Eight Intelligences
Running Head: Multiple Intelligences in Third Grade Mathematics
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One must remember that all normally functioning human beings have the capacity to
develop all of the intelligences to a reasonable level of competency and many attributes can
identify a person as “intelligent.” Multiple factors contribute to a person’s level of “intelligence”
in a certain area. One intelligence can also be displayed at various levels under particular
circumstances or in specific domains (Armstrong, 2000). Sternberg (1998) helps to distinguish
the intelligences from the concept of a content domain. “A domain or discipline is the arena or
body of knowledge that gives people the opportunity to use their intelligences in different ways
and in which varying degrees of expertise can be developed” (p. 22). For example, one can use
all eight intelligences in the discipline of Mathematics to show competency and mastery of the
subject matter.
While a clear distinction is made between a content-specific domain and an
intelligence—keeping in line with the definition of an intelligence as a potential to fashion a
product(s) or solve problems—one can argue that certain domains more naturally lend
themselves to the development of specific intelligences. Such is the case that the domain of
Mathematics provides opportunities for developing the logical-mathematical intelligence.
Mathematics’ intricate system of numerical symbols, patterns, and formulae require a great deal
of logic and abstract manipulation. The logical-mathematical intelligence provides a student with
the capacity to think logically and abstractly about a subject matter (Nolen, 2003). Johnson
(2007) named five core areas that are included in the logical-mathematical intelligence and are
the basic tools of the mathematician. They are 1) classification, 2) comparison, 3) basic
numerical operations, 4) inductive and deductive reasoning, and 5) hypothesis formation and
testing. Johnson (2007) also concluded, “This intelligence also underlies the development and
articulation of thinking strategies” (p. 263). Thus, a logically and mathematically intelligent
Running Head: Multiple Intelligences in Third Grade Mathematics
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person would be able to solve numerical problems and manipulate abstract formulae with ease.
However, representing those solutions in various forms, reflecting on the problem solving
process, and communicating abstract concepts to others would require that same person to
employ several other intellectual capacities. They may use their verbal-linguistic and visual
intelligence, as well as their interpersonal and intrapersonal abilities in order to show
understanding of a single mathematical concept. Therefore, I will focus my studies on the
practical usage of all of the intelligences in teaching and learning Mathematics content at the
third grade level.
Multiple Intelligences and Third Grade Mathematics
As I consider the implications of the Theory of Multiple Intelligences on classroom practice,
I will focus my attention on Mathematics teaching in third grade classrooms. In third grade,
students should develop an understanding of multiplication and division, and begin to use
fractions as a way to make computations that are more precise among other things. Third grade
Mathematics curriculum should help students expand their understanding of number and
operational concepts. Students should learn to use multiple representations for equivalent
numbers. Educational leaders can introduce all of these concepts in multiple ways, and they can
lead to a variety of assessments. In focusing on Mathematics teaching at the third grade level, my
goal is to show how the content can be taught and successively assessed for mastery using all of
the intelligences (Willis & Johnson, 2001). While one might tend to equate Math instruction with
the development of the logical-mathematical intelligence, my position is that the logicalmathematical intelligence is just one of eight distinct ways of showing mastery of the content in
the third grade mathematics curriculum. The MI strategy “allows a teacher to use eight different
possible approaches to mathematical learning and teaching” (Willis & Johnson, 2001, p. 260).
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Willis & Johnson (2001) outlined the kinds of materials, types of learning activities, as well as
teaching strategies that would be best suited for learners who are strong in each intelligence.
Some of the materials include children’s books and journals for the linguistic intelligence,
instruments for the musical intelligence, and graphs and charts for the spatial intelligence.
Adams (2000) saw MI as an opportunity to make connections between mathematical concepts
and to help students view those concepts from different perspectives.
Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences highlights the many ways in which a student can
effectively learn and use Mathematics. Munro (1994) noted that every student has preferences in
the way in which they learn Mathematics and that we should help students to understand their
learning preferences in order to broaden their approach to learning mathematics. Johnson &
Willis (2001) used MI as a multiple instruction approach to teaching Mathematics content. They
stated that this approach:
a. Results in a deeper and richer understanding of mathematical concepts
through multiple representations
b. Enables all students to learn mathematics successfully and enjoyably
c. Allows for a variety of entry points into mathematical content
d. Focuses on students’ unique strengths, encouraging a celebration of
diversity; and
e. Supports creative experimentation with mathematical ideas (p. 260)
This approach provides multiple opportunities for students to create their own authentic
understanding of the content presented in the Mathematics curriculum.
Running Head: Multiple Intelligences in Third Grade Mathematics
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NCTM Process Standards.
The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) is a leading voice in K-12
Mathematics education. In 2000, NCTM published Principles and Standards for School
Mathematics. The document named five process standards that all children should master
through the learning of Mathematics. They are 1) Problem Solving, 2) Reasoning and Proof, 3)
Communication, 4) Connections, and 5) Representation. Teachers and scholars can easily find
practical applications of Gardner’s theory to Mathematics teaching though the NCTM process
standards.
Problem solving lends itself naturally to the Theory of Multiple Intelligences because the
basic definition of an intelligence includes the capacity to solve problems. Students can use all of
their intelligences or just their strongest intelligence to solve mathematical problems. Students
can approach most problems in a variety of ways, giving students the opportunity to use their
own unique abilities to reach a solution (Adams, 2000).
“One of the best ways to improve children’s reasoning skills is to create opportunities and
situations that encourage them to use reason” (Adams, 2000, p. 90). An MI learning environment
would provide plenty of natural opportunities for students to practice and use reasoning and
proof. The personal intelligences (interpersonal and intrapersonal) give students the capacity to
reflect on their own learning and problem solving process and to explain that process to
instructors and peers.
Students can also use the personal intelligences to communicate mathematical ideas.
Students can practice communication by explaining their own understandings of Mathematical
concepts to others. Students who have a strong verbal-linguistic intelligence will be able to
discuss mathematical information and show their understanding in verbal form.
Running Head: Multiple Intelligences in Third Grade Mathematics
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Learning is a process of transferring ideas from one situation to another and building
connections between ideas and experiences. Munro (1994) noted that mathematical ideas can be
linked together to build an overall idea. Using MI can help students to understand the big picture
or overarching concept and to connect ideas to previous knowledge..
Students can use multiple representations to show understanding of various mathematical
concepts. Munroe (1994) connected mathematical representations to the eight intelligences,
making the representations equivalent to the “products” created to show understanding for each
of the intelligences. “As children learn mathematics, they should be encouraged to use and create
representations that not only make sense to them, but also are efficient means of completing a
mathematics task” (Adams, 2000, p. 91). Students can represent ideas through verbal and written
language, draw pictures to show numerical information, create rhythms and music to represent
mathematical patterns, and manipulate small objects to show groupings and various formulae.
Application of Theory to Practice
Howard Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences has been influential in curricular
decision making throughout the world for over twenty years. A simple internet search of
“Multiple Intelligences” provides thousands of websites containing materials, lesson plans,
teaching strategies, resources, and information about schools built around MI. While Gardner
never intended his theory to be a curriculum model, one can see important implications in the
areas of Learners and Learning, Learning Environment, Curriculum and Instructional Strategies,
and Assessment. In addition, several schools around the world have embraced the Theory of
Multiple Intelligences in a variety of ways and have become leaders in the field of education as
they have found new ways to meet the needs of all learners.
Running Head: Multiple Intelligences in Third Grade Mathematics
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Learners and Learning.
