Chapter 29
Turbulent Years
I. Viet Nam:
A. Lyndon Baines Johnson, LBJ, reasons for his commitment to Viet Nam:
1. Election of 1964: Domestic agenda, and Viet Nam: no major losses.
2. Gulf of Tonkin Resolutions: August 1964.
Congress gives the President authority to take whatever military steps are
necessary to repel attacks on US forces and to protect Southeast Asia.
This is a functional declaration of war.
a. background: North Vietnamese attacks.
3. February 1965: Vietcong at Pleiku, US air base
4.Operation Rolling Thunder: National Security Council response
a. gradually intensifying air attacks
b. air attack ineffective due to Ho Chi Minh Trail and tunnels.
c. Increase ground troops: November 1965: 165,000
July 1966: 431,000
5. In charge of US military: General William Westmoreland:
a. Military Plan: War of Attrition: heavy bombing will
exhaust the Vietcong and US ground forces will beat the
Vietcong morally and militarily.
6. Results: South Viet Nam society is destroyed, there is an ecological
disaster due to exfoliates, agent Orange and Napalm, and bombing.
There are over 5 million refugees. The war has cost the US $21 billion so
far, to cover the cost of the war, taxes are increased and money taken from
the Social Security fund the US is fighting inflation.
7. Credibility Gap: Two versions of the progress of the war.
a. Version 1: presented by LBJ, NSC, and the military
b. Version 2: Presented by the national news media.
1. Morley Safer, Eric Severeid et al.
c. Growing Congressional Opposition.
1. Senator J. William Fulbright.
II. Generation in Conflict:
A. Anti-war movement: 1965 - 1971 Baby boom generation, college students.
1. War protest and protest values of the older generation.
2. 1964: First major protest comes from the University of California,
Berkeley.
What started out as a civil rights protest, turned into a free speech protest
and ended up criticizing the war, the university administration, and society.
The protest movement spread across the nation on almost all college
campuses. The end result was a revision of course requirements, a change
in resident living rules, and sometimes, an effort, on part of the university
to solve student problems.
3. San Francisco: Haight-Ashbury,
1967, The Summer of Love, 75,000 Flower children.
4. Characteristics of Flower Children or Hippies: Music, peace,
communes, psychedelic and hallucinogenic drugs, anti-structure,
a rejection of the basic tenets of society. Obviously a youth -oriented
movement. In fact, there were an enormous number of baby boomers
and not all of them were able or willing to become the ideal Hippie. Often
certain characteristics were entertained until circumstances forced a
change, most frequently a desire to support oneself.
5. August 1969: Woodstock, New York
“Woodstock” defined the counter-culture. Over 400,000 hippies
met to peacefully listen to music, dance, and use drugs. Woodstock made
national news, not for the violence, but for the lack of inhibitions exhibited
by many of the attendees.
6. Anti-War protest increased in response to Operation Rolling Thunder:
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Turbulent Years
This protest often turned to violence. The University of Wisconsin was the
site of SDS backed bombing of the research center funded by Dow
Chemical. Violence on campus happened across the nation, less so in the
South.
Anti-war protest took the form of draft-card burning. This increased with
the end of college deferments and the greater demand for draftees.
B. Soldiers:
1. The average age was 19, a disproportionate number of Blacks and
Hispanics, also a higher number of high school dropouts. First serious
use of drugs in the military. (Mostly marijuana).
2. The Viet Nam Vets fought a well organized guerrilla war, not knowing
who was friend or foe. Often a strategic hill or area was fought over
and won or lost numerous times. The returning veteran did not receive
a hero’s welcome, more often he felt a sense of betrayal from the nation
and the government.
III. War on Poverty: LBJ’s Domestic Agenda, The Great Society.
A. Major Influences:
1. Civil rights movement revealed link between racial discrimination and
economic inequality.
2. Michael Harrington’s, Other America, concluded that the poor were
invisible.
B. The Great Society: 1964 LBJ’s War on Poverty
1. Office of Economic Opportunity: coordination of federal programs to
poor.
a. Jobs Corps: train inner city youths
b. Neighborhood Youth Corps: provide minimum wage jobs to
inner city youths.
c. VISTA: idealistic teachers to ghetto schools.
d. Community Action Programs: federal funds to be used by
state and local agencies. * this program failed because control
of the money was left to state and local governments.
e. Legal Services Program: storefront law offices
f. Headstart: children and education
g. Community Health Centers
h. Upward Bound: inner city youths to college.
