THE INEFFICIENCY OF SALMON
AQUACULTURE IN CHILE:
Social, Economic, & Environmental Aspects
Fundacion Terram
Corporacion Terra Australis
Editors: Marcel Claude and Jorge Oporto
Researchers: Marcel Claude, Jorge Oporto, Ciro Ibañez, Lila Brieva,
Consuelo Espinosa and Marcela Arqueros
August 2000
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
At present, there are no valid reasons to ground the claim of sustainability in the salmon
aquaculture industry of the country. This is the main conclusion of the research
conducted by Fundación Terram and other researchers on the national aquaculture
activity. The main characteristic of this research is the inclusion of the analysis of social,
economic and environmental equity levels. According to the researchers, the present
situation of the salmon industry “is unacceptable as it entails that all Chilean citizens will
have to bear the environmental costs and accept that the Environmental Gap is widening
every day, as well as the fact that the increase in productivity is not reflected on the
salaries of workers”.
From the economic standpoint, even though there has been a remarkable increase in the
production of salmon in Chile, the workers´ salaries have not risen accordingly.
Therefore, the greater volume of profits has expanded the profitability of the companies.
As concerns the Environmental Gap -the difference between the traditional GDP and the
Green GDP-, the research shows that it tends to increase in time and that, as compared to
the GDP, it has doubled between 1990 and 1996.
From the environmental perspective, the research points out that by reason of the
salmonind-fish aquaculture industry, four of the five lakes of Chiloé used for its
development are seriously polluted. Likewise, it alerts us about the increasing volume of
egg imports eggs, which increases the risk of new diseases that may be introduced and
spread.
The research documents the danger to the local fish fauna resulting from the millions of
salmon escaped from their cages, further warning that protection systems of the cages
give rise to high mortality levels of birds and sea mammals, an area in which illegal
behaviors to eliminate sea lions are still common practice.
This research presents, in the section of conclusions, that environmental costs resulting
from emissions of nutrients into the environment, are not borne by the aquaculture
industry but in the future same will be paid by the companies themselves, by alternative
economic activities and by the community as a whole. It further concludes that the fast
growth of this industry is based on the lack of internalization of environmental costs. If
this situation continued it would lead, in the medium term, to the stagnation and
subsequent reduction of this activity, as well as to the deterioration, in most cases
irreversible, of the environment.
In the opinion of the authors and contributors to this research, the situation is not
irreversible, always provided that the companies engaged in the salmon industry adopt a
series of recommendations which may be categorized as environmental and economic
recommendations. Among the environmental ones, companies are urged to use closed
farming systems, with impermeable barriers between the cages and the bodies of water
containing them; enter into the integrated development of production system to recycle
waste matter generated; reduce the imports of eggs to cause the risk of introduction of
2
diseases to diminish; prefer preventive methods rather than treatments in the fight against
diseases; systematically monitor farming centers; develop activities which foster the
exchange of new preventive techniques; develop environmental monitoring action;
establish the environmental bond; prohibit the use of nets or other elements resulting in
the death of birds and sea mammals and enforce the prohibition to use firearms and any
other items that originate the intentional or accidental mortality of wildlife.
The economic recommendations include the execution of agreements so that increases in
productivity may be reflected in an increase in actual salaries, so as to induce a better
distribution of the income generated by this activity; and the creation of a special tax that
may help capture and charge the businesses for the gratuitous use of the natural heritage
and, additionally, that may permit the negative external costs they generate to be
attributed to this activity and induce a level of sustainable activity.
Santiago, July 2000
3
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION ________________________________________________________ 6
Chapter 1 _______________________________________________________________ 8
SALMONID AQUACULTURE – TWENTY YEARS OF HISTORY
Chapter 2 ______________________________________________________________ 12
IMPACTS ON THE ENVIRONMENT
2.1.
Impacts caused by feeding salmon in captivity _______________________________ 14
2.2.
Impacts caused by escapes of farmed salmon ________________________________ 15
2.3.
Use of biocides and antibiotics _____________________________________________ 16
2.4.
Use of immune stimulants ________________________________________________ 19
2.5.
Import of eggs __________________________________________________________ 20
2.6. Outbreak of diseases _____________________________________________________ 21
2.7.
Discharge of solid and liquid waste _________________________________________ 22
2.8.
Mortality of sea birds and mammals________________________________________ 23
2.9. Change of the landscape ___________________________________________________ 24
2.10. Use and availability of the coastal line ______________________________________ 25
2.11. Standards of environmental quality ________________________________________ 27
Chapter 3 ______________________________________________________________ 30
SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC IMPACTS
3.1. Economic impacts ________________________________________________________ 31
3.1.1. Chile and the Global Production of Salmonid-fish ____________________________________ 31
3.1.2. Exports: Prices and Commercialized Volumes _______________________________________ 32
3.1.3. Demand of Food Products _______________________________________________________ 34
3.1.4. Exported Products _____________________________________________________________ 35
3.1.5. Target Markets of Exports _______________________________________________________ 36
3.2. Impacts on other economic sectors: tourism and small-scale fishing_______________ 37
3.2.1. Tourism _____________________________________________________________________ 37
3.2.2. Small-scale fishing ____________________________________________________________ 37
3.3. Social impacts ___________________________________________________________ 39
3.3.1. Distribution of the Income 1990-1995 _____________________________________________ 39
3.3.2. Salaries and Productivity _______________________________________________________ 41
3.4. Sociocultural changes of the local communities ________________________________ 42
Chapter 4 ______________________________________________________________ 44
NEW CONCEPTS: THE "GREEN" GDP AND THE ENVIRONMENTAL GAP
4.1. Accounting of Natural and Environmental Resources. Conceptual Aspects ________ 44
4.1.1. Brief Description of the System of National Accounts (SNA) __________________________ 44
4.1.2. Unfavorable opinions of the SNA ________________________________________________ 45
4
4.2. Assessment of the "Green" GDP and the Mitigation Costs in the Salmonid-fish
Aquaculture Industry in the Region of The Ten Lakes ______________________________ 46
4.2.1. Emissions and Mitigation Costs __________________________________________________ 46
4.2.2. Green GDP and Environmental Gap _______________________________________________ 48
Chapter 5 ______________________________________________________________ 50
TWELVE RECOMMENDATIONS FOR NEW POLICIES
5.1. Conclusions ______________________________________________________________ 50
5.2. Recomemndations ________________________________________________________ 53
ANNEX 1: TABLES _____________________________________________________ 55
ANNEX 2: METHODOLOGICAL ASPECTS _________________________________ 60
Economic Impacts ____________________________________________________________ 60
Social Impacts _______________________________________________________________ 60
Assessment of the "Green" GDP in the Salmonid-fish AI ___________________________ 62
REFERENCE __________________________________________________________ 65
5
INTRODUCTION
This document presents a comprehensive analysis of the Chilean salmonid-fish farming
aquaculture industry. Its singularity is that includes, for the first time in this type of
analysis, the concept of equity as the result of specific studies of economic, social and
environmental impacts of the activity. The impacts are identified and evaluated according
to quantitative existing information.
The approach adopted in this document is not homogenous. This characteristic should not
be surprising because there is no formal analytical pattern calling for all issues in this
document to be dealt with from an exclusive approach. However, the methodology
adopted falls within the concepts developed under the Theory of Sustainable
Development; in spite of the fact that such term may be given several interpretations, it
gives us the possibility, due to its flexibility, to address the concepts disclosed in this
document. Sustainable Development is an approach that attempts to combine the aspects
of economic growth, equity and the sustainable use of the resources, with the
understanding that the economic growth cannot be infinite because the natural resources
on which it is based have a limited life (Daly & Coob, 1993).
The research includes conventional economic aspects like exports, currency, product and
salaries as well as social aspects like pollution, outbreak of exotic diseases, mortality of
the local fauna, et cetera. With the inclusion of the analysis of equity we hope to
introduce a new perspective to these debates because there was no similar analysis until
the present.
The document is divided into five chapters. The first chapter presents the general
background of the national aquaculture industry.
The second chapter analyzes the aquaculture industry from the environmental
perspective. The impacts are considered according to a typology of environmental
standards internationally accepted. This chapter reveals the results of measures of
environmental quality in lakes located in the provinces of Llanquihue and Chiloé, in
addition to the description of some indicators of imports of eggs and use of antibiotics.
The impacts of escaped salmon on the local fauna, the outbreak of new exotic diseases,
mortality of sea birds and mammals, discharge of solid and liquid waste and the specific
impacts on the coast, among others, are also analyzed.
The third chapter analyzes the industry in terms of the economic and social impacts that
has generated. Within the economic impacts, the importance of the Chilean aquaculture
salmonid-fish industry is considered within the framework of the global industry and the
volumes of exports, prices, type of products and markets are reviewed. Then, the impacts
of this industry on other economic sectors like tourism and small-scale fishing are
evaluated. As concerns the social impacts, the evolution of the functional distribution of
the income is analyzed, and the evolution of the salaries and production is compared.
6
The fourth chapter is a summary of the traditional approach of the National Accounts and
works on the concepts of Green Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and the Environmental
Gap. As concerns the System of National Accounts the same is reviewed as a condensed
system of the economic activities within a territory, showing its structure as well as the
unfavorable opinions of the specialists. Then, we estimate the green GDP for the national
aquaculture sector, which is the same indicator as for the traditional economic activity but
adjusted to environmental variables. Finally, this chapter presents the evolution of costs
of abatement created by this industry and the Environmental Gap that the same generates.
The fifth chapter presents, first, the conclusions arising from this work and afterwards the
recommendations to conduct the present salmonid-fish industry towards sustainable
criteria in the course of time.
Acknowledgments
The authors wish to express their acknowledgments to all the people who contributed
towards the preparation of this document, specially to the people who are closed to the
salmon industry but preferred to remain anonymous, and to the local people from Tenaún,
Chonchi, Isla Lemuy, Quemchi and Calbuco, mainly. A special acknowledgment to Dr.
Ricardo Enríquez from the Institute of Ictiopathology of the Universidad Austral de
Chile, Dr. Marcelo Acevedo from Biosalmo Ltd. Dr. Victor Alvarado from Salmovet Ltd.
Dra. Doris Soto from the School of Fishery of the Universidad Austral de Chile, Marcela
Gallegos and Ricardo Torrijos, both professionals of the National Service of Fisheries
and to the Weeden Foundation from the United States.
7
Chapter 1
SALMONID-FISH AQUACULTURE INDUSTRY – TWENTY YEARS
OF HISTORY
Although the introduction of salmonid-fish in Chile dates back to the beginning of the XX
century, it was only from the 80s and specially after 1990 that the national Aquaculture
Industry (AI) had such a tremendous growth that at present is among the first worldwide
markets as regards volumes of production but also as regards non-sustainable impacts.
Development of the aquaculture was justified on the need to reduce the pressure over
fisheries resources highly overexploited due to the increase of the demand for human
consumption. However, the new development of this economic activity not only was far
from reducing the capture of native species but, to the very contrary, they increased to
produce food for the aquaculture industry itself (Naylor et al., 2000). This situation
created additional serious problems of contamination and deepened equity problems
between the actors involved in this activity.
The origin of this activity goes back to the beginning of last century. The first
introduction of salmonid-fish in Chile occurred in 1905 with eggs from Europe in the
locality of Río Blanco located at more than 200 kilometers to the north of Santiago.
During that year the first successful eclosion of rainbow trout took place (Oncorhynchus
mykiss) and gave origin to the introduction of trout in different watercourses in the central
and south region of Chile. In 1914, the second farming center was set up in the locality of
Lautaro (650 kilometers to the south of Santiago). The main objective of this center was
to introduce different salmon species between 30° and 42°S. In 1946, the same center
developed the first eggs of the Atlantic salmon (Salmo Salar) and coffee trout (Salmo
trutta). The specimens from this farming center were the basis of the introduction of
salmonid-fish species into rivers and lakes located in the south of Chile and the
Patagonia.
The third national farming center was set up in 1952 in the locality of Polcura, Province
of Ñuble, for the purpose of producing eggs and fries of the rainbow and coffee trout to
repopulate the central region of Chile. In 1973, a farming center opened in Pullinque near
the Lake Panquipulli (Tenth Region of the Lakes). This center became the largest and
most modern center of the country. Its main objective was to expand the population of
trout in the south of Chile. At the same time, several attempts to introduce other
salmonid-fish species (chinook salmon, red salmon and Pacific salmon [Oncorhynchus
bisutch]) took place with eggs provided by a cooperation program with the US Peace
Corps. These efforts were unsuccessful.
The first efforts to introduce the keta salmon as a wild species took place in 1969 through
an intergovernmental agreement between Chile and Japan. The main objective was to
establish a center in the southern region of Chile. Although the outcomes were not those
expected, this project counted with the technical assistance of Japanese experts and they
8
help to train an important group of Chilean people in different areas of farming,
pathologies and food that contributed to open the path to develop the national salmonidfish aquaculture industry. During the seventies the private business started to farm
salmonid-fish using the closed farming system, which implies an impermeable barrier
between the salmon and the surrounding ocean or lake waters in which the salmon
develops.
At the beginning of the 70s, several tests of intensive farming of the rainbow trout were
initiated in the area of the Arrayán, near Santiago. Later, in 1975, a commercial fish
farming center was established in Río Pescado, in the mouth of the Lake Llanquihue
(Tenth Region) that produced the first exports of Chilean salmonid-fish. In 1979, the
Japanese Company Nichiro Chile and the Chilean company Mares Australes started
confined farming in cages of the Pacific salmon in the localities of Chinquihue and Huito,
respectively (Tenth Region).
The decade of the 1980s mark the beginning of the real industrial development of the
salmon in Chile, through the growth of farming centers in the Tenth Region. Between
1981 and 1984, governmental agencies conducted studies to determine the economic
viability and technical feasibility to farm salmon species in captivity. This gave origin to
a process of technical adjustments to techniques used in the United State and
Scandinavian countries.
At the beginning, the main farmed species was the trout, but it was gradually replaced,
first, by the Pacific salmon and later by the Atlantic salmon (Annex 1, Table A). The
accelerated development of the salmon industry can be observed in the production figures
which at the beginning of the eighties reached 80 tons, 500 tons in 1984, 5,500 tons in
1988 and 247,970 tons in 19971.
At present, three salmonid-fish species are farmed in Chile. According to the production
significance they are: Atlantic salmon, Pacific salmon and rainbow trout. In 1997, about
247,970 tons were farmed as follows: 39% Atlantic salmon, 30% Pacific salmon and 31%
rainbow trout (National Service of Fishery – SERNAPESCA, Servicio Nacional de Pesca,
1998).