The ultimate goal of education is to help all students reach their fullest potential and
acquire the skills needed to function and succeed in the 21st century. Students must be able to
think independently, solve problems, work cooperatively, and be creative in their approach to
accomplishing tasks. Problem solving skills are important to success in school as well as the
work places of the future. Students must have the ability to take information learned in one
content area and transfer that information to other areas or situations in order to solve new
problems or create new products (Bransford, 2000). Munro (1994) proposed a model of learning
that includes application of new information to previous knowledge. He proposed that learners
build new ideas by adding to and reorganizing previous knowledge. Learners can use metacognition to decide what knowledge is important, how it matches previous knowledge, and in
what form to represent the new idea. Students regulate their own learning by evaluating its
effectiveness and knowing when to take further action (Munro, 1994).
The use of the Theory of Multiple Intelligences in the classroom gives students many
choices of ways to approach learning. They are able to transfer information and skills easily by
using their stronger intelligences. Whether to allow students to rely on their strengths or to
challenge them to focus on developing all of their intelligences is an issue that scholars often
debate (Sternberg, 1998). We may never reach a solution to that debate, but MI gives us the tools
needed to focus on the academic needs of individual children and to become aware of students’
strengths in various intelligences (Hoerr, 2000). “MI provides a framework for individualizing
education by helping us to understand the full range of students’ intellectual strengths”
(Sternberg, 1998, p. 24). One group of teachers who implemented MI in their classrooms noted
that they no longer grouped or ranked children based on a perceived academic ability level, but
Running Head: Multiple Intelligences in Third Grade Mathematics
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instead saw the strengths of each individual child’s MI profile (Mettetal, Jordan, & Harper,
1997). Helping students develop an MI profile could easily be confused with another way to
label children (Sternberg, 1998). This may lead to a tendency to favor certain intelligences or
abilities over others, which would be very similar to the current standardized school system that
favors mathematical and linguistic intelligences. “With Multiple Intelligences, variance in
student performance is considered a virtue, not a vice” (Eisner, 2004, p. 35). Schools must be
willing to step away from standardization to allow students to use their individual strengths in all
learning processes.
While students should be able to use their various intelligences to display their learning,
teachers still must nurture achievement in content domains and disciplines (Sternberg, 1998).
Mathematics teachers use the MI theory by attending to individual learning preferences and
allowing multiple representations of mathematical understandings. Munro (1994) noted several
implications of individual learning preferences on Mathematics teaching. They include
presenting ideas in a variety of ways, asking students to consider different ways of approaching
ideas, encouraging metacognition and self-monitoring of individual learning, and helping
students to explore strategies that match their own learning preferences. Ultimately, Mathematics
teachers must pay attention to the individual learners in their classroom and offer students
opportunities to think about their own learning preferences and to display the products of their
learning according to their strong intelligences.
In order to help students gain knowledge of their own intelligence, teachers should give
them a clear picture of the qualities of each intelligence. W. Nikola-Lisa (2006) has written a
children’s book that discusses the different ways to be smart. In How We are Smart, Nikola-Lisa
gives short, poetic biographies of famous people who are “smart” in different ways. Through the
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short entries and colorful pictures, children can connect with real people who may have similar
intelligences. They will then be able to reflect on how they could use their unique intelligences.
Learning Environment.
An MI learning environment may look and feel very different from the typical gradeschool classroom, where students sit in rows of desks listening to a teacher who stands at the
front of the room and writes on a large board. MI states that students have eight different ways of
being smart. That would naturally equate to eight very distinct ways of learning. Therefore, it is
my position that the MI classroom must accommodate the various needs of all learners, and
provide opportunities for students to use all of their intelligences in fun, natural, and challenging
ways. In order to create learning environments that respond to the individual needs of all
learners, Bransford (2000) suggests that all learning environments should be learner-centered,
knowledge-centered, assessment-centered, and community-centered.
