Politics of China
I. Chinese Political History
A. Fall of the Quing Dynasty
Opium Wars (1839-1842)
 China was under great pressure by Great Britain to open up their borders to free
trade (Great Britain really wanted new area to use for their advantage). Great
Britain was selling opium in China and the Chinese wanted it stopped. The
British refused which resulted in the Opium War and ultimately the defeat of the
Chinese.
 The Chinese entered into a series of “Unequal Treaties” (1842-1851) –Great
Britain gained control of Hong Kong, Western countries could engage in trade
and did not have to follow any of China’s laws
B. Humiliation of defeat by Japan (1894-95)


China suffered humiliating losses which lead to increased taxes on the peasants to
pay for all the military expenses.
China considered themselves the superiors to the West but was experiencing all of
these defeats which became a high cost to the morale of the population.
II. Liberal Revolution

1911-The Nationalist party is founded by Dr. Sun Yat Sen. (Dr. Sun was engaged
in a democratic and anti-dynastic movement) Dr. Sun was not strong enough to
maintain control and competing warlords took over-the the KMT (Kuomintang)-a
nationalist party is formed

1921-The Communist party (CCP) is formed with the help of the Soviets, the
CCP joined with the KMT because the KMT had the military power

1926-Chiang Kai-Shek headed the KMT party and concerned by the growing
power of the CCP, he turns on the CCP and almost wipes them out.
III. Communist Party Development
A. Early Development
Mao Zedong attempts to reform the CCP and argues that they can rely on the peasants for
support. Mao campaigns to the peasants to join the Communist party. He created an
organized structure that offered aid to the peasants in exchange for their support.
1. 1934-the Long March-Chiang Kai Shek chases Mao for a year over very rough terrain
in the countryside. During the year, over 6,000 miles were covered and 80,000 of
100,000 Communists died. While this is a tremendous loss, it created a tremendous sense
of self-confidence in the Communists based on the fact that the Nationalists were unable
to defeat them.
2. Mao retreats to the countryside to slowly build up his power and in 1949 he is able to
overthrow the KMT and send them to Taiwan
B. Early Communist Policies-1949-1958
1. Land Reform-Following the Russian Communist’s example, the CCP engaged in
redistributed land ownership. This was to rectify past inequities.
2. Women were given greater freedom and the party focused on equality for all citizens.
Women were allowed to participate in governing activities and traditional roles for
women were broadened.
3. Five Year Plan-The Five Year Plan focused on economic development. The Soviets
provided training for Chinese technicians. The CCP was firmly in control of the
industrial sector and were making progress towards industrialization.
The Five Year Plan was unsuccessful and there was still a need for further capital and
industrialization. Because of these needs, the CCP implemented the Great Leap Forward.
C. Great Leap Forward (1958-1961)
The Great Leap Forward (GLF) was a plan to catch up with Great Britain in 15 years. An
appeal was made to the public to work very hard for a short time and China would have
significant benefits for future generations. There was an expected boom of
industrialization which never happened. Under the GLF policies, communes were
implemented in the countryside. These communes were widely dislike by the public and
not well administered. There was over-reporting of production to please party officials.
The over-reporting lead to over-consumption, finally resulting in widespread famine
where millions died.
The CCP responds by ending the GLF and implements a new policy of Pragmatism
toward Economic Development. Pragmatism allows for some private ownership and
economic incentives to increase ambition. The economy starts to improve but the
predictable result is economic inequality. The problem with this is that inequality is the
antithesis of the Communist vision. Mao’s resulting action is to implement the Cultural
Revolution.
D. Cultural Revolution
The Cultural Revolution was implemented to solve problems with Pragmatism. Mao
calls on the younger generation to return to the past ideology. Universities are shut down
and people are sent to the countryside to work in Communes and to rekindle the
Communist beliefs. These communes were the equivalent of the gulags in the Soviet
Union. During the Cultural Revolution the intellectual elite was destroyed. Intellectuals,
artists, musicians, colleges and the judiciary were destroyed and have yet to be fully
recovered. Red Guards were formed and engaged in purges across the country of anyone
or anything that did not represent the Communist ideals. The Red Guards were
comprised of primarily the youth and as the years wore on became increasing out of
control, attacking even those with strong Communist beliefs. The Cultural Revolution
eventually ends with Mao’s death in 1976.
E. Pragmatism returns

Deng Xiaoping succeeds Mao as he was one of the former leaders behind
economic pragmatism. Under Deng, there is an acceptance of some capitalist
policies as well as an opening to the West.