During the period 1995-1998, the production of salmonid-fish (Atlantic salmon, Pacific
salmon and trout) in the Tenth Region represents between 40 and 100 percent of the
national production. As you can observe in Graph 1, the regional production of the
Atlantic salmon represented almost 100% of the national production during the same
period. In the case of the Pacific salmon, the regional share decreased; however, it is still
important because it represents 70% of the national production. Moreover, since 1988 the
production of the rainbow trout in the Tenth Region has an amazing growth and its share
in the national production increased from 43 to 90% (Annex 1, Table A).
1
These data include the Pacific, Atlantic, king, turbot, rainbow trout and coffee salmon species
9
Graph 1. Share of salmonid-fish production of the Tenth Region within the
national production, 1985-1998.
(%)
100%
90%
%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
Años
Salmón del Pacífico
Salmón del Atlántico
Trucha Arcoiris
Sources: Annex 1, Table A.
Elaboration: Fundación Terram
At present, there are about 90 companies engaged in the production of salmon and they
count with more than 400 farming centers of sea water and about 185 fish farming centers
of fresh water. All these farming centers cover approximately 4,700 hectares (Compendio
de la Acuicultura de Chile, 1998). Besides, SERNAPESCA registers 823 aquaculture
centers at the national level, 81% located in the Tenth Region and 40% of them are fish
farming centers (that include salmonid-fish production). At the national level, aquaculture
centers grew at an average of 17 per year between 1993-1998 and 14 of them are located
in the Tenth Region (Annex 1, Table B).
Farming centers employed approximately 23,000 people; 15,000 under direct
employment and 8,000 indirect employment. An informal sector should be added which
is not included in the official figures, they represent about 200 small-scale fishing
farming centers of fresh water and seawater farming centers of salmonid-fish operating
clandestinely or with temporary authorizations.
Since 1992 two important technical changes have occurred in farming centers. First, the
construction of wooden cages in the farming center was replaced by the purchase of
plastic ones. Then, manual feeding of fish in captivity was automatized. Both situations
may be the cause of 40% less hiring of workers in farming centers.
From the economic perspective, the importance of the fish sector can be observed in the
GDP of the Tenth Region, and in the latter, the importance of the GDP in farming
centers. Thus, the fish sector increases its share in the regional GDP by 6.6% during the
first five-year period of the 80s and reached 11.5% during the same period of the
following decade. The GDP of the Subsector farming centers in the Tenth Region
represents more than 90% of the GDP of this Subsector at the national level
(Interamerican Center for the Development of Sustainable Ecosystems - Centro
Interamericano para el Desarrollo de Ecosistemas Sustentables, ICSED, 1998). There
was also a significant growth in the financial services, electricity, gas and water, and
10
transport and communications sectors. However, the agroforestry, personal services, real
estate and public administration sector diminished their relative importance.
The structural changes in the regional economy that took place during the last decade are
the result of the development model of the country. The increase in importance of the
fishery sector linked to the growth of export and the decrease of the public administration
and agrarian sectors constitute a national and international trend. Besides, the growth in
importance of the financial services, electricity, gas and water, and the transport and
communications sectors is consistent with a growing regional economy linked to external
markets and demographic trends in relation to the growth of the population in general and
the urban population in particular.
The gross domestic product (GDP) of the Region in 1986 constant prices doubled in one
decade, growing at an annual average rate of 9.6%. The regional exports increased 2.5
times during the period 1991-1997 and the national exports increased only 1.9 times
during the same period. The importance of regional exports within total national exports
increased from 3.8% in 1991 to 5.2% in 1997 (Annex 1, Table C).
This larger dynamism has influence on the regional work force, which increases from 363
thousand people in 1994 to 385 thousand in 1997 and employed from 349 thousand to
373 thousand during the same period. This entails a growth rhythm of the work force
between 1994 and 1997 of 6.5% and 7.1% respectively. However, at the national level
the same rates register growth of only 2.3% and 5% respectively for the same period
(Annex 1, Table D).
11
Chapter 2
IMPACTS ON THE ENVIRONMENT
The AI is causing serious physical, biological, and economic impacts as well as
landscape changes in the south of the country. Environmental standards are constantly
violated, specially in the lakes of the Province of Chiloé which are in a state of advanced
deterioration according to investigations presented in this document. To the elevated
concentrations of chemical elements it must be added the high use of antibiotics in
salmon as diets to combat diseases without the proper knowledge of their real impact. A
factor that increases the threat of infection with strange diseases is the increment of
import of eggs and the use of salmon by-products as food products for other animals.
Until now, it has been detected the transmission of at least one exotic disease to a local
species, endangering the local fauna of the Aysen and Chiloé Archipelagos. Such
transmission was due to the escape from cages of four million salmon specimens between
1993 and 1996.
Another serious environmental impact is caused by the discharge of waste generated by
this activity. Only 12% of the aquaculture centers treat their discharge waters (water
with blood) while solid waste accumulate in cage bottoms or are otherwise swept to the
sea causing a reduction of oxygen in waters and even a decrease of biodiversity. Besides,
non-consumed and non-digested food by the fish in captivity generates contamination via
sediments and feces respectively. As sediments are of anoxic and sulfuratted nature they
deteriorate the quality of waters, accelerating their eutrophication process. Finally,
feeding salmon for their production became a problem of global food security because
for each kilogram of salmon, 2.7 kg of fish are required as food.
Although Chile has 30 thousand kilometers of coast, lacks a global policy on the use of
the coastal line in harmony with its development by different users. The plans of the
Undersecretary of Fishery are only addressed to regulate aquatic resources, a fact that
creates conflicts of interests among the salmon industry, tourism and coastal traffic. The
impacts of the AI along the coastal area are the alteration of the quality of water bodies,
alteration of ecosystems, in their habitats and the structure of their communities. Finally,
studies, investigations and surveys have confirmed that the main problems of the coastal
area are the decay of the quality of water, threats to the biodiversity and the conflicts of
interests arising among the different users.
12
For the purpose of this study, negative impacts were taken into account because these
impacts are those to be mitigated or eliminated from the aquaculture activity. Negative
impacts can be classified into physical, chemical, biological and landscaping. A typology
of these impacts and their potential consequences are presented briefly in Table 1.
Table 1: Typology of impacts of the aquaculture activity.
Type of Impact
Effect
Causes
Physical-chemical Eutrophication of water Emissions of nutrients like
biological
phosphorus (P) and nitrogen
columns.
(N) are spread over the
via
non Modification of the environment
digested
food
for
fish
and
primary production and
by the feces. This has
the zooplankton.
impacts on the primary
production and changes the
of
the
 Changes of sediments in composition
sediments on the seabed.
seabed communities.

Aesthetic
Transmission of diseases
takes place in three different
ways: escape of salmon
from their cages to further
mix with native species;
t0000000000he
use
of
antibiotics
in
farming
centers and the introduction
of imported exotic species.
Landscape
changes
in As a consequence of the
coastal areas of the sea and expansion of the industry
lakes.
there are many salmonidfish cages spread over the
coast that make less
attractive the surroundings.
Production of this industry
implies traffic of lorries,
death of native species,
waste of water with blood,
inadequate
installations
from
the
aesthetics
perspective, changes of
water transparency; all of
which clearly rests an
aesthetic value to the
landscape.
Transmission
of
diseases to wildlife and
potentially to the human
being.
Source: Weber, 1997; Soto, 1996; Valdés et al ,1995, and López and Buschmann, 1991.
13
The generation of these types of impacts is linked to the production process of salmon in
captivity. In fact, farming salmon in captivity entails the installation of cages that cause a
change of the original landscape. Besides, the process of production means a significant
level of stress caused by the high density of fish within a limited space and by the
presence of men working in farming centers. These circumstances change significantly
the physiological mechanisms of the fish, which become more vulnerable to diseases.
Antibiotics are used to minimized stress, they are thrown into the water and cause
potential negative impacts on the aquatic ecosystem.
Feeding salmon causes problems to the waters within the cages and the water bodies
around them increasing the presence of nutrients in the water. Moreover, the escape of
salmonid-fish from the farming centers and the use of antibiotics can cause a massive
transfer of medicines to the native population with unknown consequences (Valdés et al.,
1995). Besides, the use of large areas along the coast to set the cages has created conflicts
with potential users of this land.
The following is a separate analysis of the impacts described in the previous paragraphs
to offer a better detail of their roots and consequences.
2.1. Impacts caused by feeding salmon in captivity
Feeding salmon for their production became a problem of global food security because
for each kilogram of salmon, 2.5 and 5 kg of fish as feed are required. Non-consumed
and non-digested food by the fish in captivity generates contamination in the form of
sediments and feces respectively. As sediments are of anoxic and sulfuratted nature they
deteriorate the quality of water, accelerating their eutrophication process.
As presented in Figure 1, during the farming cycle, pollution of the habitat is due to two
main causes directly related to the food of salmon in captivity. First, non-digested
residual food that reaches the bed of the pond in the form of sediment. Second, ingested
food but not digested that the fish discharge and goes into the habitat as contaminant.
Figure 1: Pollution of the habitat during the farming cycle.
Food
introduced
in the system
Feedin
g
stage
Food
consumed
Nonconsumed
food
Sediments
Harvesting
stage
Fish
produced
Nondigested
food
Feces
Source and Elaboration: Programa de Investigaciones en Energia, PRIEN, (Program of Energy
Investigation), 1996.
14
Nutrients in fish feed exceed the requirements of farmed fish and in spite of the fact that,
in general, aquatic environments are able to metabolize these organic residues and recycle
nutrients with a proportional increase in biological productivity, the result is a depletion
of oxygen in water, an excessive flourishing of algae and the accumulation of anoxic and
sulfurous sediments accumulated between fish cages or on the bottom of ponds, which
are finally carried into the rivers or seas where the cages are found.
Regardless of the fact that the flourishing of algae may be attributed to nutrients from the
farms or any other resources, it may cause damages to the salmon production business in
various ways. Firstly, the growing of algae may deoxygenate the waters in which salmon
and other animals breathe, a circumstance that may also occur when algae die and
decompose. Secondly, some concentrations of certain types of algae may cause a
mucosity to cover the gills of salmon, which in turn results in infections, gill hemorrhage
and fish suffocation.
Moreover, salmon are carnivorous fish and as such their feeding poses serious ethical
problems, which refer to the use of fish as feed, in spite of the fact that the same may
contribute best to worldwide food security if they were directly consumed by humans.
Data from the FAO in 1992 revealed that 5.1 million tons of caught fish were used as
feed for farming 1.9 million tons of salmon, trout, sea shrimps and other species. Thus,
between 2.5 and 5 kilos of caught fish are required as feed per every one kilo of
carnivorous products (Naylor et al., 2000). In 1995, approximately 15% of fish was used
as feed for the worldwide production of fish and it is expected that by 2000 this figure
may reach a 20% increase.
Even though this report does not consider the relative efficiency of feeding fish in
captivity, the growing AI will no longer be able to have an unlimited stock of native fish
for feeding purposes, since most of these resources are being currently overexploited and
their biomass has been seriously impaired.
2.2. Impacts caused by escapes of farmed salmon
There exist four millions of salmon specimens that have escaped from the cages in
farming centers and now live in the southern seas. They cause a strong impact on the
local fauna as they compete for common food and space; they modify the genetic
resistance and cause diseases to the wild salmon. This is a situation of extreme danger
for the wild fauna of Chiloé and Aysén.
Salmon that escape the ponds threaten native species as they compete for food and places
to live. They are potential carriers of diseases and if they reproduced with wild species
they may damage their genetic resistance because the genes that are apt to survive in the
farm dilute the genes developed to exploit and survive under natural conditions.
15
According to Moreno et al. (1997) estimations, approximately 4 million specimens of
salmon have escaped from the ponds to the natural environment between 1993 and 1996.
The three main species that have escaped are rainbow trout, coho salmon and Atlantic
salmon.
Although the authors specify that the population of escaped salmon for the year 2000 will
not exceed 30,000 individuals, the estimation does not consider the potential of
reproduction or the ability of adaptation of each of these species to their new
environment. Based on these facts, it is possible to assume that a percentage of the four
million specimens could have become acclimated and reproduced in the numerous rivers
of the Chilean north Patagonia.
In this regard, Jara et al., (1997), point out empirical evidence that an inverse pattern of
abundance between salmonid-fish escaped from cages and the native fauna in the interior
sea of Chiloé –in those places investigated where the salmon abounds- it can be observed
a minor presence of native species and vice versa. This may be explained by the
competence for food and spaces to live generated between the two groups of fish and
because the salmon consume benthonic and pelagic species.
Moreover, the salmon in captivity are constantly treated with antibiotics to protect them
from diseases. Therefore the escape of salmon may cause a massive transfer of medicines
to the native population with unknown consequences.
If we considered these data and tried to include this information in relation to the
population size about escaped salmon, we could be facing a situation of extreme danger
for the native fauna of the Chiloé and Aysén Archipelagos.
2.3. Use of biocides and antibiotics
From the beginning, the national salmon industry has registered a steady increase of the
use of antibiotics to prevent diseases. In comparison with Norway, the levels of use are
remarkably superior. The administration of antibiotics causes a serious problem because
they reach both infected and healthy individuals creating a resistance to future medicines
used to combat everyday diseases. More research is needed as regards the effects of
medicated diets to generalize its use. Besides, the use of salmon by-products as food for
other animals constitutes a potential path for the transmission of diseases.
The Chilean salmon industry has used different biocides and antibiotics, almost since the
beginning, with the purpose of eliminating or diminishing bacterial, viral or parasitic
diseases, among others. In 1990, the salmon industry used approximately 13 tons of
antibiotics (as a total pure drug), 65 tons in 1995 and about 100 tons in 1998 (Graph 2).
16
Graph 2. Total consumption of antibiotics between 1990 and 1998.
100
Tons
80
60
40
20
0
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
Years
Source: Terra Australis
Chile counts with little information about the quantity of antibiotics actually used in the
AI. However, if we compare the consumption of the antibiotics registered in special
centers of the salmon aquaculture industry in Chile and Norway2 we conclude that the
difference in amount of antibiotics is significant. In relative terms, in 1993 (only year to
compare with the available information) Chile used 75 times more antibiotics per
kilogram of salmon produced than Norway (Annex 1, Table E). The conclusion is that
Chile is exposed to more risks than Norway in relation to the adverse impacts caused by
the use of antibiotics.