2. Other existent programs received increased federal funding:
Medicare, Social Security, Aid to Families with Dependent Children.
3. War On Poverty: mixed results, it did not deliver all that was promised.
IV. Crisis of the Cities:
A. Reasons:
1. white flight, FHA loans, Red Lining ( making a certain inner city area
off limits to economic renewal), slum lords, unemployment
B. Summers of 1964 - 1968: Massive Riots due to the above reasons and
racial discrimination, economically depressed areas, police brutality.
1. 1964: Harlem, New York and Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
2. August 1965 : The Watts section of Los Angeles, 6 days of rioting
and burning left 34 dead and 4000 arrested.
3. July 1967: Newark, New Jersey, and Detroit, Michigan. Army tanks
used to stop the rioting in Detroit.
V. 1968
A. Viet Nam: January 30, 1968 The TET Offensive: The Vietcong pushed
through South Viet Nam to Saigon. Major battles took place at Quang Tri, Hue,
Danang, Dakto, Cam Ranh Bay, Cholon. Most of these bases and towns had
been considered in American control and relatively safe from Vietcong attack,
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much less falling to the Vietcong. In the end, massive US forces pushed the
Vietcong back, but US and Vietcong casualties were high. Many Americans,
at home, wanted the US out of Southeast Asia.
As a result of the TET offensive, LBJ chose not to run for reelection in 1968, and
he started peace talks with North Viet Nam.
B. Civil Rights:
1. April 4, 1968: Martin Luther King assassinated by James Earl Ray.
James Earl Ray recanted his story of acting on his own, he claimed that
he was part of a much larger conspiracy which included the FBI and
white supremacy groups. King’s widow and children believed Ray. Ray
died in April 1998.
2. The Civil Rights Movement took on a militaristic influence, with
the formation of the Black Panthers.
C. Democratic Party Campaign:
1. The leading candidates were Robert F. Kennedy and Senator Eugene
McCarthy. Of the two, Kennedy was ahead.
2. June 6, 1968: Robert F. Kennedy assassinated by Sirhan Sirhan.
3. Hubert Humphrey becomes the Democratic Party candidate for president
4. The Chicago Convention: August 21 -26, 1968
a. Mayor Richard Daley, Youth International Party, (Yippies),
Abbie Hoffman, Police brutality, riots.
VI. Politics of Identity: In a reaction to ineffective government programs, the slow pace of
the civil rights movement, and a power vacuum on the national level
A. Black Revolution:
1. Black Panthers, their goals and methods.
2. Cultural nationalism, Black studies start appearing in college
curriculums.
B. Feminists:
1. 1966: National Organization For Women NOW, pushes for an end to
sex discrimination, an Equal Rights Amendment, day care centers,
abortion rights, etc.
C. Gay Rights: Sexual orientation becomes a public topic.
D. Hispanic Rights: The word CHICANO is chosen because it connotes a
militant ethnic nationalism. The Hispanic community is seeking broader
cultural and political determinism. LA RAZA is one example.
E. Red Power: Native American Indians take a militant stand in defense of their
rights.
F. Asian American Political Association is formed to help realize a nationalistic self- identity for
the Asian American community.
VII. The Nixon Presidency: 1968 - 1974
Campaign pledge: Nixon could restore law and order to US. Nixon represented
the SILENT MAJORITY. Vice-president: Spiro Agnew.
A. Viet Nam: Nixon promises, “Peace with Honor”. Henry Kissenger is the
chief US negotiator. While the peace process is ongoing, Nixon institutes his
new military program, VIETNAMIZATION. By this he hopes to slowly replace
American troops with US trained South Vietnamese troops. The pace of
Vietnamization slows and Nixon orders a covert invasion of Cambodia. An
invasion of Cambodia is AN ABUSE OF HIS PRESIDENTIAL POWER.
When the invasion of Cambodia becomes public in April 1970 there is nationwide
protest. In May 1970, 4 students are killed by the National Guard at Kent State in
Ohio, later the same month at Jackson State, 2 students die. In Congress, the
Senate cuts funding for the war but the House of Representatives does not support
the Senate.