Jiang Zemin and Hu Jintao, both technocrats, continue to expand on these policies
and have tried to combine economic capitalist policies with a Communist
ideology.
IV. Political Structure of China
A. Communist party state
China’s government is a Communist Party state, officially a socialist state under the
people’s democratic dictatorship. Currently, one of the major changes in China is their
economic system. They are undergoing an economic reform whereas they are trying to
incorporate capitalist systems while maintaining a Communist party state. Regardless of
economic reform, there is still a strong commitment to Communism, which means
following a Communist ideology. This is a very difficult area for the Communist
government. While there is still a strong commitment by a Communist core, many others
remain committed only to the extent that it benefits them. This is problematic for the
party because if the economic development falters there is a risk that the public will turn
on the Communist Party.
B. Constitution
While China does have a written constitution, it is not particularly dominant. The
Constitution is really a reflection of who is governing at the time. Governing functions
are created in the Constitution but do not matter because they are not followed. The real
governing power resides in the CCP.
C. Unitary State
China governs following a system of a unitary state. A unitary state is when all
governing authority is at the national level of government. There are local levels of
government but their authority comes from the national level. The local levels of
government only have as much control as the national government allows the local level.
In China, there is a separation between the government and the dominant party, the CCP.
The CCP has the power and the government is a tool to exercise the power held by the
party. The political position one holds is not a reflection of their power. Power is
negotiated within the CCP.