At present, this use is general and has gone, in some way, from an indirect use through
water mass and food to a direct administration through individual shot. When comparing,
between Chile and Norway, the use of antibiotics in relation to the production, it can be
observed that in Chile the use of antibiotics increases whereas in Norway diminishes
(Graph 3).
Graph 3. Kilograms of antibiotics per tons of salmon produced in Chile and Norway
0,6
0,5
Kgs./Ton.
0,4
Chile
Noruega
0,3
0,2
0,1
0
1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996
Años
Source: Terra Australis
2
Norway dropped its level of antibiotics due to the development of vaccines incorporated to the food
(Weber; 1997).
17
The main biocides and antibiotics used by the AI are: oxitetraciclina, oxolinic acid,
flumequina, quinolona, cefquinona and enrofloxacino.
The treatment and control of diseases in water organisms are very different to those
applied to terrestrial animals. Fish, are in direct contact with the microorganisms that may
provoke the pathologies, they are in the same environment where the microorganisms
developed and are transported. Thus, it is difficult to prevent dissemination of a disease in
water farming centers. All those factors that have an incidence on water quality will have
an impact on the development and survival of the microorganisms that cause the diseases
and at the same time on these species and their resistance to be infected.
The level of antibiotics given to fish varies according to the species and the stage of
development. Besides, in our country, notwithstanding its use, death rate of infected fish
in captivity is not controlled. In Chile, the main diseases affecting salmon are the
bacterial diseases that affect the kidney (BKD) and Rikettsia. The last one is the disease
that causes the largest amount of losses and is controlled with 80% of the amount of
antibiotics used. Although there is no vaccine already to combat Riketssia it can be
treated with antibiotics: (oxolinico acid and flumequina) and tetraciclinas (oxitraciclina).
Furthermore, the use of medicines in salmon is not limited to infected specimens but the
treatment goes to the whole aquatic ecosystem. This leads to the generation of microbial
specimens resistant to the antibiotics within the whole ecosystem and this implies the
need to use new and stronger medicines to combat more resistant organisms.
For the purpose of preventing the propagation of antibiotics in the aquatic ecosystem,
medicated feed is often used. In Chile, although the use of antibiotics in feed is admitted
by the national food industry, such use is made without sufficient knowledge of its actual
impact. Notwithstanding the fact that in Chile the level of diseases is not similar to that in
Norway, some measures other than the use of antibiotics could be adopted, such as better
quality in fish feed, stress avoidance and stimulation of the immune system. Yet, the
responsibility for choosing what the market offers lies in fish producers and, more
frequently, the owners of farming centers opt to medicate feed and order the same from
manufacturers.
Diets that include medicine are a big challenge to food industries of salmon and each one
chooses different actions about the technology to be used. However, not only the quality
of the medicine should be protected but the lack of risks of cross-contamination should
also be ensure because it is probable that residues of medicine remain in the production
line and then contaminate the food for fish that did not require the treatment. For this
reason, it is recommended the use of independent lines to supply medicated diets.
An example of the previous paragraph is given by the industry Trouw Chile that
separated the line of medicated food in a line of independent production two years ago.
This industry offers the diet “Respons” that stimulates the immune system and diminishes
the death rate. The components of the diet (glucones, high levels of vitamin C, special
vitamin premix and an extruded diet of high energy) prevent infections, stimulate the
18
immune system and reduce the consumption of antibiotics. This diet has been used
successfully in the farming center Mares Australes because it reduces the use of
antibiotics and related costs. However, there are opinions against the use of glucones (a
main component of Respons), as they stimulate the non-specific immune system, so it is
not certain that this element helps in preventing diseases. Due to this uncertainty, salmon
farmers are still using already known diets, which reveals the need of a further research
of this issue.
Other existing dangers caused by the use of antibiotics in food are that products like
fishmeal and oil produced with salmon, which are being offered for consumption to the
food industry for fish3. The main risk is the possibility of recycling the diseases, like the
bacterial ones that may generate a similar impact to that of the “mad cows” in Great
Britain.
2.4. Use of immune stimulants
Immune stimulants are chemical substances, drugs, stressants or activators of the
immune system and of the unspecified or macrofacigo system, so they do not generate
memory and they have a short duration action. They can be administered alone to
activate non-specific defense mechanisms or they can be administered with a shot to
increase a specific immune response too.
The interest in the use of stimulants in farming centers started several years ago, but the
initial expectations were overestimated because many farmers thought that they could
replace vaccines and antibiotics. Although this situation, there has been further work on
the issue to develop better products that could be integrated into the farming cycle of fish
and as a defensive barrier against pathogens. Among the companies that develop
stimulants (some of them in the trade and others in the search and development phases)
are Nutreco, Aquaculture, Bayer and Veterquímica.
Immune-stimulants do not replace vaccines, they are neither antibiotics nor corrective
agents, but they prevent diseases in fish. For that reason the, concept of their use in
farming centers should be changed. However, it is important to know that they are not
100% effective because the response in some fish is better than in others, thus immune
stimulants conform only one of the tools that keep the good health of the fish.
Control of diseases in farming centers should be focused, firstly, on preventive measures
in relation to water quality, technology and reproduction techniques and secondly on the
elimination of factors that favor diseases in fish (food components, food with residues,
pollution, high density of fish, inappropriate places, insufficient health control and
microbial conditions in the water). The risk of diseases can be reduced with the use of
improved food, through a better resistance to diseases, when selecting specimens during
3
These are by-products of aquaculture and have been developed in order to take advantage of the residues
originating in this industry.
19
the crossbreeding, in an ecologically management and through the use of stimulants and
vaccines (though in practice they are difficult to develop).
2.5. Import of eggs
Although the proportion of eggs imported diminished in relation to the total production
of salmon, the risk of diseases is latent due to the growth, in absolute numbers, of the
import of eggs during the last years and the increase of the production itself of the
salmon.
Since the arrival of the first eggs to our country, several exotic diseases have been
introduced. They affect mainly salmon species and they could be transmitted to the local
fish fauna. When importing eggs, species that do not belong to the habitat and with
resistance to certain types of diseases and weaknesses to others are introduced. Besides,
due to the lack of health control, these eggs carried bacteria and virus which may
multiply rapidly in an environment different from the original.
Therefore, the national production of eggs has been promoted, and according to Graph 4,
we can point out that the amount of imported eggs diminished in relation to the farmed
volume for different salmon species. This could be used as an approximate indicator of
the risk of introduction of diseases4. The downward trend is remarkable for rainbow trout
(since 1994) and for the silver or Pacific salmon (since 1992). In this case it indicates the
existence of an important national production of eggs.
Graph 4. Eggs imported per harvested ton, 1990-1997.
(millions of eggs)
millones ovas/ ton. cosechada
3,5
3,0
2,5
Salmón Atlántico
2,0
Salmón plateado
1,5
Trucha arcoiris
Total
1,0
0,5
0,0
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
Source: Compendio de Acuicultura, 1999, and Anuarios de Pesca de SERNAPESCA
Elaboration: Terra Australis
According to the previous paragraph it could be infer a lesser risk of diseases caused by
the import of eggs. However, the most important issue when evaluating the risk of a
disease outbreak is the volume, in absolute terms, of imported eggs. From this point of
view, the risk increased in spite of the decreasing rates, as may be observed in Graph 5.
4
A record of the most dangerous diseases for the Chilean salmon industry can be found in Annex 1, Table
F.
20
Graph 5. Import of Eggs, 1991-1997.
(millions of eggs)
millones de ovas
120.000
100.000
80.000
60.000
40.000
20.000
0
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
Source: Compendio de Acuicultura 1999
Elaboration: Terra Australis
2.6. Outbreak of diseases
Even though little research has been carried out on the outbreak of exotic diseases, the
transmission of at least one disease affecting salmon to species of the local fish fauna has
been detected.
At present, the introduction of bacterial, viral and parasite diseases through the import of
eggs and the direct introduction of species of salmon that do not belong to our habitats is
acknowledge. Of these diseases, the bacterial ones are the most offensive to the salmonidfish and in time for the wild fish fauna too.
The most common diseases are BKD, visceral flavobacteriosis (RTFS), external
flavobactoriosis, enteric red mouth disease (ERM), piscirickettsiosis (SRS), marine
anemia (nucleospora salmonis) and vibriosis.
The increase of the number of species infected with diseases can clearly be observed in
Graph 6, which shows that, while the level of production of salmon increases, new
diseases have appeared affecting a larger number of specimens evidencing that in our
country there is a direct relation between the level of production of the salmonid-fish and
diseases registered for their species.
In this way, for example, in 1987, the level of the production of salmon salar did not
exceed 20,000 tons and the only existing disease was BKD. However, in 1993, when the
level of production exceeded 60,000 tons (between trout, coho salmon and salar) the
registered diseases increased by four (Caligus SP, SRS, ERM and N Salmo (AM).
Likewise, in 1997 the level of production had growth 8 times and the number of diseases
9.
21
Graph 6. Outbreak of diseases in relation to the increase of the production volume
between 1987 and 1997.
(tons)
180,000
IPN
160,000
A.Salmon.
Toneladas
140,000
120,000
U2
100,000
Trucha
coho
Salar
RTFS
80,000
N.Salmon. (AM)
60,000
ERM
40,000
20,000
Caligus sp.
SRS
BKD
0
1987 1988 1989
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994
1995 1996 1997
Años
Source: Terra Australis
However, due to the lack of information on diseases affecting native fish, it is difficult to
point out if these diseases were present in the local fish fauna before the introduction of
salmonid-fish. Considering the isolated character of the Tenth Region, it is highly
probable that this is not the case.
According to Enriquez et al.(1998) a rickettsial organism called “U2” has been isolated
from a native species, the puye (Galaxias maculatus) a species related to the salmonidfish species. This finding would confirm the transmission of exotic diseases, introduced
through the salmonid-fish, to the local fish fauna, because in previous years the disease
was identified in specimens of the Atlantic salmon.
However, there is not enough knowledge of the probable impact of these exotic diseases
on the local fish fauna. But it is clear that the native fauna is highly unprotected from
these new diseases and in danger of being infected.
2.7. Discharge of solid and liquid waste
Only 12% of aquaculture centers provide for treatment of discharge water from the
processing plant, which means that the resulting water waste is discharged to the
environment without having been previously treated. Solid waste accumulates in cage
bottoms or is otherwise swept to the sea causing a reduction of oxygen in waters and
even a decrease of the biodiversity.
The existence of waste in any productive system indicates a defective use of the
resources. In the case of the AI, there is great concern about the generation of such waste
since it directly affects water as a resource, an important element for other productive
processes and a basic element for life.
22
In view of the new regulations and taking into account the growing social pressure and
concern about the impact of such waste on the ecosystem, at present, residues of the AI
are used to generate by-products, such as salmon oil and fishmeal. However, residues
which have not been reused and accumulate in the cages detrimentally affect the quality
of the areas adjoining the farming centers. Depending on how strong the tides in these
areas may be, residues either remain under the cages or are removed 150 meters away.
Residues may accumulate on the seabed causing oxygen levels to lower and permitting
the formation of toxic gases during the decomposition process, which may suffocate other
animals. Occasionally, this has given rise to dramatic changes in the communities of
animals living under the cages, including a reduction of the diversity of species.
Liquid waste generated by the salmon processing plant as discharge during the process
with water with blood is discharged with other waste of this industry. This liquid waste
should be treated at plants located within the work sites. However, only 12% of the
aquaculture centers in Chile have their own treatment plants for discharge waters (Aqua
Noticias, 1998). Enterprises like Pacific Sur, Cultivos Marinos Chiloé, Patagonia Salmon
Farming and Salmones Antártica, among others, have plants to treat waters. Some plants
are currently developing the project in order to file it with the Superintendency of
Sanitary Services for approval, whereas others are waiting for the sanitary company of
the Tenth Region (ESSAL) to put into operation its own treatment plant in order to
negotiate an arrangement directly with such authority (La Nación, 1999).
In fact, the legislation in force in our country permits sanitary companies possessing
sewage treatment plants to treat industrial discharge waters deposited in the sewerage
system. The problem lies in the fact that those industries discharging their residues into
bodies of water are waiting for the enactment of a definite set of rules in order to take
measures in their own plants. This situation may be easily postponed since the new
legislation will provide for terms of between 5 and 10 years for the industries to
regularize this situation.
2.8. Mortality of sea birds and mammals
The attack of predators causes losses to the AI of 21 million dollars yearly, which led to
the slaughtering, with cruel and illegal methods, of more than five thousand of sea lion
specimens during the 80s and beginning of the 90s.
Coastal sea birds and mammals have always been active elements of the southern
landscape. It is outstanding the variety of sea birds, mainly of seagulls, fardelas,
cormorants, ducks, and penguins, among others. Although the diversity of marine
mammals is inferior they still have and important place. There are no estimations on the
population density before the set up of the farming centers but it has always been
considered that there is a large number of them in the waters of the Chiloé and Los
Chonos Archipelagos. In Los Chonos there are endemic species of the Chilean dolphin
(Cephalorhynchus eutropia) and the sea otter (Lutra provocax) that live in the southern
23
coasts of Chile. There are also species of wide distribution like killer whales, ballena
franca, South American sea lion and the common sea lion (Otaria flavescens).
Since the cages were set up a conflict started among salmonid-fish farming centers, on
one side, and sea birds and mammals, on the other side, particularly, with the common
sea lion because they attacked the cages to obtain food. For more than ten years the
salmon industry and the corresponding authorities did not consider this situation.
As a result of this conflict, the use of several methods was advised in order to protect
salmonid-fish from the attack of those animals. The companies installed protecting nets
and nets against sea lions. The first ones are located between one or two meters on the
surface, closing the mouth of the cage and the second ones are placed in the water around
the cages and in certain cases under the cages. The use of nets against sea lions causes
their death by immersion.
In practice, cruel methods are still being used to eliminate sea lions, like the manslaughter
of specimens in their resting place or reproduction colonies with firearms. Some
specimens, caught in the farming centers are also killed with sticks, others die due to the
compulsory ingest of carbide (death caused by bloating) and the carving up of specimens
which are tied up near the cages as a “lesson” for those specimens prowling around
(Oporto et al., 1991).
These practices were devastating during the eighties and middle nineties and the result
was the death of 5,000 to 6,000 specimens of the common sea lion (Otaria flavescens), an
unspecified number of Chilean dolphins (Cephalorhynchus eutropia) and the austral
dolphin (Lagenorhynchus australis) and occasionally of the Minke whale (Balenoptera
acutorostrata).
The industrial sector has justified the methods by stating that sea lions produce an
enormous economic damage to the production activities and requested to the
corresponding authorities the necessary authorizations to kill them, which the authorities
have occasionally granted. However, in almost every case, these activities of eliminating
sea lions have been carried out clandestinely and outside the legal framework.