Classrooms should be learner-centered by focusing on the needs of the child. The
environments should be one that welcomes previous experiences and prior knowledge. The
classroom must be a place of comfort for students of all shapes, sizes, personalities, and
intelligences. For the MI classroom, this means allowing students to bring in and share their prior
experiences in a variety of ways. They can use all of these different skills and abilities to solve
various problems. In addition, the shared experiences in the classroom are sure to nurture
specific intelligences as students learn and express themselves in multiple ways. Overall,
classrooms based on MI encourage all students to do their best work (Sternberg, 1998).
Classroom environments must also be knowledge-centered. Students must gain a deep
understanding of the content and be able to transfer that knowledge to other situations
(Bransford, 2000). Educators should construct classrooms around what students need to learn.
Running Head: Multiple Intelligences in Third Grade Mathematics
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The knowledge-centered MI classroom would provide a variety of ways for students to collect
information and gain meaningful experiences that can then lead to further problem-solving
capabilities. Thomas Armstrong (2000) suggests using activity centers to foster learning. He
notes that these centers can be focused on nurturing specific intelligences, or the can be content
specific. The centers can also be temporary structures that change weekly or they can be
permanent centers where the activity changes to focus on a specific topic.
Assessment-centered learning environments take into account student knowledge and
readiness for new ideas. They also foster a constant focus on reflection. Students can manage
their own learning in these learning environments by keeping track of progress, reflecting on the
learning process, and assessing the quality of work. MI students can use metacognition as well as
their intrapersonal intelligence to reflect on the status of their learning. As students create ideas
and arrive at new understandings, they will be able to solve problems and create products more
efficiently and effectively with the help of quality feedback.
Community-centered learning environments have a sense of community among the
students within the classroom, as well as a strong connection to the greater community outside of
the school. Within the classroom, students can learn to interact with peers who bring different
cultural ideas with them. Students are also able to use their home and family culture as a basis to
apply new knowledge. Hoer (2000) explained the importance of culture in the MI classroom in
Becoming a Multiple Intelligence School. Using outside resources has proven to enhance
learning experiences in many different ways. Experts in specific fields can provide support and
real world experiences for students. Outside audiences can also provide new challenges to
students as they present newly learned information (Bransford, 2000), which is extremely
important in the MI environment where students use multiple ways to represent ideas. Thomas
Running Head: Multiple Intelligences in Third Grade Mathematics
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Armstrong (2000) suggested that a staff member at an MI school should be available as a
community consultant. This person should be responsible for connecting the school to the
outside community. Community-centered classrooms also create a safe environment for students
to experience new things.
The MI learning environment should be a place where children can reach their fullest
potential. The MI classroom allows teachers to use varied teaching strategies, curricula, and
assessment to engage students in the learning process (Stanford, 2003). MI allows teachers to
create spaces for students to enjoy learning and be successful.
Curriculum and Instructional Strategies.
Experts of MI will agree that MI is not a curriculum model (Gardner, 1999). People apply
MI in classrooms around the world in many different ways on a daily basis (Sternberg, 1998). No
single curriculum will ever meet the needs of all students, and educators should not try to fit
students to pre-developed curricula. MI empowers teachers to create new curricula that match the
strengths of individual students (Hoerr, 2000). When designing curriculum plans, teachers must
remember, “One size does not fit all” (Eisner, 2004, p. 36) and adjust their instructional practices
to the needs of the students.
There is no prescribed way to teach in an MI classroom; however, educators must
consider the application of theory to educational practice in order for the theory to affect the lives
of students (Sternberg, 1998). Creating curriculum and assessment strategies for the MI
classroom requires great collegiality and collaboration (Hoerr, 2000) in order to personalize the
curriculum.
The basic curriculum of our current school system emphasizes the importance of meeting
standards instead of engaging students and helping them to understand complex concepts.
