Science Friction: The incredible story of
Atlantic salmon in British Columbia
John Volpe
Biological Sciences
University of Alberta jvolpe@ualberta.ca
http://www.biology.ualberta.ca

46,738 tonnes dressed (capture fishery all spp. 30,200 t)
$347M farm gate (capture fishery$53M)
81% Atlantic salmon
Largest agricultural export product (77%) in BC - 4th largest salmon producer in the world

Faster growth and feed conversion
• Docility
• Larger market
• Better price
• Knowledge base

1905
5.5 - 13.2 M eggs + alevins released in B.C.
1984
1934
Interspecific agonism (ST) 1 0 resistance factor
Import of AS eggs for aquaculture
1987 First capture of AS in B.C. waters
1991 First reported escape of AS
1995 SAR initiated
SAR released
First Atlantic salmon research on Pacific coast initiated
1997
?????
2002

Revenue loss resulting from escaped fish
0%
Retention of salmon in net pens
Cost of building / maintaining net pens
100%
According to DFO’s ASWP 396,552 Atlantic salmon have been reported as escaped 1991-2001

Escapes
• 0.5 – 1% of cage population lost via “leakage” (not reported)
Therefore in 1999
55,400 – 110,800 Atlantic salmon + (~443,200)
12,650 – 25,300 Chinook
2,900 – 5,900 Coho
+
+
(~101,200)
(~23,600) sub-adults escaped in addition to the 35,730 reported
Atlantic salmon escapes.
• Only rough estimates of fish on on hand
• Holes in nets a constant problem
• Reporting of escapes is voluntary

Actual number of escapees per year = UNKNOWN

Recoveries
7833 Atlantic salmon reported captured in BC marine waters and
145 Atlantic salmon reported in BC fresh waters in 2000
Like escapes, recovery reports are voluntary. No work has ever been conducted to evaluate the precision or accuracy of these data – however it is widely accepted these numbers do not represent reality.
Continued use of these
“estimates” sets a dangerous precedent for reliance on fictitious data.

Two major farm escapes in summer 2000
DFO’s passive ASWP = 7833 AS;
All BC marine waters, whole year
3500
3000
2500
4500 Atlantic salmon escape in
Johnstone Straight
2000
32,000 Atlantic salmon escape in Sargeaunt's Pass
1500
1000
Commercial fishing season opens in Area 12
How many captures if there were no openings?
500
0
8/
1/
00
8/
3/
00
8/
5/
00
8/
7/
00
8/
9/
00
8/
11
/0
0
8/
13
/0
0
8/
15
/0
0
8/
17
/0
0
8/
19
/0
0
8/
21
/0
0
8/
23
/0
0
8/
25
/0
0
8/
27
/0
0
Date
15 day active survey in only Area 12 = 10,826 AS (+41%)

• 58 m channel
• Variable habitat
• 30 females; 20 males transplanted without acclimatization

Spawning Chronology
Little Qualicum
Atlantic Salmon
Chum
Sockeye Steelhead
Sept Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May
Pink Coho
Chinook
Wild Atlantic salmon in native range

Tsitika River August 18 1998

0 + 1 +
• Natural reproduction
• Two year classes present (0 + & 1 + )
• ~50 juveniles identified to date
• Sympatric with strong steelhead population
• 0+ AS > ST (50%) 1+ AS >> ST (125%)

Port Hardy
Tsitika R.
Eve R.
Amor de Cosmos Cr.
Campbell R.
100 km
<< 0.01% suitable habitat
Tofino surveyed
Port
Alberni
Nanaimo
Victoria

Atlantic salmon are now part of the terrestrial food web via predation
Atlantic salmon have been reported in 79 BC streams and rivers

What we know so far...
• 10’s - 100’s K escaping annually
• Significant marine survival
- commercial fisheries, Alaska fresh water captures
• Adults ascending all major drainages on Vancouver Island
• Production fish will spawn to produce viable offspring and may do so during low native spawner density
• Feral progeny are capable of persisting with steelhead
But,
Why did historical AS introductions fail?