According to a study by Brunetti et al. (1998) attacks by sea lions may cause the loss of
about 21 million dollars per year to the salmon industry and this represents 3% of the
sales, considering the insurance, purchase and maintenance of nets, security guards, and
the death and escapes of salmon during sea lion attacks.
2.9. Changes of the landscape
The set up of cages has deteriorated the landscape although the opinion of the AI people,
even jeopardizing the development of other economic activities, specially because the
installation of the cages implies the decay of the quality of water.
24
With the installation of cages in the southern coast of Chile a new element has been
incorporated to the landscape that changes the historical image of these places, specially
of the Chiloé Archipelago. According to people from the salmon industry, the presence of
cages has been a contribution to the landscape and tourism because they attract more
visitors. However, this version –clearly intentional- should be supported technically, with
documents and impartially, because local people and tourists have a different opinion as
they consider that the cages are visual contaminants due to the deep change of the
landscape. Although the last fact is not documented, the rejection is as clear as that
expressed before any type of contamination that changes the life style and the original
landscape in places affected by several environmental impacts.
Besides, local people who were traditionally engaged in small-scale agriculture and
small-scale fishing were limited in their extractive activities of coastal marine resources
due to the aqua licenses that decreased the coastal land apt for fishing work.
Until today there is no study or data with measures or quantities about the effect of the
cages on the landscape and tourism because the development of the latter is probably
linked to multiple factors, specially economic ones (type of change, the general economic
situation of the country, the circumstance of neighbor countries, etc.) and not only to
environmental factors.
2.10. Use and availability of the coastal line
The main problems of the coast are the quality of water, threats to biodiversity and
conflict of interests arising among different users. The impacts of the AI along the coast
are the alteration of the quality of water bodies, ecosystems, their habitats and structure
of their communities.
The Chilean land counts with approximately 3,000 kilometers of coast from north to
south, which added to the coast of the island of the Patagonico Archipelago exceeds the
30,000 kilometers of coastal line. The coast or coastal region is defined as the strip that
goes from the fiscal beaches located along the coast, the beach, bays, gulfs, straits, inland
channels and the territorial waters that belong to the Republic –under the control, fiscal
inspection and supervision of the Ministry of National Defense and Marine
Undersecretary. This territorial land is requested for several uses by different entities and
for different activities developed nationwide. It is also and important space for the
Chilean social, economic, historic and cultural development.
The limited area of the coast and the territorial waters are under the influence of natural
and anthropic processes. The anthropic effects on the ecosystems, derived from different
development activities, may cause changes, which in certain cases may be irreversible.
Damages on the coast may also endanger the socioeconomic development of a whole
region if the environment factor is not considered when using natural resources.
25
Along the Chilean coast there is a unique demographic reality. It has population
concentrations in the center and in the coast in both extremes of the country. In the First,
Second, Third and Fourth Region in the north and the Tenth, Eleventh and Twelfth
Region in the south, almost 100% of the population lives in the coast. More than half of
the national population (about seven million people) lives in the coast, but out of this
percentage, most of the people concentrate in the extremes locations of the country.
Due to the system of free market in the country, the use of coastal resources has only
been regulated by extraction shares and the capture of aquatic species according to their
own characteristics and population density. However, the use of the coastal line and its
resources has not been considered from an integral perspective.
There is a growing concern by the community as regards the use of the coast. During the
last years this concern was translated into a series of activities and investigations and on
surveys conducted to determine the most urgent issues affecting the use of the coast.
The investigations state that the first problem in the coast, and the most urgent to be
solved, is related to the quality of the water which, in other words, means that the
polluted areas should be identified. The second problem is related to the threatens to the
biodiversity and the third problem to the appearance of more conflicts between different
users, mainly of the Industry of Maritime Transport, Tourism and Aquaculture, including
the salmon industry.
In relation to the AI, the environmental investigations have identified that the main
impacts of the aquaculture salmon industry along the coast are:



Alteration of the quality of water bodies caused, mainly, by salmon's food:
- Eutrophication
- Increase of the organic matter.
- Consumption of oxygen
- Increase of CO2
- Increase of nitrogenous and phosphorus
- Emission of bioactive compounds
Trophic alterations and habitat alterations of the ecosystems as well as alterations of
the structure of the communities caused by the escape of salmon, diseases and the
import of eggs.
Change of the landscape caused by the installation itself of the cages
The Chilean Government, through its Undersecretary of Fishery, is developing a plan to
use the coast. It specifies the more appropriate areas for aquaculture activities, exclusive
use for small-scale fishing, management areas, et cetera. However, this plan is addressed
to the use of coastal water resources and they do not have an integral vision on the use of
the coast. This situation gave origin to conflicts of interests among different production
activities that profit from the use of the coast like the salmon industry, tourism and
coastal traffic. Recently, in Puerto Montt, there was a conflict of interests between some
salmon industries in the area, and the probable establishment of a harbor nearby. This
26
situation shows the lack of a management plan of the coast, which is being used based on
the existing demand from different sectors.
Consequently, it is necessary to implement an environmental policy through a
multisectoral plan that harmonizes the use of the coast among different users. This should
be based on a sustainable development basis and a strategy of scientific and technological
research towards the conservation of the natural assets and different biological
ecosystems because of their crucial nature for the development of the present and future
generations.
2.11. Standards of environmental quality
According to the environmental standards of water quality it could be determined that
five of the eight lakes examined in the Tenth Region, have high levels of environmental
degradation. The most polluted lakes are located in the Province of Chiloé and the AI
may be the main cause of this situation.
Eutrofication, modification of the primary production and the zooplancton, changes of the
sediments and the communities of the seabed, transmission of diseases to the wild fauna
and potentially to the human being are expressed and syntetized in terms of the
quantification of phosphorus (P) and nitrogen (N) emissions generated by the AI. These
are the elements that significantly affect water quality, preventing the appropriate quality
to be obtained for the different uses, such as water for drinking, swimming, fishing and
water sports.
There are some guidelines that can be used to qualify the environmental condition of
coastal areas, lakes and lagoons. The qualification of water bodies are: oligotrophic,
mesotrophic and eutrophic. In general terms, oligotrophic means: “…the water is
crystalline, with little production of algae and low concentration of nutrient, specially of
nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P)”. Eutrophic refers to water bodies that “…have a high
production, non- transparent, usually coffee or dark green color with algae and filaments
along the edge and very often with an unpleasant odor”. (Soto, D and Campos, H; 1996).
And the mesotrophic state is an intermediate situation between the two mentioned before.
As a consequence of the eutrophication of the lakes, the quality of the water is poor,
affecting the potential economic activities that need waters with a better quality for their
development.
Table 2 presents the environmental standards on the basis of three parameters
(phosphorus, nitrogen and chlorophyll) and the corresponding qualifications of water,
depending on its use.
27
Table 2: Environmental standards: General classification (international) that
represents the trophic or productive state of lakes and lagoons (APHA, 1981).
Phosphorus,
total (g/l)*
Nitrogen
Chlorophyll
WATER QUALITY FOR
(NO3-N)
(g/l)
Drinking
Swimming
Fishing
(g/l)
Oligotrophic
1-10
1-50
1-5
G-VG
VG
G
Mesotrophic
11-30
60-200
6-10
R-P
G
VG
Eutrophic
>30
200
>15
VP
R-P
R-P
Source: Soto, D y Campos, H. (1996).
* (g/l)= micrograms per liter
Note: Rating of water quality: VG=very good; G=good; R=regular; P=poor; VP=very poor
Water
sports
VG
VG
R
Table 3 illustrates the results of a study on the quality of the water of eight lakes in the
Tenth Region where the salmon farming aquaculture industry is practiced. The lakes are
Ranco (Province of Valdivia), Rupanco (Province of Osorno) and Llanquihue (Province
of Llanquihue) and Tepuhuico, Tarahuin, Cucao, Natry and Huillingo located in the
province of Chiloé.
When comparing the environmental standard with the levels of pollution of these lakes, it
was noted that the five lakes in the Province of Chiloé present contaminants in excess,
particularly the lakes Cucao and Huillinco, with levels of nitrogen exceeding 15 and 22
times respectively; the limit from which are considered within the eutrophic range.
According to some studies consulted, the AI may be the main cause of this pollution.
Table 3: Level of phosphorus, nitrogen and chlorophyll in the lakes of the Tenth
Region (g/l).
Phosphorus
Nitrogen
Chlorophyll
Ranco
3.8
16
w/i
Rupanco
9.2
12
w/i
Llanquihue
3
15
w/i
Tepuhuico
15.8
w/i
3.9
Tarahuin
22.1
188.7
w/i
Cucao
217.1
3100.9
w/i
Natri
23.2
299.1
w/i
Huillinco
322.9
4493.1
w/i
Source: Campos, Hugo, 1997
Soto, D. and Campos, 1996
Note: w/i = without information
Surprisingly, even though the Llanquihue lake absorbs a large number of farming centers
there are no negative environmental condition indicators present therein. This may be due
to the large size and depth of the lake. The contribution of P by the salmon aquaculture is
estimated at 12.8% of the total amount of phosphorus presented in the lake (Soto, 1993).
In the lake Ranco there are some signs of eutrophication on the edge of the lake (Soto and
Campos; 1996). The main contribution of Phosphorus comes from natural tributaries
(erosion caused by deforestation in the basin). Therefore, the contribution from the
farming centers is not significant.
Based on the previous paragraph, we cannot conclude that the activity of farming centers
in lakes Llanquihue and Ranco is positive but simply there are no significant
environmental impacts present. In other words, if the AI continues expanding in that area
28
it is probable that the negative indicators registered in the lakes of Chiloé may also be
found in the other lakes of the region.
29
Chapter 3
SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC IMPACTS
The sudden increase in salmonid-fish production in Chile seems to have contributed
significantly to the development of the Tenth Region and Chile itself. However, this is not
so. In the first place, there is a need of 40% less workers in farming centers by reason of
technological changes. On the other hand, the benefits arising from the AI were not
distributed among workers, quite to the contrary, the functional distribution of income is
highly regressive since businessmen have not honored their “axiom” that salary
increases should be in line with increases in productivity. There is a noticeable increase
in non-distributed profits gained by industrialists.
The share of salaries and taxes in the value-added5 of the AI shows that its contribution
to the development of the region and Chile has been poor and inadequate. Both
indicators show a downward trend over the last few years in contrast with the profits
gained by the companies, which have increased over the same period of time. Moreover,
it has been found out that the increase in income resulting from this industry is less
beneficial to workers and the National government and that, as concerns workers, less
skilled workers have been the most damaged.
The AI has also a greater pressure on fisheries resources and the competitive use of
them, which has caused the small-scale fishing to decrease systematically. This has given
rise to a structural change evidenced by a reduction in the number of workers who used
to devote to such business independently and who nowadays discharge duties as workers
in farming centers and companies engaged in the production of salmonid-fish. In Chiloé,
the social and cultural impact has been highly remarkable. Men traditionally engaged in
fishing, harvesting of shellfish and algae, as well as to small-scale agriculture have
migrated and, once self-supporting, now depend on third parties to earn their livings.
They have sold their lands, impoverished their families and developed undesirable habits
(increased alcoholism), thus contributing to the loss of a distinctive culture in the
country.
5
The Value Added (VA), by definition, is equal to the sum of the wages (salaries), indirect taxes,
consumption of fixed capital and gross profits. It corresponds to the total income generated by an activity.
30
3.1. Economic Impacts
3.1.1. Chile and the Global Production of Salmonid-fish
The growth of the global production of salmonid-fish was sustained by the Chilean
production. The growing supply of this product created a fall of its price within
international markets.
The gross production of Chilean salmonid-fish (rainbow trout, Atlantic salmon and
Pacific salmon) reached 141,377 tons in 1995, an amount that at the following year
reached 199,085 tons and 247,970 in 1997.
The global production of the Atlantic salmon increased by 487,538 tons during 19871996; 77,286 of which pertain to Chile and 410,252 to other countries, the percentages of
said increases were fixed at 15.9% and 84.1%, respectively. The relevance of the growth
of the Chilean production within the global production is evidenced when considering
that in 1996 the first was 1,886 times larger than the production of 1987 whereas the
same indicator for the production of other countries was hardly 8.2 times.
The global production of the Pacific salmon during the same period under analysis is
clearly illustrative of the situation of the Chilean industry. In fact, the global production
of this type increased by 59,732 tons while the production in other countries decreased by
5,487 tons; thus Chile fully absorbs the increase in the global production and replaces the
decrease in other countries increasing its production by 65,219 tons. Moreover, in 1996,
the production of other countries was only 0.6 times than that registered in 1987 while the
Chilean production increased 37.9 times.
Finally, the global production of the rainbow trout showed an increase of 146,193 tons in
1987-1996; the Chilean production absorbs 53,484 tons and other countries 92,709 tons;
representing 36.6% and 63.4% of the total increase respectively. In 1996, the production
of this variety in other countries was only 1.4 times than that registered in 1987, while the
Chilean production increased 57.6 times.
Therefore, the growth of the Chilean production of salmonid-fish contributed
significantly to the growth of the global industry (Annex 1, Table G). This larger
availability of salmonid species is responsible, to a large extent, for the fall of prices of
the salmon and trout in the global market.
With regard to the downtrend of the price of salmon in the global market, Achurra (1995)
says that “it was due to the oversupply from Norway since 1989”. However, the figures
permit us to disagree with such assertion because, although it was true that Norway
significantly increased its production (according to data provided by the author) so did
Chile; therefore, the oversupply originates mainly in both countries.
31
3.1.2 Exports: Prices and Commercialized Volumes
Chilean exports of salmon and trout have increased between 1988-1998 by 2,584 and
9,300 per cent respectively. Such growth was sustained by the increase of the physical
production of both species by 3,752 and 6,226 per cent respectively. Prices present a
clear downtrend in the case of the salmon (-30%) while the downtrend of the trout can
only be verified during the second five-year period of the analysis. The expansion of
exports continues growing but at a minor rate.
National exports of salmon (in millions of dollars) have an enormous and systematic
growth since 1990. In 1998 exports were 6.1 times those of 1990 and 400 times higher
than those of 1985. This growth of 2,584% during the decade 1988-1998 led to a decrease
of the prices by –30%.