Running Head: Multiple Intelligences in Third Grade Mathematics
20
Educators focus on meeting state mandated goals in the core areas of Language arts and
Mathematics. For the sake of time and helping students to master information on state mandated
tests, education usually becomes nothing more than rote learning, memorization, and test taking
strategies instead of the problem solving, collaboration, and application that research has proven
to be effective. NCTM is one of the research organizations that advocates for a more applicable
approach to Mathematics teaching. They recently published curriculum focal points for
Mathematics at each grade level (NCTM, 2009). The third grade curriculum focal points include
developing understanding of multiplication, division, fractions, and fraction equivalence, and
describing and analyzing properties of two-dimensional shapes. They emphasize that “these focal
points be addressed in contexts that promote problem solving, reasoning, communication,
making connections, and designing and analyzing representations” (National council for teachers
of mathematics). With simple guides such as the NCTM Curriculum Focal Points, teachers in MI
classrooms can create Mathematics curriculum that is multi-faceted and engaging (Johnson,
2007).
Developing Mathematics curriculum using the Theory of Multiple Intelligences is not
easy. I believe that any good curriculum encourages students to solve problems and transfer
knowledge from one experience to another. The MI curriculum adds the component of allowing
students to express themselves and approach problems in multiple ways. This does not mean that
instructors must teach every topic in eight ways (Sternberg, 1998), but that students must enjoy
the freedom to process the information in their own way according to their individual
intelligence, which might require teachers to plan multiple lessons (McCoog, 2007). Teachers
should provide multiple points of entry (Sternberg, 1998) and find ways to enable students to use
their intelligences (Hoerr, 2000). Gardner () claims that students can approach any subject in at
Running Head: Multiple Intelligences in Third Grade Mathematics
21
least five ways through narratives, logical analysis, hands-on experience, artistic exploration, and
philosophical examination. One can easily correlate these multi-faceted approaches to learning to
the NCTM process standards, allowing students to use their varied intelligences to approach
mathematical concepts. Educators can encourage children to lean on the stronger intelligences in
order to attain Mathematical understanding (Willis & Johnson, 2001). Willis and Johnson (2001)
contended that the MI theory has “significant implications for all mathematics teachers who are
looking for diverse instructional methods that encourage depth of understanding by tapping
students’ particular inclinations” (p. 260)
The possibilities of using MI in the Mathematics classroom are broad and varied;
however, using seven or eight entry points in curriculum planning gives educators a set of
parameters (Armstrong, 2000) and an organizational tool to facilitate the synthesis of pedagogy
(Stanford, 2003). Armstrong (2000) outlined several simple procedures for developing MI lesson
plans. These steps include focusing on a specific objective, asking key questions, considering
possibilities, brainstorming, selecting appropriate activities, setting up a sequential plan, and
implementing the plan. The ultimate goal of this lesson-planning format is to provide students
with experiences that allow them to gain an understanding of the content and apply new
knowledge in meaningful ways. Instructional strategies in the MI classroom take many different
forms of implementation. Some common strategies in MI classrooms are hands-on activities,
thematic curriculums, learning centers, and Projects, Exhibitions, and Presentations (PEP)
(Hoerr, 2000). Incorporating projects has proven to provide meaning and motivation to learning
Mathematics content (Cornell, 1999).
Running Head: Multiple Intelligences in Third Grade Mathematics
22
Assessment.
Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences affects the entire educational process,
including curriculum design and assessment of student progress (Hoerr, 2000). In fact, the best
instructional strategies blur the line between curriculum and assessment. As educators implement
MI into the classroom, students are able to show evidence of their learning in many different
ways. As they solve problems and fashion products using their varied intelligences,
understandings and misconceptions will be evident.
The most common assessment of intellectual capacity is the Intelligence Quotient (IQ)
test. The IQ test is a narrow assessment that only measures a student’s ability in the scholastic
areas of Mathematics and Linguistics (Hoerr, 2000). Other widely used standardized tests also
measure math and language skills and do not allow students to use their other intelligences.
These tests are often used because they are relatively cheap, and provide data and statistics that
are comparable across spectrums (Hoerr, 2000); however, the standardized tests are often invalid
and fail to measure what they intend to measure. Educators have a responsibility to find
appropriate assessment measures that give students the opportunity to display their true
understandings. Gardner (1999) implied the importance of finding other assessment measures
when he stated, “Intelligence is too important to be left to the intelligence testers”.