Wetted area:
2.2m x 0.6m x 0.9 m
Coarse river cobble
(19.4

5.6cm)
~ 10% replacement per hour
Flow 0.85 ms -s
(4542.5 L min -1 )
10 hp centrifugal pump
Water temp maintained by a 240V, 60amp chiller
Clear Lexan viewing windows
Natural prey provided by a unique “upweller” feeding system

High Forage
4 AS 4 AS 4 ST 4 ST 4 ST 4 AS
•
High / low forage
• Density
• Intra- / interspecies comp.
• Assembly of “community”
4 AS 4 AS 4 ST 4 ST a
AA a
SA
Low Forage
4 AS 4 AS
4 AS
4 ST
4 AS
4 ST 4 ST 4 AS
•
Growth
• Foraging
• Agonism (action + result)
• Territory size a
4 ST
SS
4 ST a
AS a = comp. coefficient (Δ g)
A = Atlantic salmon
S = Native Steelhead

ST engage in agonism 5:1 over AS
ST show intraspecific bias 2 : 1
AS show interspecific bias 2.2 : 1
Residents with 3 days prior residency performed better than challengers under all conditions
A significant “residency effect” was observed in both species

From Bear Lake (2km)
Control Site (ST Only)
ST
ST
N
50 m
Small Falls
AS
ST
To Straight of Georgia /
Inside Passage (~3km)
Experimental Site
(AS & ST)
86.5 hrs behaviour data

• ST - ST aggression 11.8 x > ST - AS
• ST-ST aggression was significantly higher with AS
• ST horizontal range on average 9 x > AS
• ST - ST aggression > 3x AS - AS; but AS - ST aggression >2x ST - AS

0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
1.0
0.8
Steelhead Atlantic Salmon

**
10
5 **
0
Atlantic
Salmon
Steelhead
Experimental
Steelhead
Control
0
75
50
25

Atlantic salmon in Competition
+ residency - residency
Perform well relative to steelhead
Perform poorly relative to steelhead
1905-1934: Very low likelihood of establishing prior residency in Vancouver Island rivers
But,
Today: Vancouver Island steelhead populations are at
~ 10 - 20% of historical abundance

Potential for successful colonization is likely much higher today than during historical intentional introductions

“What are the impacts of salmon farming on the sea floor below fish pens?
Salmon farms occupy a very small percentage of BC coastal waters, so the habitat affected is also very small. If placed side by side, all the salmon farm sea cages would occupy only about 70 hectares, less space than the new runway at
Vancouver International Airport.”
BC Salmon Farmers Assoc. web page

TSS allocation for 4 Salmon
Farms Bremerton, WA
No Filtration & Sterilization
US$0
Seattle (830k people)
Filtration & Sterilization
(US$536M build
US$80M / yr.)
5.2 M lbs. feces

4 M lbs. TSS
Effects of effluent generated at BC’s 104 active farms is unknown
Dr. Arthur Whitely U. of Washington

Outputs
Antibiotics Pass through the net cage intact or in feces are ingested in low chronic doses by benthos
6.4 tonnes used in 1998
Effects: generation of “superbugs”; transfer across individuals possible, including to humans
- significant alteration of sediment species composition affecting nutrient cycling
Pesticides Neurological disruptors used to control sea lice
Effects: - Lethal to crustaceans (zooplankton, shrimp, crab etc.) and other fauna including polychaetes and starfish
Irish farm company being sued
Copper Toxic net treatments to kill fouling organisms
Effects: - Undetermined

Inputs
Organic
Salmon, unlike all other cultured “farm” animals (save shrimp) are carnivorous – feed is 45% fishmeal and 25% fish oil.
2.8 kg wild fish to produce 1 kg farm fish
(equivalent by-catch)

The marine area required to produce the feed consumed in a salmon farm is 40,000 to 50,000 times the production area
The European industry (production leaders) consume the equivalent of 90% of the North Sea’s 1 o production
Naylor et al. 2000. Nature 405: 1017-1024

