Physiology 31 Lecture
Chapter 1: Introduction to Physiology
I. Overview
A. Introduction
B. Levels of Organization
C. Physiology is an Integrative Science
D. Function & Process
D. Homeostasis
E. Science of Physiology
II. Introduction
A. ______________ is the study of body structures; structures are intimately related to their
functions.
B. ______________ (study of nature) is the study of the functions of living organisms,
including their chemical and physical processes.
1. Physiologists attempt to integrate the ___________ of individual body parts with the
functions of the body as a whole.
2. To effectively __________ and treat disease and injury, we must first understand how a
healthy body works
III. Levels of Organization
A. Human ____________, from smallest to largest structures, is from:
atoms → molecules → ____ → tissues → organs → organ systems → organism
1. ________ are the smallest particles that cannot be separated by chemical reactions.
2. ______________ are clusters of 2 or more atoms chemically bonded together.
3. _______ are the smallest units of life, constructed primarily from 4 basic organic
macromolecules
a. _______________
b. __________
c. ______________
d. _________ _______
4. _________ are collections of cells that carry out related functions
5. ________ are structural and functional units composed of two or more tissue types
6. Organ __________ are composed of several organs that work together in a body
function.
B. The 11 physiological body _________ and their basic functions are
1. ______________ (skin) – protects from the external environment
2. ____________ (bones) – provides support, mineral storage, and blood cell formation
3. ____________ (muscles) – allows movement and heat generation
4. _____________ (lungs & airways) – brings oxygen in and expels carbon dioxide (gas
exchange)
5. ____________ (stomach, intestines, liver, pancreas) – takes up nutrients and water, and
eliminates wastes
6. ___________ (heart, blood, blood vessels) – transports materials throughout the body
7. _____________ (thymus, spleen, lymph nodes) – defends against foreign invaders
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8. ____________ (brain, spinal cord, nerves) – controls body functions via electrical
signals and neurotransmitters
9. ____________ (pituitary, thyroid, adrenal glands) – coordinates body functions via the
release of hormones
10. ___________ (kidneys, bladder) – maintenance of water and solutes; waste removal.
11. ______________ (ovaries, uterus; testes) – perpetuation of the species.
IV. Physiology is an Integrative Science
A. Physiologists seek to understand how the body ________, from the molecular level up, and
how all parts are _________ with each other.
Examples:
1. Both endocrine and ___________ systems work together to coordinate body functions.
2. Circulatory and ______ systems regulate blood pressure together
3. ___________, circulatory, and urinary systems regulate blood pH
B. Some body system properties seem greater than the sum of their individual parts, these are
termed ____________ properties
1. Examples in the nervous system include _________, intelligence, and other abstract brain
functions.
2. Emergent properties cannot be ____________ on the basis of molecular and cellular
function alone.
V. Function & Process
A. _______ refers to why a physiological event takes place. Example
1. Question: _____ do RBCs transport oxygen?
2. Answer: Body cells require oxygen to produce ________.
B. Processes (__________) are concerned with how a physiological event occurs. Example:
1. Question: _____ do RBCs transport oxygen?
2. Answer: RBCs contain _____________ molecules that bind reversibly with oxygen
molecules
C. Physiology is best understood by ________ functions & processes.
D. __________ ______ are often developed to facilitate understanding of the complex
relationships between processes and functions
VI. Homeostasis
A. ______________ is the maintenance of a relatively stable internal environment – a state of
balance
1. Each cell’s plasma ___________ allows it to maintain a delicate balance between its
intracellular and extracellular environments
2. Failure to maintain homeostasis results in a pathological condition called disorders or
__________.
B. ___________ are divided into two groups according to their origin:
1. ____________ disorders result from an internal failure of some physiological process.
Examples:
a. Abnormal growth of cells (________)
b. Production of antibodies against one’s own tissues (___________)
c. Failure of _____ processes
d. _____________ disorders
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2. _________ disorders originate from some outside source. Causes:
a. Toxic _________
b. Physical _________
c. Foreign ___________ (e.g., viruses and bacteria)