While standardized tests tend to rely on the use of the logical-mathematical and verballinguistic intelligence, assessing the actual intelligence is very difficult. All eight intelligences
have unique characteristics that appear in multiple formats. Gardner (1983) developed a set of
criteria to determine the set of skills that make up an intelligence. These criteria include isolation
by brain damage and the existence of people who demonstrate high skill levels in a particular
area. Using these criteria, Gardner has identified eight intelligences; however, Gardner does not
Running Head: Multiple Intelligences in Third Grade Mathematics
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condone assessing students to identify their intelligence (Gardner, 1999). It is important to allow
students to use all of their intelligences to create products and solve problems, but formally
knowing their individual “intelligence make-up” is not necessary. They should know their
strengths and weaknesses, but no set scoring matrix exist to assess a student’s multiple
intelligences formally. If educators find it necessary to assess students’ intelligence, they should
directly use intelligences in the assessment (Hoerr, 2000).
While educators do not need to assess intelligences formally, knowing the likes, dislikes,
strengths, and weaknesses of students will aide in curriculum planning. In addition, students will
benefit from knowing the ways in which they learn best (Hoerr, 2000). Informal assessments of
students’ intelligences often occur through observation. When students receive choices in the
classroom, educators can observe their learning preferences (Hoerr, 2000). Other ways to gather
information about students’ intelligences include documentation of achievement, looking at
school records, talking with other educators, interviewing parents, and asking the individual
student (Armstrong, 2000).With the critical information gathered from these informal assessment
procedures, teachers could make informed decisions about the learning process.
The Theory of Multiple Intelligences requires teachers to think deeply about the subject
matter and create multiple approaches to teaching and learning. Naturally, multiple avenues for
learning would lead to multiple forms of assessment (Stanford, 2003). Assessment procedures
greatly influence the priorities of education (Eisner, 2004). Therefore, my position is that we
cannot allow students to learn according to their multiple intelligences and then expect them to
show evidence of learning through traditional paper and pencil means of assessment. Armstrong
(2000) stated that using multiple teaching strategies and then assessing with standardized tests
would be “the height of hypocrisy” (p. 88). The assessment strategies in the MI classroom must
Running Head: Multiple Intelligences in Third Grade Mathematics
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be as varied as the students and the instructional methods. Current educational trends rely
heavily on standardized testing methods in order to compare students across grade-levels, ethnic
groups, age ranges, and geographic location. MI assessments show different levels of
understanding and are adapted to the specific needs of the student, making mass comparisons
such as those previously mentioned extremely difficult. However, Eisner (2004) found that MI
assessments were more authentic and truly revealed student learning. Teachers should strive to
create learning experiences that allow students to learn according to their strong intelligences, in
a highly contextualized environment, and then display evidence of their learning using those
same intelligences, in that same contextualized and authentic environment (Sternberg, 1998).
Assessments in the MI classroom will come in many shapes and sizes. Most assessments
will be performance tasks—giving students the opportunity to solve problems in multiple ways
to show mastery of the content in an authentic environment. Sternberg (1998) noted the
complexity and quality of the work produced by students when given assignments allow for
diverse responses. Armstrong (2000) noted the correlation between assessment variety and
achievement when he said, “The greater number of ways in which children have to show
competency in a subject, the more chances they have to achieve real success” (p. 47). Through
performance-based assignments, teachers can document students’ learning progress through
presentations, videos, journals, charts, interviews, checklists, work samples, and anecdotal
records (Armstrong, 2000). Student self-assessment and reflection are also integral parts of the
learning process and allow students to understand their own learning achievements (Sternberg,
1998). Many educators use portfolio assessments to show student progress over time and these
assessments support the use of MI (Hoerr, 2000). Portfolios also give students the opportunity to
see what they have learned and to evaluate their own growth (Sternberg, 1998).