Herring; Mackerel; Anchoveta; Anchovy; Sardinella.
South American oceans being mined at tremendous rates to satisfy northern hemisphere demand for fish meal in the production of a luxury product.
Many of these fisheries are in a state of collapse forcing commercial fishers to target species even lower in the food web, further aggravating the problem.
Currently a salmon glut on world market. Commercial salmon fishers must now catch more wild salmon to maintain historical earnings

Outputs
The Product
Feed contaminated with
PCBs
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) - genotoxin / mutagen
Polybrominated biphenyl ethers (BPDE) - flame retardant
Organochlorine pesticides (OPs)
# of servings of BC farm salmon required to exceed WHO guidelines: 1.5 / week
Easton et al. 2002. Chemosphere 46: 1053-1074

Inputs
Energy
Cultured Atlantic
Cultured Chinook
Captured Chinook
Industrial Energy Inputs per round tonne (litres of diesel equivalent)
Greenhouse Gas Emissions
(tonnes of CO
2 equivalent per round tonne) 1
2,612
3,244
977
6.5
8.0
2.0
Captured Coho
Captured Sockeye
Captured Chum
Captured Pink
1,144
755
665
616
2.9
2.3
2.0
1.8
Tyedmers 2001. PhD Thesis, UBC

Food Production System
Seaweed culture (West Indies)
Cultured carp (Indonesia)
Wheat (USA)
Purse seine fishery for salmon (B.C.)
Groundfish trawl fishery (Washington State)
Commercially caught pink salmon (B.C.)
Commercially caught chum salmon (B.C.)
Commercially caught sockeye salmon (B.C.)
Turkey (USA)
Milk (USA)
Swine (USA)
Commercial cod fishery (USA)
Chicken (USA)
Intensively cultured Atlantic salmon (B.C.)
Intensively cultured chinook salmon (B.C.)
Intensively cultured shrimp (Thailand)
Beef (USA)
Tyedmers 2001. PhD Thesis, UBC
Edible Protein EROI
100%
94%
41%
18%
17%
14%
13%
11%
7.7%
7.1%
5.6%
5%
3.8%
3.3%
2.6%
1.4%
0.8%

Sea lice are native however the density of farms may act as bio-magnifiers of parasites and disease such that the migratory habitat becomes saturated ie. pink smolt run

Pink salmon smolts
June 2001

Natural
Selection
“Nothing in biology makes sense except in the light of evolution“
Theodosius Dobzhansky
“Normal curve”
Character Trait (e.g. Aggression)

Escape
Farm
Spawn
Wild
Low Aggression
High

Second feral generation displays appropriate levels of aggression - much greater performance and survivorship.
Wild
Low Aggression
High

Escapees selected for “wild type” behaviours and traits
Treatments for parasites and diseases “select” for resistant and more virulent strains – passed back to wild populations
(Anti bacterial soaps “97% effective”)
Processes are likely to change as fast, or faster, than we are capable of describing them.......

How many escaped Atlantic salmon are too many?
What infestation rate of sea lice on native salmonids is too high?
How much industrial waste is too much?
Etc....etc.....etc.....
Is salmon aquaculture so different from other industrial activities that threshold effects on the environment are unnecessary?

Principle 15 of the 1992 Rio Declaration on Environment and Development (to which Canada is a signatory) explains the precautionary principle as, "Where there are threats of serious or irreversible damage, lack of full scientific certainty shall not be used as a reason for postponing cost-effective measures to prevent environmental degradation."
1) all reasonable actions must be taken to protect the environment
2) inherent to this statement is the understanding of
“reverse onus” - the burden of proof lies with industry to satisfactorily demonstrate their activity is not detrimental to the environment. The burden is not on the public to demonstrate the opposite

Chris Borkent
Rick Ferguson
Jeff Hopkins
Ian Jacobs
Megan Kaneen
Tye Lougheed
Steve Martin
Dan O’Neil
Emily Rubidge
Malcolm Wyeth
Dr. Brad R. Anholt - UVic Biology
Dr. Barry W. Glickman - UVic CEH
Gerry Horne - UVic Aquatics Facility
Funded by:
B.C. Habitat
Conservation
Trust Fund
B.C. Min.
Fisheries