Therefore, it is clear that the physical increase of units exported caused, on one hand, the
increase of this macroeconomic indicator and, on the other hand, the increase of the
Chilean supply of this product in the global market which caused a fall of prices (Graph
7). In this way, during the first five-year period 1988-1993 the tons of salmon exported
increased by 1,292% and for the second five-year period 1993-1998 the growth was
177%. An important percentage although the very minor variation in comparison to the
first five-year period (Annex 1, Table H).
Graph 7. Chilean exports of salmon: volume and prices, 1988-1998.
(tons and thousands of US$/ton)
120
120
95
100
74
80
60
38
40
20
105
20
3
43
52
27
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
6
0
miles US$/ton.
miles toneladas
140
0
1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
Volumen
Precios
Source: Foreign Trade Indicators, Banco Central de Chile.
Elaboration: Fundación Terram
Exports of trout show a higher rate of growth than that of the salmon, both in monetary
terms and physical units. In fact, in 1998 exports were 106 times than those in 1995
climbing to 54,658 tones in 1998. The level of prices for this product registered a steady
increase until 1992, as it can be observed in Graph 8 and from that year on it started to
decrease. However, if we consider the five-year period 1988-1993 there is a clear growth
of the level of prices of 77% while during the 1993-98 second five-year period, there was
32
a negative growth of -14% which confirms the hypothesis of the global oversupply in this
industry.
Graph 8. Chilean exports of trout: volume and prices, 1988-1998.
(tons and thousands of US$/ton)
54.66
miles toneladas
50
5
44.69
40
6
4
33.15
30
3
22.54
19.55
20
2
16.32
miles US$/ton
60
10.98
10
0.86
1.77
1988
1989
4.02
5.47
1990
1991
1
0
0
1992
1993
Volumen
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
Precios
Source: Indicadores de Comercio Exterior, Banco Central de Chile.
Elaboration: Fundación Terram.
The increase of the exports of trout was based on both the increases of prices during the
first five-year period and the climbing of physical units exported during the same period.
In this way, for the first five-year period under analysis, the amount of trout exported
increased by 1,789% and for the second five-year period the increase was minor but
reached 235%. This meant an increase of 6,226% for the whole decade. (Annex 1, Table
H).
If we consider the global figures given for the five-year periods we could conclude that
the export expansion showed a clear tendency to increase but at a lesser rhythm. Actually,
both physical exports and in value, for salmon and trout, showed growth rates during the
1993-98 five-year period inferior to those of the 1988-93 five-year period, Graph 9. The
growth rate for physical exports of salmon (in tons) for the first five-year period is 7
times than that of the second five-year period whereas the growth of exports in value (in
dollars) is 8 times during the first period than that of the second period.
As regards the trout, physical exports during the first five-year period is 7 times higher
than the second five-year period whereas the exports in value is 17 times higher.
33
Graph 9. Growth of the Chilean exports of salmon and trout during the five-year
periods 1988-1993 and 1993-1998.
Salmón
3182%
1292%
2000%
Trucha
1045%
177%
1000%
1789%
4000%
134%
235%
186%
2000%
0%
0%
volumen
1988-1993
miles US$
1993-1998
volumen
1988-1993
miles US$
1993-1998
Source: Annex 1, Table H
Elaboration: Fundación Terram.
As a result of said pattern of the exports the currency generated out of the AI increased
systematically between 1994 and 1998, during the last year the records were double than
in 1994. Exports of salmon and trout increased from 353 million dollars in 1994 to 732
million dollars in 1998.
3.1.3. Demand of Food Products
The production of fishmeal, raw material for the salmonid-fish industry registers amazing
growths during the last years in the Tenth Region. This caused undesired impacts of
pressure over fisheries resources.
Farming salmonid-fish generates an important demand of food, mainly of fishmeal. It has
been estimated that at the global level, a third of the amount of fishmeal is used as food
for the aquaculture industry (Naylor et al., 2000). Chile is the second producer of
fishmeal in the world, an element highly important for the development of the AI because
of its competitive advantage that other worldwide producers lack.
Until 1995, the production of fishmeal in the Tenth Region was not important if
compared to the total national production. However, since that year, the production of
fishmeal started to increase considerably in the region while at the national level started
to decrease drastically (Graph 10).
34
Graph 10. Production of fishmeal; total national vs. Tenth Region, 1992-98.
(tons)
1.800.000
14.000
1.600.000
12.000
1.400.000
10.000
1.200.000
tons
800.000
6.000
600.000
tons
8.000
1.000.000
4.000
400.000
2.000
200.000
0
0
1992
1993
1994
1995
Total nacional
1996
1997
1998
X regi ón
Source: Servicio Nacional de Pesca, SERNAPESCA, 1998
Elaboration: Fundación Terram
The increasing production of fishmeal at the regional level, both to supply the demand of
the AI and of other economic sectors, national and foreigners, that use this product,
creates indirect environmental effects with clear economic impacts. In fact, while the
production of fishmeal increases it is possible to identify at least two undesired impacts.
First, the fact that there is more pressure on fisheries resources used to produce fishmeal,
which means a considerable reduction of this resource. Second, the competence created
by the captures with other economic agents like small-scale fishers who had lived from
this activity. As we will see later, these captures have decreased greatly over the last year.
3.1.4. Exported Products
During the last years the composition of the basket of exports has changed: fresh
products are increasing and frozen ones decreasing. This could be due to a change in the
demand by foreigner consumers.
The composition of the basket of export goods per type of product slightly varied
between 1994 and 1998. In 1994 frozen products represented 55.6% and fresh products
44.4% but in 1998 frozen products fell down to 49.4% and fresh products escalate to
50.6%6. Export of fresh products present a steady increase at a rate of 131,5% during said
four-year period and an annual average rate of 23.7%. The growth is based on the large
increase of exports of fillet that increased by 414.7% for the four-year period while fresh
Pacific and Atlantic salmon showed a negative growth of –13.4% during the same period
(Annex 1, Table I).
6
Frozen and fresh products include Pacific salmon, Atlantic salmon and fillet.
35
Increase in frozen products is lower as compared to that in fresh products, showing a
81.2% growth during the last four years. Similarly as in fresh products, exports of fillets
show the highest rate, with a 280% increase over the same period. It is believed that the
reason for a decrease in exports of frozen products is a shift in the demand of consumers
in the countries of destination of Chilean exports, since they prefer filleted and fresh
products.
Note that under the category of frozen products, the value of shipments of Atlantic
salmon decreases to an annual average rate of –1% during 1994-1998 while the Pacific
salmon increases at an average rate of 16% (Annex 1, Table I). This could be explained
by the fall of prices in the case of the Atlantic salmon due to the important increase of the
Chilean supply which in 1996 was 1,886 more than that of 1987.
3.1.5. Target Markets of Exports
Preeminence is still on the Japanese and North American markets for the export of
products of the national AI. At the same time the number of countries were shipments are
sent increases as well as the absolute figure of exporters.
The target markets for salmonid-fish exports are mainly two: the United States and Japan.
The share in the market is 59% for Japan and 29% for the United States. The European
Community and Latin America are markets of lesser importance with a share of 5% for
each market. Other markets represent only 2% (Graph 11).
Graph 11. Target markets of the exports for 1995-98
(% average).
Am é r ica
Latina
5%
Com unidad
Eur ope a
5%
EE.UU
29%
Otr os
m e r cados
2%
Japón
59%
Source: Annex 1, Table J
Elaboration: Fundación Terram
The target markets of exports have been fairly stable during the 1995-1998 period. In
fact, there are small variations for the United States and Japan. In 1995, both countries
received 29.2% and 60.4% of shipments of salmonid-fish respectively. In 1998 said
percentages fell by 57.6% and 28.8% respectively. In 1995 Latin America received 2.9%
36
of the exports and in 1998 increased by 6.2% compensating for the decrease in the
markets of Japan and the United States (Annex 1, Table J).
Within this international context, the Chilean salmonid-fish experienced a clear
expansion, because in 1987 the product was offered in 17 countries and 10 years later
these products supply the market of 50 countries. This increase was due to the expansion
of the European market, the Latin American and the growing participation of Asian
countries.
This diversification of the market has also translated into an increase of the number of
national export companies. In 1987, there were 37 export companies of salmonid-fish, of
which only one traded 21% of the volume while in 1995 the number of export companies
increased by 203 of which the most important one traded only 6% of the total volume.
3.2. Impact on other economic sectors: tourism and small-scale fishing
3.2.1. Tourism
There is little evidence on the negative impacts of the AI on the tourism of the Tenth
Region. However, there is, at least, one case of a tourism investment enterprise that did
not take place because of the pollution of the waters in one of the lakes in Chiloé.
As there is no study on the relation-cause-effect between the aquaculture industry and
tourism activities it is difficult to make final remarks on this issue. Even though several
methodologies could be used to measure the loss of the well being of the tourists because
of the loss or decrease of the environmental quality of recreational places caused by the
development of the AI there has been no attempt to measure such impact.
That is why we just limit our comment to stress that there may be a negative impact on
tourism due to the effect of the aquaculture industry on the quality of waters and the
landscape. In fact, there is an initiative of tourism development in the lake Natri (Chiloé)
that could not be fulfilled due to the high level of pollution of the water.
It should also be considered that the AI has not suffered the adverse effect of ecological
antipropaganda, mainly because issues related to fishing are quite rejected in the country.
This means that there are no social or ecological groups that have undertaken the issue of
adverse impacts of this activity and this prevents the reduction of tourism flow.
3.2.2. Small-scale fishing
There is a clear decrease of disembarkation from the small-scale fishing sector due to a
structural change of the occupational behavior of the Chilotes and to the decrease in the
biomass of marine species.
37
In order to analyze the potential impact of the salmon activity on the small-scale fishing
sector (via more pressure upon fisheries resources and the competitive use of the
resources) we consider the total capture in four important areas of fish disembarkation:
Calbuco, Ancud, Castro and Quellón. The captures under consideration include all fish
species, except salmonid-fish species, for the 1990-1997 period.
All this information is summarized in Graph 12. As shown, there has been an important
decrease in captures since 1990 and the downward trend is similar for all areas under
consideration. Such decrease is substantial in the areas of Calbuco and Castro.
Graph 12. Small-scale fishing disembarkation, without considering salmonid species
by geographic area, 1990-1997.
(tons)
14.000
12.000
toneladas
10.000
8.000
Calbuco
6.000
Ancud
4.000
Castro
2.000
Quellón
0
1990
1991
1992
Castro
1993
1994
1995
Calbuco
1996
1997
Source: Servicio Nacional de Pesca, SERNAPESCA, 1998.
Elaboration: Fundación Terram.
Pressure on fisheries resources in the Tenth Region was translated into a systematic
decrease of the small-scale fishing –in contrast with the situation of salmon species which
at the same time resulted in a structural change of the work force in the areas under
analysis. This means that people normally engaged in small-scale fishing are nowadays
working in a large number of farming centers and companies engaged in the processing
of salmonid-fish (fresh-cool, frozen, smoked, et cetera.) which, nowadays, abound in the
areas previously mentioned.
Another powerful factor is the decrease of the biomass due to the notable increase of the
production of fishmeal, which is undoubtedly generating pressure upon fisheries
resources as well as competence for them. In other words, there is an overexploitation of
coastal marine resources that jeopardizes small-scale fishing in the Tenth Region.
38
3.3. Social Impacts
3.3.1. Distribution of the Income 1990-1995
The growth of the AI contributes poorly to the development of the country and creates
inequality in terms of distribution, a fact that is evidenced by the analysis of the share of
salaries and taxes to the value-added of this activity. Both indicators show a fall during
the last years in contrast with the levels of profits of the companies which increased
steadily during the same period under analysis.
The estimated work force participating in the salmonid-fish subsector is approximately
23,000 people; 15,000 of them are direct employees and 8,000 are benefited indirectly.
According to Brunetti et al. (1998) the salmon industry in the Tenth Region represented
85% of the salmon industry of the country and employed an average of 21 workers per
farming center and as we already mentioned, 10 of them have been replaced by
technological improvements. However, it should be taken into account that even though
the exact number of workmen is not known because many of them work on a temporary
basis, after 1998, many of the work force is being replaced by technological
improvements in the farming centers.
For example, wooden cages were formerly manufactured in carpenter shops located at
each farming center. Since 1992, these cages were replaced by PVC (plastic) cages thus
leading to the first technological change resulting in the reduction of the work force in the
industry. Similarly, until 1997-1998, feeding of fish in captivity was done manually, and
8 to 15 persons were needed for a group of 10 cages7. At present, workers have been
replaced by automatic feeders, a fact that has caused 8 to 10 workers to be dismissed in
each farming center.
Therefore, if we concluded that data provided by Brunetti et al. (1997) regarding the
average of 21 workers per farming center is correct and if we considered the
technological changes previously mentioned we could conclude that at present there is a
40% less of employment of workers within the aquaculture industry than in 1998.
As concerns the distribution of income within the aquaculture industry, it is important to
mention that it shows a regressive dynamic during the period under consideration. In fact,
the share of profit (g) in the value added increased by 11.9% between 1990 and 1995
while the added salaries8 (w) and taxes (tx) decreased to a rate of -8.4% and –3.6%
respectively (Annex 1, Table K).
7
8
Each contains 10 cages inside.
Added salaries equal the sum of all the salaries of employees (wemp) and unskilled workers (wnc)
39
As can be observed in Graph 13 the profits of the sector in the Tenth Region represent
between 48 and 65 percent of the value-added during the period under analysis with an
increase of the share rate by an annual average of 6.1%.
Graph 13. Evolution of the share of profits in the value added of the AI in the Tenth
Region, 1990-1995.
(%)
% del VA
65%
64,20%
60,92%
60,46%
56,93%
55%
48,52%
45%
1990
1991
1993
1994
1995
Años
Source: Encuesta Nacional de Industria Anual ENIA 1990 - 1995.
Elaboration: Fundación Terram
Based on the information of Graph 14 we can observe that the share in the VA of
unskilled employees’ salaries (wnc) varies between 21% and 15% during 1990 and 1995
while that of the employees (wemp) between 11% and 7%. Though share of wemp
diminished by –3.2% during the same period, this decrease of the share of the wnc is
larger, -5.2%. This evidences that the increase of the incomes generated by the growing
exports of salmonid-fish was not translated as an increase of the incomes of employees,
measured as a percentage of the VA, on the very contrary, the share decreases during this
five years under analysis in detriment to unskilled employees (Annex 1, Table K).
Graph 14. Evolution of the share of salaries of employees and unskilled workers in
the VA of the AI in the Tenth Region, 1990-1995.
25%
% del VA
20%
20,86%
20,31%
16,30%
17,32%
15,69%
15%
10%
10,89%
10,20%
9,98%
7,67%
7,46%
5%
1990
1991
1993
1994
1995
Años
wemp
wnc
Source: Encuesta Nacional de Industria Anual ENIA, 1990 - 1995.