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A Profile of the Multiple Intelligence School.
I visited an independent school in Nashville, Tennessee that serves students in Grades K8. As the only independent school in the area, this school serves a very diverse population of
students. During the time that I spent there, I recognized some very distinct characteristics about
the school. Some of these characteristics were the impressive beginnings of a solid educational
environment, and others are the result of a focus on Multiple Intelligences. Teachers know their
own personal strengths and challenges, as well as each of their students’.
The faculty and staff strive to develop students’ intelligences in every lesson and activity
or routine that happens during the school day. They develop the interpersonal intelligence as
students serve as school leaders and classroom ambassadors on a daily basis. Students also
frequently design web pages highlighting their work, make presentations in front of other
students, and consciously work to know the best ways to communicate with others. The
intrapersonal intelligence develops as students frequently write or speak about their experiences,
and reflect on their work through portfolio assessments. Since this school is an arts-focused
school, the musical intelligence grows as students daily play instruments, compose their own
musical and rhythmic patterns, and create songs about concepts they are learning. The linguistic
intelligence develops through written and verbal assignments, as well as character words
presented throughout the school. Challenge activities allow students who have strong verbal
skills to write with more expression. Students develop their naturalistic intelligence when they
visit the nature center and work to plant flowers in the garden on the school grounds. Teachers
frequently infuse the bodily-kinesthetic intelligence into every part of the day as they create hand
motions to help students learn important concepts, and allow students to manipulate objects and
build models to represent their understandings. The spatial intelligence appears in the artwork
Running Head: Multiple Intelligences in Third Grade Mathematics
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hanging all over the school, which represents the many things students learn on a daily basis. The
logical-mathematical intelligence is an integral part of the schools curriculum--not just in
Mathematics Class--as students often work in teams and use logic to solve problems, which
come in many different forms. This school’s goal is to see every student go to college. They
understand that for this goal to become a reality they must focus on the individual needs of each
student and tailor instruction according the strengths of each child. At this school, every child
believes that they are smart and that they can make a difference.
In the last two decades, schools across the country have dubbed themselves “MI
Schools.” Some have been newly established, independent or charter schools that have emerged
out of school reform movements, while others have been pre-existing institutions looking for
ways to meet the needs of their students. As Gardner’s theory does not provide any specific
guidelines for educators to follow, every school has unique characteristics. Some focus more on
curriculum adaptations, finding ways to develop each intelligence in every lesson. Other schools
focus on the overall learning environment, creating “flow rooms” where students can enjoy free
choice activities geared towards specific intelligences (Hoerr, 2000). Schools also use a service
learning approach to help students nurture their intelligences in authentic ways. Still others focus
on creating authentic learning experiences, allowing students to participate in real-world
activities that require them to solve highly contextualized problems. One school has created a
mini community complete with a working bank and post-office to help students understand how
to approach real-world situations. Some schools add emphasis to certain intelligences. For
example, New City School in St. Louis, Missouri (New city school, 2009) focuses on the
personal intelligences. Other schools create multi-aged learning communities to enhance the
opportunities for collaborative work.
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For the purposes of this study, complete profiles of all the schools mentioned above seem
overwhelming and unnecessary. However, some common characteristics clearly unite these
schools together as “MI Schools”. The unique qualities include personalized instruction,
cooperative learning, portfolio assessments, and child-centered curriculum. Many of the schools
use a portfolio assessment system to track student progress and create opportunities for student
self-selection. The portfolio assessments also allow students to talk about their learning and
parents to see tangible progress over time. Another unique quality of MI schools is the
opportunity for professional educators to use their own intelligences. Teachers often create their
own curriculum units, using a variety of materials and resources as supplements (Hoerr, 2000).
Overall, the schools that use the Theory of Multiple Intelligences share a simple understanding,
that all students can learn and show evidence of that learning using their strongest intelligences.