For the next 3 years, the US military policy of heavy bombing continues with short
lapses during which the peace negotiations are intensive. Finally in January 1973,
the Viet
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Nam war is over. 58,000 Americans are dead, the war cost $150 billion,
the Containment theory of HST is not viable.
In April 1975, Vietnamization fails, as Saigon is overrun by North Vietnamese.
The MyLai Massacre of 1968 becomes public. Lieutenant William Calley.
B. China: Detente with the People’s Republic of China.
1. China’s importance in the world order.
2. Nixon plays China off Russia.
3. Ping-Pong Diplomacy: April 1971.
4. Effect of detente on Taiwan.
C. Russia and Leonoid Brezhnev
1. Russia fears relationship of US and China.
2. Grain deal
3. SALT 1 Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty a first step.
D. Domestic Policy:
1. Liberal reforms: Social Security Reform, subsidized housing for the
poor, creation of Environmental Protection Agency, EPA, creation of
Occupational Safety and Health Administration, OSHA, deficient spending.
2. Conservative program: In the area of civil rights, Nixon supports
integration but not busing, his Supreme Court nominees are very
conservative.
E. Nixon’s illegal steps:
1. Domestic: Nixon ordered illegal wiretaps on news professionals. Nixon
ordered CIA surveillance of US citizens and organizations. This is
contrary to the CIA charter. Nixon encouraged his staff to spy on the
Democrats for the 1972 election.
2. Foreign: Secret funding of the Shah of Iran, Marcos of the Philippines,
and Pieter William Botha of South Africa. CIA operations helped the
terrorist secret police of the Shah of Iran, and the CIA helped the
apartheid government of Botha. Nixon secretly gave money and military
aid to Nicaragua’s Samoza. The CIA helped destabilize Chile’s socialist
government under Salvadore Allende. When Allende’s government fell,
the US quickly recognized the military junta of A. Pinochet.
F. Dirty Tricks: Watergate and CREEP, Committee to Reelect the President.
1. Nixon’s inner circle included Halderman, Erlichman, Mitchell, etc.
There were illegal contributions, funneled through Mexico.
The “plumbers” headed by Howard Hunt and G. Gordon Liddy. Their
first effort was to break into the office of Daniel Ellsberg and steal the
“Pentagon Papers”, a military history of US involvement in Viet Nam.
Useless effort.
Next they tried to discredit the Democratic candidates, George McGovern
and Thomas Eagleton. Wasted effort, McGovern only won ONE state.
Next they tried to bug the Democratic Party Headquarters in the
Watergate complex. They were caught. Although President Nixon
denied any and all knowledge of this and other activities, his White
House tapes revealed him ORDERING the break-in and cover-up.
President Nixon resigns on August 9, 1974. Gerald Ford sworn in.
Presidents:
1974-1976: Gerald Ford (Republican)
1976-1980: Jimmy Carter
(Democrat)
1980-1984
(Republican)
1984-1988: Ronald Reagan
(Republican)
1988-1992: George Bush (Republican)
1992-1996
(Democrat)
1996-2000: Bill Clinton (Democrat)
2000-2004: George W. Bush
(Republican)
2004-2008: George W. Bush
2008-2012: Barack Obama
(Democrat)
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Turbulent Years
Extra Notes:
1978: California Proposition #13: cut taxes and government social programs
Inflation is at 10%
1979: Three Mile Island Nuclear accident
Moral Majority is born.
Iranian fundamentalists seize the US embassy in Tehran, hold hostages 444 days.
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Turbulent Years
Soviets invade Afghanistan.
1980: US boycotts the Summer Olympics in Moscow because of Afghanistan.
1981: AIDS recognized and named.
1982: economic recession
1983: 241 US Marines killed in Beirut, Lebanon.
Marines land in Grenada.
1985: Mikhail Gorbachev initiates glasnost perestroika
1987: Iran contra hearings before Congress reveal arms for hostage deal and funds
diverted to Nicaraguan rebels.
1990: August: Iran invades Kuwait.
1991: January - February Operation Desert Storm
Soviet Union dissolves.