Elaboration: Fundación Terram.
40
Finally, when analyzing the trend of payment of the income tax and the Value-Added Tax
(VAT) (Graph 15) we can observe that the total amount does not exceed 10% of the
value-added and that decrease shown since 1990 has not recovered during the period
under analysis. In fact, the decrease of the share is approximately 2% during these 5
years. The recovery of taxes since 1991, as you may observe in the Graph, was basically
due to the increase of the industries that declare their taxes.
In short, the share of the salaries and the taxes in the value-added decreased while the
share of profits increased; thus, proving the inequality in terms of distribution and
contribution to the development of the country of the growth dynamic of the AI.
Furthermore, not only we can state that the largest incomes generated by this industry
benefited less the employees and the State but also that within the group of employees the
most damaged were the less skilled.
Figure 15. Evolution of the share of the income tax and VAT in the value added of
the AI in the Tenth Region, 1990-1995.
(%)
9%
% del VA
8%
7%
6%
5%
4%
3%
1990
1991
1993
1994
1995
Años
Source: Encuesta Nacional de Industria Anual ENIA 1990-1995
Elaboration: Fundación Terram
3.3.2. Salaries and Productivity
When examining the share of salaries of the Gross Net of the Production (GNP) you can
observe the lack of balance between the growth of the salaries and the productivity and a
clear loss for the employees.
A different method of evaluation of the impact of distribution of an economic activity
consists in the analysis of the share of salaries in the Gross Value of the Production
(GVP)9. In this case we need to know the evolution of the –salary-product (value of the
salaries over the sales value) and the physical production of the work10.
9
The gross value of the production represents the value of the sales of the industry
For further information and application of this approach see Agacino, 1994.
10
41
Graph 16 illustrates the growth rates for salaries and production taking into account the
1990-93 and 1993-96 periods. During the first period, salaries grew at an annual average
rate of 18% and the productivity of work 31%, respectively. During the second period the
difference became inferior but the growth in production was higher than the increase in
salaries. To conclude, salaries in 1996 were 2.6 times that of 1990, whereas the work
production was 3.3 times that of 1990.
Graph 16. Evolution of the annual growth of salaries-productivity and share of
salaries in the GVP, 1990-1995.
(%)
%
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
1990-1993
Índice salario-producto
1993-1996
1990-1996
Índice producción física del trabajo
Source: Annex 1, Table L.
Elaboration: Fundación Terram
The results illustrated in this section confirm the results shown in the previous section as
concerns the share of salaries in the value added and we conclude that the functional
distribution of the income was highly regressive during the period under consideration.
Furthermore, the “axiom” of businessmen was not observed at the time of collective
bargaining with workers, such axiom being that raises in salaries will be conditional upon
an increase in production. On the contrary, we can observe an increase of not distributed
profits of the industrialists.
3.4 Sociocultural changes of the local communities
Development of the AI, mainly in Chiloé, has affected the characteristics of the so called
“Chilota culture’. The Chilota communities have moved away from their land and the
economy of subsistence. Their customs are changing drastically with the opening of
farming centers and processing plants.
The south of Chile, specially the Chiloé Archipelago, is the place most used by farming
centers of salmonid-fish to carry out their activities. In this particular region there is a
culture widely known as the “Chilota Culture”, which is a combination of the customs of
42
the inhabitants of the island known as Huiliches and Spanish settlers who mixed with the
natives. Out of this genetic and cultural mixture originated the “Chilota Culture”.
Traditionally, the inhabitants of the Chiloé Archipelago were men engaged in fishing,
collecting shellfish and algae and in small-scale agriculture. They mostly depended on
their ability to farm the land and on the extraction of fish and seafood. A characteristic of
this kind of development is that the island was divided into small plots of 2 or more
hectares, mainly along the coast because towards the inland the population density
decreases and the land areas are larger.
Traditionally, each family carried out fishing and farming activities. They based their
economy on fresh, salt and smoked products from the sea and the land. This situation led
them to apply new technologies because of their island character they were isolated from
the rest of the countries, as well as their customs.
At present, with the accelerated industrial development, the work force of the island, in
the beginning the whole family participated, was concentrated on the young people who
gradually abandoned the work of their own land, in many cases selling it and accepting
jobs in different types of industry or commerce.
The AI is one of the economic activities that has captured most of the work force in
Chiloé. This fact seems positive but had a strong negative cultural impact because if the
local people accept those job positions they abandon the work on the land and fish; thus
they abandon their practices and natural richness. Consequently, they went through a
category under which they were the owners to a category under which they depended on
third persons to survive, selling their lands and impoverishing their families, developing
negative habits, contributing to the lost of the Chilota culture.
This cultural change does not belong exclusively to the AI. However, the
overexploitation of fisheries resources caused by the salmon industry which reduce to a
large extent the availability for the development of extractive fishing and the significant
contribution of this industry to the unfair distribution of the benefits of the economic
development are elements –all of them- that contribute to the weakening and probable
disappearance of such traditional culture.
The question is, what kind of progress lead certain economic activities that, like
aquaculture, decrease the economic autonomy of the population decreasing the quantity
of small-scale resources available and contributing to inequality?
43
Chapter 4
NEW CONCEPTS: THE “GREEN” GDP AND THE
ENVIRONMENTAL GAP
Investments required in 1997 for the salmon production industry to reduce its level of
pollutant emissions amounts to an aggregate figure between 14 thousand to 16 thousand
million pesos, depending on the conversion factor used. Such assessment takes into
account the mitigation costs to be incurred to remove thousands of tons of phosphorus
and nitrogen deposited on the bottom of waters, upon having been thrown away as
residue of feed after its consumption by fish.
In search for a correct use of the National Accounts System, this report suggests a new
indicator -the green GDP- that deducts the traditional GDP11 the depreciation of the
natural assets, the loss of natural resources and contamination of the environment. Total
Mitigation Costs (TMC) are key factors to calculate the Green GDP since they may be
used to assess the depreciation value of the natural assets.
Another key concept is the so-called “Environmental Gap”, that is the difference between
the traditional GDP and the Green GDP. Between 1990 and 1996, the traditional GDP
grows 3.2 more times while the Green GDP increases only 2 times. The problem is that
there is a sustained growth in the Environmental Gap and there is also tendency that
such gap may become wider since 1990 to date. This tendency will remain steady for as
long as the AI continues to grow under similar conditions as those prevailing at present,
that is, setting aside and disregarding several costs which are not being disbursed
nowadays but which will undoubtedly be paid in the future, not only by the companies
engaged in the aquaculture business but by other economic activities and the social
community as well.
4.1. Accounting of Natural and Environmental Resources. Conceptual
Aspects
4.1.1 Brief description of the System of National Accounts (SNA).
The System of National Accounts is a record of the transactions carried out by a countryat an aggregate level- within its own territory and with the rest of the world. These
accounts show the performance of macroeconomic variables, such as private
consumption, governmental expenditures, gross geographic investment and net exports,
etc., over a certain period of time, regularly one year.
11
Gross Domestic Product represents the aggregate output of goods and services annually produced by an
economy. It is the indicator of the total income generated by one country.
44
The SNA illustrates the evolution of economy and became a good tool to evaluate the
economic policy, “since it is the only set of statistics which provides a coherent
description of the historical evolution of the various economic activities from the
perspective of production and utilization of goods and services”12
4.1.2 Unfavorable opinions on the SNA
Some of the drawbacks of the SNA as concerns the environment are summarized below,
on the basis of the statements of Claude and Pizarro. (1996):
Environmental degradation.
Firstly, environmental degradation, resulting from atmospheric pollution or the discharge
of waste matter originated in consumption or production activities which damage the
ecosystems; however, these circumstances are not recorded by the SNA. If we assume
that the environment forms part of the environmental capital stock, then degradation
causes a decrease in stock and/or a loss of productivity of the environment by degradation
and, consequently, a decline in social welfare levels.
Secondly, the environmental “replacement” and “protection” expenses (such as the
efforts to reduce atmospheric or acoustic contamination) incurred by the Government, the
companies and families are deemed as an increase in the GDP. To the extent that the
pollution levels increase so will the environmental “restoring” activities and, as a
consequence, the GDP, and this implies a restoration of the welfare destroyed by the
effects of pollution.
Utilization of natural resources
The SNA’s main drawback it that it fails to consider the availability of natural resources
as part of the economic richness and the productive assets, which entails that the
depletion of such resources is not considered as depreciation of the capital. This issue
becomes more important when we refer to economies which are based on the exploitation
of natural resources.
The SNA also considers the exploitation of natural resources only as an income or
production; however, the decrease in the stock of resources is overlooked. This could lead
to an inefficient management of such resources, by favoring their use and increasing the
exploitation rate without considering the fact that even though such activities could give
rise to a significant economic growth, this would be to the detriment of the future
availability of resources, thus adversely affecting the welfare of future generations13.
The explicit non-inclusion of natural resources in the concept of capital and richness is
due to the hypothesis that natural resources are unlimited or absolutely replaceable. Since
12
Socioeconomic Indicators, Banco Central de Chile, 1985.
The underlying concept is that of Sustainability, which has been dealt with by several authors. Dixon and
Fallon (1989) consider the various approaches to this concept.
13
45
the SNA has its theoretical foundation in Keynesian Macroeconomics, such variables as
production and employment are being particularly emphasized. This entails that such
aspects will have priority over the efficient use of natural resources.
To conclude, we should say that taking into account the deficiencies mentioned above, it
is difficult to postulate economic policy patterns aimed at the sustainable and efficient
allocation of the natural resources and the environment, which is a contradiction from the
perspective of the strict economic rationality and contradicts one of its main precepts as a
science.
Consequently, for an appropriate use of the NSA, from the sustainable perspective and
the strict use of economic rationale, it is essential to build up a new indicator, the Green
GDP, that includes the loss of natural resources and the pollution of the environment as
depreciation of the available capital, a fact that clearly reduces the performance showed
by these indicators. This new indicator, the green GDP, is the difference between the
traditional GDP and the depreciation of the natural capital.
4.2. Assessment of the “Green GDP” and Mitigation Costs in the
Salmon Aquaculture Industry in the Region of The Lakes
4.2.1 Emissions and Mitigation Costs14
Total Mitigation Costs (TMC) are key to determine the green GDP. In order to remove
deposited contaminants from the bottom of water bodies used for aquaculture processes,
the industry should invest 14 thousand or 16 thousand million pesos for 1997, depending
on the conversion factor used.
Scope of the pollution: The emission of pollutants of the AI, mainly nitrogen (N) and
phosphorus (P)15, is increasing with the production of salmonid-fish. Nitrogen registers
the largest increase in 1997 to more than 6,000 tons. Phosphorus registers a slower
increase and in 1997 reached about 2,000 tons (Graph 17).
14
Mitigation costs represent a method of assessing the value of depreciation of the natural capital to adjust
the Gross Domestic Product (GDP). A method to capture these costs is applying the policies of green taxes
to sustain this activity.
15
See Chapter 2 for the effects of these contaminants on the environment.
46
Graph 17. Pollutants (P and N) generated by the AI 1990-1997. (tons)
7.000
toneladas
6.000
5.000
4.000
Fosforo
3.000
Nitrogeno
2.000
1.000
0
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
Source and Elaboration: Fundación Terram
Mitigation Costs of the AI: The assessment of the TMC considers the investment
needed to remove phosphorus and nitrogen deposited on the bed of water bodies after the
fish have consumed the food. For that purpose it is crucial to know the amount of food
needed to obtain a unit of product (in this case the salmon), i.e., the conversion factor
food/fish (A/Y). Two values for this factor were used for the assessment: one more
efficient (1.2) than the other (1.8)16.
The TMC naturally increases vis-a-vis the emissions of the industry; such cost increased
significantly since 1990 and reached in 1997 values ranging from 14 to 16 million pesos17
at 1994 currency exchange. In 1990 this cost was approximately 2 thousand million of
pesos (Graph 18). However, according to a study by PRIEN (1996) these costs range
from 9 thousand million pesos in 1990 to 11 thousand million pesos in 1992 which is
significantly larger to the estimated under this study.
millones de pesos de 1994
Graph 18. Mitigation costs depending on the conversion factor, 1990-1997.
(millions of $ at 1994 currency money)
16.000
14.000
12.000
10.000
CMT, A/Y=1,8
8.000
CMT, A/Y=1,2
6.000
4.000
2.000
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
Source and Elaboration: Fundación Terram.
16
Methodological aspects are found in annex 2. According to a study by PRIEN-Universidad de Chile
(1996) requested by CONAMA and Banco Central, conversion factors by the end of the 80s and beginning
of the 90s are higher than those used in this study (higher than 2, depending on the year). So these values
should be considered as traditional ones.
17
The value in 1994 currency of the pesos is obtained by multiplying the value in dollars given in Table A,
Annex 2, by the 1994 nominal average exchange rate amounting to 420$/1US$.
47
4.2.2 Green GDP and Environmental Gap
The Environmental Gap is defined as the difference between the traditional GDP and the
green GDP. In fact, the trend of the Environmental Gap is to widen over the time, a fact
that explains why the aquaculture industry keeps growing under the present situations,
i.e., externalizing costs that should incorporate. Theses costs will be pay in the future,
both by the aquaculture companies themselves and by the alternative economic activities
like tourism and by the society as a whole that will be deprived, among other things, of
areas of special beauty and environmental purity.
Difference between the Green GDP and the Traditional GDP: The green GDP is the
result of the traditional GDP less the total mitigation costs18. Based on said procedure, the
green GDP is slightly inferior to the traditional GDP19. However, when considering the
Environmental Gap, understood as the difference between the traditional GDP and the
green GDP, as a percentage of the traditional GDP, we observe that there was an increase
since 1990 for both hypothesis about the conversion factor already mentioned.
It is also important to underline that while the traditional GDP increased twice between
1990 and 1996, the Environmental Gap is 3.2 times for the same period. The green GDP
increased at a slightly inferior level if compared to the traditional GDP; in 1996, it was
1.9 times higher than the 1990 green GDP (Table 4).
YEAR
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1996/19
92
Table 4: Green GDP and GAPS GDP-green GDP of AI, 1990-1996.