Conclusion: Multiple Intelligences Changing the Way We Teach
The importance of education in today’s society is not debatable. States across the country
are looking for rigor and relevance in their school systems that will lead to students performing
at high levels both in and out of school. The priority of educators across America is to create
citizens who are ready and able to be productive in the work force, and to be leaders in various
fields around the world. The goal is to create global citizens who can think quickly and
creatively in diverse situations, and work cooperatively with people from many different
backgrounds. However, in an effort to produce measurable achievements for large numbers of
students, our education system has continuously reverted to a system of norm-referenced tests
which carry extremely high stakes for students, teachers, schools, and communities.
Achievement on standardized tests frequently becomes the focus of classroom instruction, and
the central objective of all students. Concerns about school performance has led to uniformed
Running Head: Multiple Intelligences in Third Grade Mathematics
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content, uniformed assessment strategies, and uniformed outcomes (Eisner, 2004). A strong
dichotomy forms when teachers seeking to develop globally functioning and creative citizens are
forced to focus their instruction on rote learning, memorization, and test-taking strategies. When
discussing Multiple Intelligences, this dichotomy is what led Thomas Armstrong (2000) to say,
“At heart, the Theory of Multiple Intelligences calls for nothing short of a fundamental change in
the way schools are structured” (p. 82).
Howard Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences encourages educators to leave behind
the standardization and measurement techniques that are plaguing America’s schools. The theory
encourages teachers to expand instructional strategies and student assessment (Stanford, 2003),
as well as provide opportunities for students to show mastery of important content in as many as
eight different ways. Using MI as a planning tool and assessment guide, teachers can introduce
complex concepts at developmentally appropriate times. Then, they can allow students to come
to full understandings of the information by participating in relevant and contextualized learning
experiences that lead them apply the information to previous knowledge. A transition to an MIbased curriculum in the current school climate is not easy (Hoerr, 2000). It requires large
amounts of cooperation from students, teachers, and community members to provide those
unique learning experiences that offer opportunities for students to explore their intelligences. In
addition, it requires a fundamental change in the attitudes and priorities of educators and
members of society to celebrate the strengths and unique abilities of every student. Schools must
teach students to use their individual strengths in order to fashion products and solve problems. If
teachers develop curriculum in order to maximize the performance of each individual child, then
achievement outcomes will be different for each student in each subject area (Eisner, 2004)
Schools must ultimately accept that student learning will result in many different outcomes.
Running Head: Multiple Intelligences in Third Grade Mathematics
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Educators have used the Theory of Multiple Intelligences in a variety of ways in the last
two decades and have made many claims about the theory’s impact on student learning. These
claims include improved behavior, increased student confidence, intrinsic motivation,
engagement, and even higher performance on standardized tests (Johnson, 2007). As a relatively
new theory, very little conclusive evidence exists displaying the actual impact that MI teaching
strategies have on student achievement. Too many factors affect student learning in the
classroom, making isolating and quantifying one variable, such as the use of MI, very difficult.
However, it is my position that any educational strategies that focus on creating real-world
experiences and highly contextualized learning environments, and individualize instruction to
meet the unique needs and abilities of each learner will have a positive impact on student
learning. Further research should occur in order to show the true effectiveness of MultipleIntelligence teaching strategies on student learning.
Despite thousands of creative interpretations over the last 25 years that widely include
lessons and education policy implications, Gardner never meant for his theory to be a curriculum
program. As a general theory of intelligence, MI should be a guide for teachers to make
instructional decisions that meet the needs of all learners. Teachers should approach instruction
in such a way that challenges students to think deeply about the subject matter and come to their
own understandings of the concepts. Real-world experiences will offer opportunities to solve
problems much like the ones they will face in the job market of the future. Ultimately, the
Theory of Multiple Intelligences is a challenge to educators to create programs that guarantee
student success in the global economy and society of the future.
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