Notes
Chapter 2: Different Ways of Learning
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Basic educational concepts are being re-defined, re-examined and expanded
What does intelligence mean?
o Different types of intelligences
How should classrooms be organized to meet different learning styles
Gender issues
o Boys vs. Girls learning styles
o Single sex education
Stereotypes and generalizations
o Recognizing group differences
o Avoiding the dangers of stereotypic thinking
Exceptional learners
o Learning disabilities
o Physical disabilities
o Mental retardation
o Emotional disturbances
Learning Styles
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Learning Styles: diverse ways of learning, comprehending and knowing
o Ways students learn are unique to each individual
o Challenge of educators to diagnose these learning styles
 Not always obvious at first
Three factors contribute to each student’s learning style:
o Cognitive: information processing
 Different ways of perceiving, organizing and retaining information
 Cognitive Domain
o Affective: attitudes
 Different levels of motivation
 Intensity of motivation
 Affective Domain
 Attitude, values, and emotions that influence curiosity, the ability to
tolerate and overcome frustration, and the willingness to take risks
 Locus of Control: Don’t take responsibility for their behavior
o Physiology
 Tired and hungry learners will not be as successful as well-nourished,
rested children
 Body rhythms
 Day/Night
 Still/Active
 Light, sound, temperature
Myths Versus Facts
o Page 38, 39
Is Gender a Learning Style?
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Teacher’s comments and behaviors blindly reinforce gender divides
o Sensitive to religious, ethnic and racial affronts
Constant references to gender lead children to believe that teachers are intentionally
signaling important differences between boys and girls
Thoughts About Boys versus Girls:
o Boys: physically stronger, more aggressive, better in math-science-technology,
disciplinary problems, competitive, action oriented
o Girls: nurturing, intuitive, personalize knowledge, successful in arts and
languages, more compliant
Genetics versus socialization or in between?
Generalizations and Stereotypes about Gender Learning
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Stereotypes: absolute statements applied to all members of a group, suggesting that
members of a group have a fixed, often inherited set of characteristics
Generalizations: offer informational clues about groups that can help teachers plan more
effectively
o Recognize exceptions
Heteronormativity
Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual and Transgender Students
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A person’s sexual orientation
A typical curriculum assumes heterosexuality
o Some schools are altering their assumptions
Ensure that democratic norms of teaching equality are followed
o Ensure that all students are respected
What Does the Gender Debate Teach Us?
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Simplistic stereotypes about girls and boys “short-circuit” our thinking
Generalizations about different groups’ approaches to learning can help teachers plan
accordingly
No “one size fits all” teaching!
Multiple Intelligences
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Howard Gardner: Broadened the traditional assessment of intelligence to include eight
kinds of intelligences
Multiple Intelligences: Captures the diverse nature of the human capacity
o Logical-Mathematical: Mathematical manipulations and discerning and solving
logical problems
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 Related Careers: scientist, mathematician
o Linguistic: Sensitivity to the meanings, sounds and rhythms of words as well as
the function of language as a whole
 Related Careers: poet, journalist, author
o Bodily-Kinesthetic: Excel physically and handle objects skillfully
 Related Careers: athlete, dancer, surgeon
o Musical: Ability to produce pitch and rhythm, appreciate musical expression
 Related Careers: musician, composer
o Spatial: Form a mental model of the spatial world and to maneuver and operate
using that model
 Related Careers: sculptor, navigator, engineer, painter
o Interpersonal: analyze and respond to the motivations, moods and desires of other
people
 Related Careers: psychology, sales, teaching
o Intrapersonal: Knowledge of one’s own feelings, needs, strengths and
weaknesses; guide to behavior
 Related Benefits: accurate self-awareness
o Naturalist: Ability to discriminate among living things, sensitivity to the natural
world
 Related Career: botanist, environmentalist, vet, chef, science/consumer
career
Why the quality of a person’s performance may vary greatly in different activities
Instructional Technology
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Opening doors to learning intelligences
Assessment
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Pencil and paper tests are less appropriate to test new intelligences
Portfolio approach: a more comprehensive assessment-includes student artifacts that
offer tangible examples of student learning
Multiple Intelligences Theory is changing many current assessment practices
Emotional Intelligence
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Emotional Intelligence Quotient (EQ): Type of social intelligence that involves the
ability to monitor one’s own and other’s emotions, to discriminate among them, and to
use the information to guide one’s thinking and actions
o “Taps into the heart as well as the head” (49)
Exceptional Learners
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Within a classroom: a great range of abilities
Exceptional Learners:
o Mental retardation
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Learning disabilities
Emotional disturbance or behavior disorders
Hearing and language impairments
Visual impairments
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
Health or other physical disabilities
Gifted and talented
Gifted and Talented
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Gifted learners
Five elements of giftedness:
o Artistic and creative talents, intellectual and academic abilities, leadership skills
Exclusivity invites hostility
o Does it merit special attention? Yes!