C. In both internal and external disruptions, the body attempts to ____________.
1. If compensation is successful, ____________ is restored
2. If unsuccessful, __________ results
D. ________physiology is the study of body function during disease.
VII. Themes in Physiology
A. Homeostasis & Control Systems
1. Key body functions have regulated _________ that are monitored by physiological
___________ systems to maintain homeostasis.
2. A physiological control system generally consists of a
a. __________ that monitors a variable (e.g., blood pressure, heart rate, respiration rate,
etc.) and sends information to an
b. ____________ __________, often a neuron or endocrine cell, that evaluates the
information and initiates a response to keep the variable within its normal range. The
response is sent to an
c. ___________ – a muscle, gland, or another responsive tissue
B. Structure & Function Relationships are created by
1. __________ interactions – ability of molecules to bind to or react to other molecules is
required for physiological function
2. __________ properties of cells, tissues & organs are often a result of their anatomical
structure
3. ______________alization of the body and its cells
a. ____________ separate cells for each other and from the extracellular fluid
b. Separate body ___________ allow different areas to have specialized functions
4. _____________ is facilitated among and within cells via chemical signals and electrical
impulses
5. _____________ of Substances across Membranes
a. Cell membranes are ____________ permeable
b. Gases, small uncharged molecules, and lipids can _________ through membranes.
c. Larger molecules and ions must be _____________ via special membrane proteins
6. Biological ________ is needed for molecule synthesis, transport, and movement
7. Law of _______ _________ (action) states that if the amount of a substance in the body
is to remain constant, any ______ must be offset by an equal _____.
Amount of substance x = intake + production – output
a. When mass balance is disrupted, physiological __________ restore the balance
b. Substances whose concentrations are maintained through mass balance include
oxygen, carbon dioxide, ______, and ions.
c. Regulatory mechanisms also keep body temperature and energy stores in normal
________
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8. Mass ______ refers to the _____ of intake, production, or output:
Mass flow = concentration x volume flow
(amount/min) (amount/vol)
(vol/min)
a. Example: for a person given an intravenous infusion containing 50 g glucose/liter at a
rate of 2 ml/min, the _____ ______ for glucose would be:
50 g glucose___ x 2 ml solution = 0.1 g glucose/min
1000 ml solution
min.
b. Substances involved in mass flow in the body include _______, air, gases, nutrients,
and wastes
c. Flow of substances occurs due to a pressure or concentration difference (a
___________)
d. Flow is often opposed by friction or other forces that create ____________ to flow
VIII. The Science of Physiology
A. Scientific _____________ used to investigate physiology include:
1. Observation of a phenomenon
a. Direct observations via _________ (e.g., sight, hearing, smell, touch, etc.)
b. Indirect observations via _________ (e.g., microscopes, stethoscopes, measurements,
etc.)
c. Review ______________ about subject
2. Hypothesis Formation
a. ______________: tentative, testable answer to a question (e.g.: Does saccharine
contribute to bladder cancer?) formulated from observations.
1) ______ Hypothesis: Saccharine does ____ contribute to bladder cancer in
mammals.
2) ___________ Hypothesis: Saccharine contributes to bladder cancer in mammals.
3. Experiments designed to _______ Hypothesis include
a. ___________ variable - element being tested (e.g., saccharine).
b. __________ variable - result or change observed (e.g., presence or absence of bladder
cancer in animals tested).
c. ___________ similar organisms (e.g., female mice from same litter)
d. ___________ group - group subjected to experimental variable (e.g., mice with
saccharine added to food).
e. ___________ group - group subjected to same conditions as treatment group except
the experimental variable (e.g., no saccharine added to food).
f. __________ assignment of subjects to treatment and control groups.
4. Experimental __________ = Data
a. Detailed _________ are kept of the experiment and its results.
b. Complex results are made easier to understand in _________ & __________.
5. Formulate Conclusions
a. ______________ are formed about whether the results __________ or contradict the
hypotheses (e.g., saccharine does or doesn’t contribute to cancer).
b. If the conclusion _________ the alternative hypothesis, revise hypotheses and devise
new experiments.
c. A __________ is a hypothesis that has been supported in many experiments and is
generally accepted by the scientific community.
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6. Report Findings
a. _________ experiment in scientific journal for peer review.
b. Experimental findings must be ____________ to be valid.
B. Results of ________ experiments can be difficult to implement due to variability,
psychological factors, and ethical considerations
1. Variability in _________ and environment conditions is considerable among human
populations, which makes it difficult select similar test subjects, and to generalize about
“average” physiological factors
2. _____________ factors influence human experiments
a. __________ effects in which a person who believes something will be helpful
experiences a beneficial effect
b. __________ effects in which a person who believes something will be harmful
experiences a detrimental effect
c. To minimize psychological effects and research ______, blind studies and double
blind studies are often conducted
1) _______ studies are those in which none of the experiment’s subjects know who is
receiving the treatment or who is receiving the placebo.
2) __________ _______ studies are those in which only a third party removed from
the experiment knows who is receiving the treatment and who is receiving a
placebo
3. ______ considerations arise when one group of people suffering from an illness are
provided with a treatment, while a control group who are also suffering are given a
placebo (“sugar pill”)