(millions of pesos at 1994 currency exchange and %)
FC=1.8
FC=1.2
Gap
Gap
GDP
Green
GDPGap/GDP
Green
GDPGap/GD
GDP
green
(%)
GDP
green
P
GDP
GDP
(%)
74,677
72,423
2,254
3.02
72,604
2,073
2.78
72,026
68,699
3,327
4.62
68,966
3,060
4.25
124,886 119,860
5,026
4.02 120,264
4,622
4.52
103,540
97,277
6,263
6.05
97,780
5,760
7.93
123,138 115,049
8,089
6.57 115,699
7,439
10.71
170,043 158,676
11,367
6.68 159,589
10,454
8.03
243,879 227,835
16,043
6.58 229,124
14,755
9.35
2.0
1.9
3.2
2.2
1.9
3.2
3.4
Source: Own elaboration
18
Details about the methodology used are found in annex 2.
It should be taken into account that the mitigation costs do not capture all the environmental costs
generated by the AI in terms of landscape and aesthetic issues, risks of spreading diseases to other native
species, among others.
19
48
Increasing trend of the Environmental Gap: We have already define the
Environmental Gap as the difference between the traditional GDP and the green GDP and
we indicated that, as the percentage of the GDP, the same had an increase since1990 for
both hypothesis about the conversion factor already mentioned.
Graph 19 also illustrates the trend of the traditional and green GDP. It indicates a steady
increase since 1990; this trend will be constant while the AI expands under the present
conditions, i.e., externalizing costs that are not presently paid but that will be paid in the
future, without any doubt, mainly by the aquaculture companies and alternative activities
like tourism and by the society as a whole as it will not be able to enjoy areas of a special
beauty and environmental pureness.
Graph 19. Environmental Gap, 1990-1996
(millions of pesos in 1994 currency exchange).
millones de pesos de 1994
16.000
14.000
12.000
10.000
8.000
6.000
4.000
2.000
0
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
Source and Elaboration for Graph 19 and 20: Fundación Terram.
The same situation can be better observed when examining the trend of this
Environmental Gap. It seems important not to underline the estimated differences but the
trends. In this sense, it concerns the evolution shown by the Environmental Gap. Graph
20 illustrates an index for the GDP and the Environmental Gap considering 1990 as the
basis. It indicates that the Index for the Gap (IGAP) increases more than the Index for the
GDP (IGCP). Note that the difference between the indexes increases with time. This
means that the industry is moving away from the sustainable development
Graph 20. Indexes for GDP and Gap (IGDP and IGAP) (1990=100;A/Y=1.2.)
700,00
600,00
500,00
400,00
IPIB
300,00
IBRECHA
200,00
100,00
0,00
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
49
Chapter 5
TWELVE RECOMMENDATIONS FOR NEW POLICIES
A first element to reflect on is the consideration of the methods that development
processes are undertaken both at the national and regional level. Researchers commonly
accept their work with a non-critical attitude vis-a-vis the subject matter under analysis
and, occasionally, with an openly apologetic intention. Such attitude cannot possibly be
supported in the long term. One cannot state that “the dynamic evolution of salmon
farming in Chile could cause such industry to become the main export-generating
business within the national fishery sector, surpassing the fishmeal industry, since there
are no natural limitations to increase the supply ...” (Achura 1995). Such statements
cause economic growth, without any further grounds, to become a fetish, something
which sought without questioning, without even asking about the social and
environmental aspects associated from such development processes and explicitly
disregarding the physical and natural limitations that every production activity reaches.
As already stated by Herman Daly (1993), we should bear in mind that while the
economy grows, the ecosystem (of which economy is a subsystem) remains unchanged;
therefore, it is clear that the development of the economy has limitations which must be
studied and analyzed.
A second important aspect is related to the dynamic negative externalities generated by
this production activity. Each lake and sea possesses a capacity to absorb nutrients but,
provided that such capacity is surpassed, it diminishes and causes such bodies of water to
become more vulnerable. Consequently, in the event emissions of the AI continue in
aquatic bodies, the damage will be higher along with mitigation costs, for which reason it
is of the essence to concentrate on this economic and environmental problems in advance
so as to prevent the possible occurrence of any irreversible events which cannot be easily
assessed and therefore, cannot be easily remedied20.
5.1 CONCLUSIONS
The main conclusions arising from this study are briefly presented below:
1. There are no solid bases to validate the hypothesis of the sustainable development of
the aquaculture industry in the Tenth Region or in the country. This is crucial because
of the importance of the activity for the livelihood of the families settled in the
Region of The Lakes, mainly in the Province of Chiloé.
2. There was a remarkable increase in salmonid-fish production in Chile in comparison
with the worldwide production. In fact, in the 1987-1996 period, the Chilean
production of the Atlantic salmon increased 1,886 times while worldwide production
only 8.2 times. In the case of Pacific salmon, the production in Chile increased 37.9
This approach was already introduced in the 70’s by the environmental economist David Pearce (1985
and 1994).
20
50
times against worldwide production, which increased only 4.6 times. Chilean
production of rainbow trout increased 57.6 times and the same indicator for
worldwide production is only 1.6.
3. As a consequence of the above paragraph, there has been a fall in salmonid-fish prices
apparently due to the oversupply from Chile and Norway.
4. According to the information available, there is little evidence to date that the AI
caused negative impacts on the tourism industry, mainly because of the lack of an
analysis of the cause-effect relation between both activities. However, the pollution of
the lakes in the province of Chiloé is notorious and general and this will cause,
without any doubt, a negative impact in terms that there will be less sites of present
and future tourism interest.
5. As regards small-scale fishing, there is a conspicuous decrease in fish unloading,
particularly in the Calbuco and Castro areas. The main reason for this is the
overexploitation of the fisheries resources and the increase of job demand caused by
the AI that was translated into a change of activities of people who were formerly
engaged in small-scale fishing and nowadays they work as workers under a labor
relationship in farming centers and companies of frozen and canned fish. In addition
to the overexploitation of the fisheries resources, another important element is the
large increase of the production of fishmeal in the Tenth Region, an industry which
had an unknown pressure on marine resources until 1995, a fact that reduced
employment opportunities and the development of the small-scale fishing.
6. With the appearance of technological changes in farming centers, there was a need of
approximately 40% less of personnel. These changes started in 1992 with the
substitution of wooden cages, built in the centers, by plastic ones. Afterward, the
manual process of feeding fish in captivity was replaced by automatized feeding
which implied the decreased of the work force by approximately 10 people per
farming center.
7. The distributive dynamics of AI is highly regressive. Precisely, in the 1990-1995
period, the share of salaries and taxes in the value-added decreased by –8.4% and –
3.6% respectively whereas the share of profits increased by 11.9%. The impact of
such regressive dynamics has been stronger on unskilled workers.
8. Upon analyzing the evolution of production and salary-product ratio, it may be
noticed that production has increased at a faster rate than actual salaries. As a
consequence of this, the share of salaries in the gross production value has decreased.
This represents an additional element to validate the foregoing conclusion. It further
proves that the “axiom” of businessmen that salary increases must be closely related
to an increase in production has not been observed in this industry; on the contrary, a
large part of the increment of the production was directed to the increase of the
profits.
51
9. The Environmental Gap –difference between the traditional GDP and the green GDP,
though not significant in absolute terms tends to increase over the time. In fact, it
increases more rapidly than the GDP.
10. The percentage that represents the Environmental Gap in the traditional GDP tends to
increase. In fact, in 1990 the gap represented 3.02% and in 1996 increased by 6.58%,
i.e., the Environmental Gap as a percentage of the GDP doubles between 1900 and
1996.
11. The information available about the environmental impacts attributable to the AI lead
us to the conclusion that such impacts have been significant, particularly, in the lakes
of the Province of Chiloé. In fact, out of the five lakes as to which supporting
scientific data have been gathered, five are polluted and four highly polluted.
12. Imports of eggs per each ton of salmonid-fish produced has been falling since 1990;
however, in absolute terms there is a tendency to increase the volume of imports;
thus, increasing the risk of introducing and spreading diseases.
13. In order to control introduced exotic diseases, Chile uses 75 times more antibiotics
than the Norway industry with the subsequent damage to the environment.
14. Escaped salmon create conflicts with the local fauna because they transmit new
diseases, they compete for the space (mainly in spawning places) and food. This
situation endangers the local fish fauna.
15. The systems used to protect the cages cause death to sea birds and mammals. Besides,
in some farming centers, the controversial killing of sea lions still happens, a fact the
led to the extinction of some colonies in the interior part of the Archipelago of Chiloé.
16. The environmental costs that could be measured until the present, a product of the
emissions of nutrients into the environment are not yet significant, in absolute terms,
but they present a steady increase between 1990 and 1996. This trend will be constant
while the AI expands under the present conditions, i.e. externalizing costs not paid at
present but which, without any doubt, will be paid in the future mainly by aquaculture
companies and by alternative activities like tourism and by the whole society.
52
5.2. RECOMMENDATIONS
From the environmental and economic perspective, the accelerated growth of the Chilean
AI was sustained, partly, by the lack of allocating the actual environmental costs, which
are not considered by the industry at present. Thus, the basis of resources of this
economic activity is subject to changes that, if not corrected, will mean in the medium
term the stagnation and subsequent reduction of the salmonid-fish industry as well as the
deterioration, in some cases irreversible, of the natural environment in the Tenth Region.
The present situation of the salmon industry is unacceptable because it implies that all the
Chilean people –specially those living in the Tenth Region- must bear the environmental
costs. They should also accept the constant expansion of the Environmental Gap between
the traditional GDP and the green GDP as well as the fact that the increase of the
production is not reflected in the salaries.
In order to change positively the present situation of the salmon industry into a
sustainable aqua industry the following recommendations are presented:
1. Use closed farming systems, with impermeable barriers between the salmon and the
surrounding waters of the ocean/lake that will allow the recovery of polluted waters and
their subsequent treatment.
2. If compared to global production, the Chilean salmonid-fish production had
remarkable growth. In fact, the Chilean production of the Atlantic salmon during the
period 1987-1996 was 1,886 times whereas the global production was only 8.6 times. In
the case of the Pacific salmon, Chile increased its production by 37.9 times whereas the
global production only increased by 4.6 times. In the case of the trout, Chile produced
57.6 times and the global production was only 1.6 times.
3. Reduce the import of eggs to decrease the risk of introducing diseases and make efforts
to produce eggs in the country with health certificates.
4. Give preference to preventive methods over treatments that combat diseases and
develop health programs per area and not per company or center.
5. Systematic monitoring in farming centers to take timely measures and protect the
public health against the use of drugs and diseases resistant to medicines.
6. Develop activities that will favor the exchange of techniques among the companies and
seek joint solutions to environmental problems that may affect them.
7. Develop monitoring activities of the environment to adopt better and appropriate
management actions according to the reality and variability of the production
circumstances.
53
8. Create an environmental bond that will permit the immediate and total restoration of
the ecological damages as a result of the outbreak of diseases, escapes of salmon, genetic
pollution and other catastrophic events.
9. Prohibit the use of nets or other elements that kill sea birds and mammals. Replace
them with harmless systems to the local fauna.
10. Put into effect the prohibition to use firearms and any element that may cause the
direct or accidental death of the wildlife.
11. Create a special tax that will permit to capture and collect from the industries the free
use of natural patrimony. It should also permit to charge this activity the negative external
costs that generates and lead to a level of a sustainable activity.
12. Reach the agreements needed so that the increases in productivity are in line with the
increases of the actual salaries to lead to a better distribution of the incomes generated by
this activity.
54
ANNEX 1: TABLES
Table A: Tons harvested in farming centers of salmonid-fish, 1991-1997.
Pacific Salmon
Atlantic Salmon
Rainbow Trout
Tenth
National
Share
Tenth
National
Share
Year Tenth National Share
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
Region
(tons)
(tons)
%
472
972
1,558
2,808
5,689
10,835
14,235
18,437
19,947
27,050
34,926
51,885
52,134
57,059
500
1,144
1,769
4,040
6,933
13,413
17,954
22,165
25,150
34,524
44,037
66,988
73,408
76,954
94
85
88
70
82
81
79
83
79
78
79
77
71
74
Region
(tons)
(tons)
0
0
41
41
165
165
1,843
1,860
9,478
9,498
14,160 14,957
23,324 23,715
28,854 29,180
33,783 34,175
53,779 54,250
76,113 77,327
95,742 96,675
104,607 107,066
%
100
100
99
100
95
98
99
99
99
98
99
98
Region
(tons)
(tons)
%
288
435
434
539
1,775
4,209
7,244
13,180
19,658
28,268
36,677
49,141
68,516
63,947
619
1,007
945
1,267
2,871
5,481
8,393
15,515
22,257
32,326
42,719
54,429
77,110
75,108
47
43
46
43
62
77
86
85
88
87
86
90
89
85
Source: Servicio Nacional de Pesca, SERNAPESCA. Anuarios Estadísticos de Pesca, 1985-1998.
Elaboration: Fundación Terram.
Table B: Number of Farming Centers at the
national level and in the Tenth Region, 19931998.
Tenth Region
Year
No. of
Centers
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
581
491
592
930
780
663
Average annual
growth (%)
Average annual
growth (No.)
Annual
Growth
(%)
-15
21
57
-16
-15
National
No. of
Centers
723
628
723
1,161
948
823
Annual
Growth
(%)
-13
15
61
-18
-13
6%
6%
14
17
Source: Servicio Nacional de Pesca, SERNAPESCA, 1998.
Elaboration: Fundación Terram.
55
Table C: Exports in the Tenth Region and share in national exports, 1991-1997
(Thousands of US$ FOB of each year)
Exports
1991
1992
1993
Tenth
Region
National
Regional
share
in
national (%)
1994
1995
1996
1997
1997/1991
343,278
444,436
468,534
525,663
742,948
762,066
859,985
2.5
8,988,572
9,920,874
9,324,742
11,368,732
15,901,262
15,407,298
16,682,186
1.9
3.8
4.5
5.0
4.6
4.7
4.9
5.2
Source: Estadísticas Regionales, MIDIPLAN, 1998
Table D: Level of employment in the Region of The Lakes and in the country, 19941997.
(thousands of people).
Year
1994
1995
1996
1997
Growth
1994-1997
X Region
Country
Work
Employed Unemploy Work
Employed Unemploy
Force
ed
Force
ed
363.30
349.06
14.24
5,553.80
5,122.70
431.08
367.80
356.70
11.09
5,538.20
5,174.40
363.80
379.40
368.60
10.78
5,600.60
5,298.60
301.90
385.71
373.96
11.75
5,683.80
5,380.20
303.60
6.54
7.13
-17.49
2.34
5.03
-29.57
Source: Instituto Nacional de Estadisticas, INE, 1998.
Table E: Use of antibiotics in the salmonid-fish industry in Norway and in Chile.