GT students often suffer boredom and negative peer pressure when kept in regular
classroom setting
o Often drop out of school
o Some of the most talented students don’t always succeed in school
o Sense of isolation and loneliness, pressure to achieve, fear of failure
Schools and GT programs
o Forms of tracking-separates the gifted from the rest of the student population
o Lack of funds
o Enrichment activities in the classroom
o Gifted inclusion
o Accelerated Programs: give college credit early or skip grades
o Advanced Placement courses and exams-acceleration opportunities
o Mastery dimension that allows students to move through the curriculum a their
own pace
 In-depth learning
 Independent learning
 Field study
 Interdisciplinary studies
Social maladjustment due to acceleration
Special Education
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Disparaging attitudes were common for years
o Resulted in inadequate educational programs
o Asylums
Legal system
o Mandates to put educational programs into place
o Mirrored society’s judgment of the best policy for educating special needs
children
Special Education
o Five Critical principles of special education:
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Zero reject: no child with disabilities may be denied a free, appropriate
public education
Nondiscriminatory education: children with disabilities be assessed so
that they can be protected from inappropriate classification and tracking
Appropriate education: Children have the right to an education involving
the accurate diagnosis of individual needs, as well as responsive programs
keyed to those needs
Least restrictive environment: Protects from being inappropriate
segregated; educated in a setting that most resembles a regular classroom
 Mainstreaming: placing special needs students in regular
classrooms for at least part of the day
 Inclusion: separate classes and schools are to be avoided unless a
child’s disabilities are such that education in a regular classroom
cannot be achieved
Procedural due process: upholds the right of students with disabilities to
protest a school’s decision about their education
Laws:
o Public Law 94-142: Education for All Handicapped Children Act: offers states
financial support to make a free and appropriate public education available to
every child with disabilities
o Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA): extended coverage to all
disabled learners between 3 and 21.
o Individualized Education Program: provide a written record of those needs and
procedures
 An IEP must be written for every child who receives special education
services
 Must include:
o A statement of the student’s current performance (including
long and short term goals)
o Description of the nature and duration of the instruction
services
o Overview of the methods of evaluation that will be used to
monitor the child’s progress and determine whether goals
have been met
Today, 1 in 8 children are special needs
o Has risen 30% since 1990
o Learning disabilities: largest group of special needs students
o Meeting special education needs has strained education budgets
Regular education initiative: encourages schools to provide special services within the
regular classroom and encourages close collaboration between classroom teachers and
special educators
o Concerns about mainstreamed classrooms
Assistive Technology
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Technology-based devices for students with special needs
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o Assistive or adaptive technology
 i.e.: Wheelchairs, switches that respond to voice commands, computer
programs that read material for blind students, ERICA (Eyegaze Response
Interface Computer Aid, handheld computers
Pitfalls?
o Spelling and grammar tools
o Inappropriate use of internet websites