Norway
Year
1987
1991
1992
1993
1994
Total
Used
Productio Antibiotics
n
(Tons)
(Thousand
tons)
53
w/i
141
170
220
48
w/i
28
6,1
1,1
Chile
Gr. of
antibiotics
per Kg. Of
product
0,91
w/i
0,19
0,04
0,01
Total
Used
Gr. of
Producti Antibiotics antibiotics
on
(Tons)
per Kg. Of
(Thousan
product
d tons)
2,7
42,5
62,2
70
76,3
w/i
55
w/i
190
w/i
w/i
1,29
w/i
2,71
w/i
Source: Hugo Caro, 1995
Elaboration: Terra Australius
Note: w/i= without information
56
Table F: Most dangerous diseases affecting Chilean salmon farming aquaculture
industry
Disease
Epizootic Hematopoietic Necrosis
(EHN-Viral)
Origin and Characteristics
Confined to the Australian territory, it affects fish
and trout during their alevin stage.
Infectious Hematopoietic Necrosis
(IHN-Viral)
Present in Europe and North America, it affects
mainly the alevin trout and salmon in fresh water at
a temperature of between 8ºC and 15°C, although
there were some cases in Canada affecting sea fish.
Onchorynchus Masou Virus
(OMV-Viral)
A tumorous-type disease of the Pacific salmon and
trout present in Japan and other places in Asia.
Young fish of one month of age are the most
vulnerable ones, at temperatures below 14°C.
Mortality varies but the impact is also associated
with tumorous injuries that seriously affect the
condition of the fish.
Viral Hemorrhagic Septicemia
(VHS-Viral)
A disease with a great impact on the rainbow trout.
Generally, at temperatures below 15°C and in fresh
water although also present in seawater. Mortality
may vary between 10 to 50% during the first stage.
Source: Salmonoticias No. 72, March, 1999
Elaboration: Terra Australius
Table G: Global and national production of salmonid-fish
(tons and %)
Place of
production
Chile
Other
countries
Total
Atlantic Salmon
Pacific Salmon
Rainbow Trout
 87-96
77.286
410.252
%
15,9
84,1
96/87
1.886,0
7,0
 87-96
65.219
-5.487
%
109,2
-9,2
96/87
37,9
0,6
 87-96
53.484
92.709
%
36,6
63,4
96/87
57,6
1,4
487.538
100,0
8,2
59.732
100,0
4,6
146.193
100,0
1,6
Source: FAO, 1998.
Elaboration: Fundación Terram
Tabla H: Average annual growth rates of prices, quantities and volume exported of
salmon and trout, 1988-1998.
(%)
Growth rate
1988-93
1993-98
1988-98
Price
-18
-15
-30
Salmon
Ton Export.
1.292
1.045
177
134
3.752
2.584
Trout
Price
Ton
77
1.789
-14
235
51
6.226
Export.
3.182
186
9.300
Source: Foreign Trade Indicators, Banco Central de Chile; Elaboration: Fundación Terram.
57
Table I: Salmon exports per type of product, 1994-1998.
(thousands of US$).
Product/
Year
1994
1995
1996
1997
Fresh
Pacific
and
73,251
94,685
96,728
Atlantic
Fillet
37,502
60,084
93,348
110,753
154,769
190,076
Total Fresh
Frozen
Pacific
105,567
170,290
147,307
Atlantic
15,652
17,830
13,006
Fillet
17,116
31,087
36,098
138,335
219,207
196,411
Total Frozen
249,088
373,976
386,487
TOTAL
% of fresh
44.5
41.4
49.2
% of frozen
55.5
58.6
50.8
Source: Foreign Trade Indicators, Banco Central de Chile
Elaboration: Fundación Terram
1998
Annual
average
growth
%
Growth
19941998
%
77,624
63,414
1.66
-13.43
147,940
225,564
193,031
256,445
51.13
23.73
414.72
131.55
164,965
17,264
53,622
235,851
461,415
48.0
51.1
172,960
12,658
65,045
250,663
507,108
50.6
49.4
16.16
-1.08
41.89
18.60
20.69
63.83
-19.13
280.02
81.20
103.58
Table J: Target markets of exports, 1995-98.
(%)
Target Country
Japan
EE.UU
European Community
Latin America
Other Markets
Total
1995
60,4
29,2
6,3
2,9
1,2
100,0
1996
58,4
31,4
4,8
4,1
1,3
100,0
1997
58,3
28,6
5,0
5,6
2,4
100,0
1998
57,6
28,8
5,5
6,2
1,9
100,0
Source: Compendio de Acuicultura 1999 and Salmonoticias No. 72, March 1999.
Elaboration: Fundación Terram
Table K: Growth of the share of profits and salaries in the value-added of the
aquaculture industry in the Tenth Region, 1990-1995.
(%)
Growth between1990-95
g
11,94
tx
-1.97
w
-8,38
wemp
-3,22
Wnc
-5,16
Source: Encuesta Nacional Industrial Anual, ENIA, Code CIIU 3114, Tenth Region.
Elaboration: Fundación Terram.
Note: g = profit; tx =taxes; wemp =employees’ salaries; wnc =unskilled employees’ salaries; w = wemp + wnc.
58
Table L: Salary-product and work physical production indexes, 1990-96
(1994=100).
Year
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
Annual average growth 1990-93
Annual average growth 1993-96
1996/1990
Salary-product
index
57.8
56.6
78.0
89.1
100.00
122.9
147.7
18.1
21.9
2.6
IPFL
38.3
44.9
54.2
73.7
100.0
96.9
124.7
30.8
23.0
3.3
Source: Own elaboration
Tabla M: Annual Growth rates of the salaries, product and
share of salaries in the GVP, 1991-1996.
(%)
Year
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
Annual
Annual growth of
growth of the Index of Physical Percentage loss in
w-p
Production of Work
W/GVP
(%)
(%)
-2,0
17,0
-19,1
37,8
20,8
17,0
14,2
36,1
-21,9
12,2
35,6
-23,4
22,9
-3,1
26,0
20,2
28,7
-8,5
Source and Elaboration: Fundación Terram.
Note: w-p = Index salary-product
59
ANNEX 2: METHODOLOGICAL ASPECT
Economic Impacts
We considered three species out of the statistics of global production; these species,
representative of the Chilean production are the following: the Atlantic salmon, the
Pacific salmon and the rainbow trout. We estimated three indicators for each species and
they are: (1) the increase of the production between 1987 and 1996; (2) a percentage that,
out of the total increase of the industry, represents the increase of the Chilean industry
and other producer countries and (3) the growth in production in 1996 as compared to
1987 in Chile, other countries and all the industry.
Social Impacts
Functional Distribution of Income 1990-199621
The functional distribution of income means the manner in which value-added is
apportioned among salaries, taxes and profits in the course of time, differentiating
companies on the basis of their size (according to the number of employees). Formally,
the analysis develops from the following definitions:
The value added (VA) is equal to, by definition, the sum of all the salaries (W), the
depletion in the fixed capital (CKF), indirect taxes (Tx) and the gross profits (G), i.e.,
VAt = Wt + CKF + Tx + Gt
(1)
The share of Wt, CKF, Tx and Gt is obtained by dividing the previous equation by VAt,
the result being,
wt + ckf + tx + gt, = 1
(2)
the lower case letter stands for the share of each category within the VAt. Within the
salaries category we differentiate between employees’ salaries (wempt) and unskilled
workers’ salaries (wnct), thus the final share equation is as follows:
21
The statistical information used for this section and for the employment section, embraces all the firms
classified according to code 3114 Uniform Industrial International Classification (CIIU) in the X region of
Chile. The statistics were systematically arranged by the National Statistics Institute (INE) via the Annual
Industrial National Survey (ENIA). The definition of the industrial subsector is as follows: PROCESSING
OF FISH, CRUSTECEAN AND OTHER SEA PRODUCTS (CIIU 3114): “Embraces the following
processes: salted, dehydrated, smoke, cured, tinned in brine and vinegar, tinned or quickly frozen fish,
prawns, oysters, clams, crabs and other sea products. Soups and fish and other products specialties are
included, as well as the factory ship engaged in the process of fish and sea products, only if regarded as an
individual establishments. Preservation in ice, salt, elaboration of fillets and fish and other sea products on
board the fishing ship or the factory ship, except as described before, classified within the group 1301 or
1302, depending on the case”. Uniform International Industrial Classification (CIIU) of all economic
activities NU Series M. No. 4 Rev. 2, 1976. National Statistics Institute (INE). According to a wider
definition than that for aquaculture industry of salmon; however, the lines of production are minor in the
region, thus, in this region said information represents exactly the development of the salmon industry.
60
wempt + wnct + ckf + tx + gt.= 1
(3)
Salaries and Productivity
A different method to make the evaluation in terms of the impact of distribution of an
industry consists in investigating the facts behind the share of salaries in the gross value
of the production (GVP) and in this case we need to know the evolution of the –salaryproduct and the physical production of labor. The previous comment can be formally
represented as follows22:
w 
w L
PY
(4)
Where w represents the share of salaries in the GVP; w represents the annual nominal
salary; P is the price of the product and Y is the quantity of the commercialized product
and L is labor. In order to obtain a more concise expression we devised the following
nomenclature:
w
, the actual salary-product
P
Y
b  , the average physical production of work
L

From the previous expressions the share of the salaries in the GVP can now be expressed

as:  w  i.e., the share of salaries in the GVP depends on the actual salary-product and
b
the physical production of work23. If we add the logarithm function to the previous
expression and have it projected in time, we obtain the percentage variation of the
participation of the salaries in the GVP.



   b
(5)
Where “^” indicates the percentage variation in time.
22
For a further explanation of this approach see Agacino, R. (1993).
The salary-product expression was based on the information provided by ENIA 3114, X region on
nominal salaries and the Laspeyres-type price index estimated for this calculation. The physical production
of work is estimated on the basis of the information furnished by ENIA and the production per line of
process in the X region. Based on information provided by fishing annuals we considered 4 processing
lines: fresh-cool, frozen, smoked and canned products.
23
61
Assessment of the “Green” GDP in the Salmonid-fish AI
In the previous sections we mentioned that the impacts or effects of the salmon
aquaculture industry vary. For the purpose of our assessment we only considered the
emissions of phosphorus (P) and nitrogen (N). These elements are present in fish food
and feces deposited on bodies of water that adversely affect their quality.
To start with, we will say that water contamination is defined as follows:
“Water contamination means the introduction by man, directly or indirectly, of
substances or energy into the habitat (including estuaries) that cause harmful effects,
damage living creatures, endanger human health, difficult water activities, including
fishing, cause detriment to the use of sea water and reduce their enjoyment” (Barg,
1995).
The analytic pattern proposed is based on the so-called Matrix of Input-Product of
Pollutant Emissions and is aimed at assessing the emissions through the total mitigation
cost (TMC) of the pollution24. This value is subtracted from the traditional GDP indicator
of the industry25; thus, the expression for the ‘green’ GDP will be:
Green GDP = GDP – TMC
(6)
The P and N emitted into the environment come from non-consumed food and feces. In
general, these components can be expressed in proportion to the food supplied, i.e., the
amount of phosphorus (nitrogen) introduced into the environment per unit of food
supplied. Now, our interest is to determine the amount of these components that end up
on the seabed as food (particles), this measure includes the proportion of phosphorus
(nitrogen) emitted into the environment through non-consumed food and feces26.
P  A
N  A
TMC CA up . . . .Y  CA Nu . . . .Y
 A  Y 
 AY 
(7 )
P and N mean phosphorus and nitrogen respectively. Sub-index u means unit; finally 
and  indicate the percentage of phosphorus and nitrogen in the food deposited on the
sea-bottom. The expression of TMC is related to the level of production Y, CAu indicates
the unit cost of abatement per unit of phosphorus and nitrogen. The expression within the
24
The cost of mitigation corresponds to the monetary value of mitigation (or diminish) of the emissions of
contaminants.
25
The GDP of the AI includes the product generated at farming centers (extractive fishing) and that
generated by the fish processing industry (3114).
26
The assessment should be taken cautiously because it is known that the pattern to determine the amount
of sediments that end up at sea bottom is more complex and depends on factors which are not included in
our calculation. However, the solution for this limit may be found in the analysis of each area where salmon
farming takes place, a fact which is beyond this study.
62
square brackets indicates the amount of the component per unit of food and that between
parenthesis indicates the amount of food per unit of production or conversion exponent.
For assessment purposes, the expressions between parenthesis are constant, consequently,
the expression of the TMC is as follows:
u
u 
TMC  .CA P
  .CA N
. . .Y
(8)
Where
P
   
A
N
    
A
A
 
Y
=
tons of phosphorus as sediment per ton of food.
=
tons of nitrogen as sediment per ton of food.
=
tons of food per ton of fish.
Therefore, the equation for the ‘green’ GDP of the aquaculture industry is expressed as
follows:
"Green" GDP  GDP  . CA Pu  . CA UN  . . Y
(9)
The values for the unit cost of abatement and parameters were taken from Buschmann
(1995) and Barg (1995) respectively and they are:
Table A: Value of parameters used in the assessment
Parameter27
Value
0.55 (*)
(1)
0.225
(*)
(2)
3,200 and 9,600 (US$ in 1994 value) (**)
CAu of P and N (3)
0.009 and 0.072 (***)
(P/A) and (N/A) (4)
Note: (*) (**) correspond to average values, (***) these values were checked against
those estimated by Campos (1997) in lakes of Chiloé and correspond approximately to
those found in the food extruded (food with less amounts of P and N) used in centers
operating in those lakes.
Values (1) and (2) are found in Barg (1995) and were extracted “Nutrient discharges from aquaculture
operations in nordic countries into adjacent sea areas”. International Council for the Exploration of the Sea
(ICES) C.M. 1991/F 56. The values in (3) were taken from Buschmann, A. et al (1996). The values in (4)
are found in Barg (1995) and were extracted from Wallin, M. and Ackefors, 1992, from Wallin, M. and
Ackefors, 1992: “Nutrient loading models for estimating the environmental effects of marine fish farms”.
In Marine Aquaculture and Environment, edited by T. Makinen. Copenhagen, Nordic Council of ministers
Nord, 1991 (22); 39-55.
27
63
Source: Barg (1995) and Buschmann (1996)
Finally, we would like you to note that this way of estimating a synthetic expression for
the environmental costs, derived from the emissions of contaminants in the production
process to reach an adjusted expression of the GDP is only one of the various
possibilities28.
28
Other expressions, derived from the neoclasic-marginalist approach are found in Hartwick (1990) and
Hamilton (1994).
64
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