Deng Xioping is a good representation of this concept. Deng was recognized as
having significant political power but this power was not reflected in his formal
position within the government. While Deng never held the position of CCP
Chairman/CCP General Secretary, he was in effect the leader of China from 1978
until his death in 1997.
D. Dual/parallel rule
Dual/parallel rule is when decisions are made by the next superior in government but
also by local Communist party leadership. Ruling decisions are made by superiors but
also by parallel leaders in the CCP.
The key power in the CCP is in the Standing Committee. The Standing Committee has 9
members and approves all major policies. Decisions are made by consensus rather than
majority rule. The next power group is the Politburo which has 24 members. The most
significant power within the CCP is found in these two groups. Very little is known about
both of them. They are small groups and do not give interviews regarding their decisionmaking process.
 The leader of the Politburo is the General Secretary. The position of Chairman
was abolished in 1982 to represent a shift away from the personal style of ruling
typified by Mao.
Chinese Communist Party Structure
General Secretary
Standing Committee
(9 Members)
Politburo
(24 Members)
Central Military Commission
(11 Members)
Secretariat
(7 Members)
Central Committee
(198 Members + 158 Alternates)
Central Party Organization
National Party Congress
(2,120 Members)
Provincial Party Congresses and Committees
Local level Party Congresses and Committees
E. Government/Bureaucracy
The government structure is very similar to a parliamentary system.
 run by Premier (serving as head of government-similar to a Prime Minister) who
serves a maximum of 2-5 year terms
 also have a president (serving as head of state)
The government is really an administrative body to carry out and enforce policies of the
CCP. The government is very streamlined with fewer officials as there is central
planning.
Elections for government positions are elections where only one candidate runs and that
candidate is selected by the party. On the local level there is some choice in the elections
but the candidates are still selected by the party. Elections and the representatives have
limited value because all decisions are made by the CCP.
The CCP through the government maintains strict control over society. All labor unions,
student associations, professional associations and religious groups must be officially
sanctioned. If these groups are not officially sanctioned then they are squashed and the
leaders are punished. The government is following some variation of corportism.
New organizations are developing on the local level, which seem to suggest the
possibility of a civil society. The earthquake in the summer of 2008 is one of the greatest
representations of the development of a civil society. People from all over the country
came to the aid of their fellow countrymen without any direction from the government.
Not everyone is a member of the communist party but certain advantages come from
being a member such as improved job opportunities, better housing, and insider
information. (about 5% of the population is in the CCP or about 70 million people)
E. Legislature
China has a legislature, the NPC, National People’s Congress. The NPC has the power to
make laws and select the Premier and the President. The NPC has very little authority in
reality. The real governing takes place through the CCP.
The members of the NPC serve for a 5 year term and meet only once a year for about two
weeks. Members are elected from their home districts but are carefully chosen by the
CCP. If members are successful, they move up higher in Congress.
On the National level, there is no choice in the elections. On the local level, there is more
than one candidate to vote on in the election. The population has some say in the local
elections; they are doing more than voting to affirm a candidate.
F. Judiciary
The modern judiciary has some real difficulties. During the Cultural Revolution, the
judiciary was in essence destroyed. Today, the CCP writes the laws which are put into
effect by the National People’s Congress. Additionally, the judiciary does not have
power of judicial review. There has been some significant development in the judiciary
in what would be classified as the civil area while the CCP continues to dictate criminal
laws. China also is known to have a very high death penalty rate.
The development of rule of law is necessary for further economic development.
Economic development is difficult when there is no rule of law as there is corruption and
a lack of predictability. The rule of law is when the state and society are bound by the
same laws. This is in comparison to rule by law which is when laws are tools used by the
government to control the population. Rule by law allows the controlling government to
use the law for their own advantage. In China, no legal code was adopted until the late
1970’s. Additionally, the party has some secret laws that change at the whim of the
party.
G. Military
China has the world’s largest military but the military is not on the same level in relation
to training and technology as other industrialized nations. There are about 2.5 million
active personnel in the military with a formal reserve of about 1 million. There is
additional support with a militia of about 12-15 million. China spends roughly about
17% of their GDP on the military. This large percentage of spending is an attempt to
modernize their military.
The CCP is closely connected to the military but as noted by Mao, the party should
always control the military. As quote by Mao in his Little Red Book “Our principle is
that the Party commands the gun, and the gun must never be allowed to command the
Party.”
Government Structure of China
Judicial Branch
Legislative Branch
Executive Branch
Supreme People’s Court
Standing Committee
(159)
President
Vice President
Supreme People’s
Procuratorate
National People’s
Congress
(2,591)
Premier
Vice Premier
State Council (30)
Local Level
People’s
Procuratorates
Central Government
Ministries, Commisions,
Bureaus, Leading Groups
Central Military Commission
Higher Courts
(Provinces)
Provincial People’s
Congresses
Provincial People’s
Governments
Intermediate Courts
(Cities)
Local Level People’s
Congresses
(cities, counties, & townships)
Local Level People’s
Congresses
(cities, counties, &
townships)
Grassroots Courts
(Counties & Townships)
V. Social Control Issues
A. Societal Complaints & Control
China has some interesting procedures for handling societal complaints. Chinese citizens
have many avenues for complaints such as newspapers and government agencies. The
interesting situation is that citizens are only allowed to complain about implementation of
policies but not the merits of the policy.
The media in China is owned by the state and in talking to the citizens of China; many
feel the media is really just a puppet for the government. The state owned media can
often be used by the CCP for propaganda in support of the state.
The government of China makes attempts to limit the outside influence. Internet usage is
limited, and controversial websites are blocked. This became an issue for media outlets
coming to China to cover the Olympics. Not many people own computers but rather gain
internet access through cyber cafes. This simple fact makes it even easier for the
government to control the websites citizens can visit as well as monitor email. The
development of technology makes it harder to control political dissidents because they
can spread their message online. At the same time, technology makes it even easier for
the government to spot dissidents and keep a dossier on these people.
One of the greatest threats to the CCP’s control is the increase in consumerism. The
public is willing to accept the restrictions the party makes on their civil liberties and
rights but only if there is economic freedom and growth. There is known to be fear by
the CCP that if the economy does not continue to grow that the public will no longer
accept the restrictions. If the party has something to offer they are worth keeping around,
but if they offer only restrictions and no real physical benefits the party will lose the
public’s support. Consumerism promotes the expectation of freedom and other Western
values. Our policy in the United States has been to continue to encourage greater
freedoms to the Chinese population; not in the hopes that China will become democratic
but rather that it will lead to greater political stability.
Under Mao, individual benefits were tied to your job such as housing, education, and
healthcare. Since the economic reforms life has become much more risky. Benefits
come from a private employer without state backing. Because of this, some people have
excellent medical coverage and retirement while others will have nothing. Like other
countries following a capitalist economy, there is great disparity in wealth.
China has been able to keep down much of the political protest either through force such
as Tiannamen Square in 1989 or pacifying the public with a strong economy. The CCP is
trying to offer just enough freedom to keep the public happy but not enough that they lose
control. The satisfaction of the public in this area leads to greater legitimacy for the
government.
B. One Child Policy
Due to a soaring population, the Chinese government implemented the One Child policy
in the 1980’s. This policy restricts families to having only one child. In order to have a
child, a couple must apply for a birth permit. If a birth permit has not been obtained or a
couple is having an un-permitted second child, a forced abortion could be required. This
policy has faced considerable criticism for being to restrictive and unfair. Wealthy
families have been able to have more than one child because they have the resources to
bribe public officials to obtain a birth certificate. Additionally, the policy has lead to
millions of undocumented births in the countryside, creating a disadvantaged population
that can not obtain government resources such as attending school.
Unintended, negative consequences to the One Child policy:
 More recently the One Child policy has received criticism that the policy has lead
to a black market for stolen children that are bought for families who have no
children or would like a second child. This issue is well represented and
documented in the film “China’s Stolen Children.”
 The One Child policy has lead to the death or abandonment of female children.
Since families can have only one child, culturally the preference is for a male
child.
 Because of the aforementioned preference for male children, there is a significant
imbalance between males to females in society. There are 4 men to every female
which will lead to societal pressures from males who wish to marry but can not
find a wife.
 China has an entire generation of only children which have been indulged and
spoiled. The government has created policies to attempt to deal with this such as
requiring first year university students to attend something similar to ROTC
training. This is an attempt by the government to teach discipline and
responsibility to students.
C. Religion
One way China has tried to maintain control is through religious restrictions. The CCP
has maintained a policy prohibiting religion in China. In modern circumstances, the CCP
has allowed small Christian churches to develop but they can not get to large. If they
grow too large or become too vocal, the CCP will violently destroy the church.
The Falun Gong is a religious group as well as a political protest group. The Falun Gong
combines a religious and political movement. The CCP will do anything necessary to try
to suppress the Falun Gong but have not been very successful.
D. Pollution Problems
China is facing serious pollution problems as the result of rapid industrialization. Some
attempts were made to limit pollution leading up to the 2008 Olympics. Tactics used to
combat pollution were moving many manufacturing plants outside of larger cities
(specifically Beijing) and limiting car traffic.
The traffic pollution is also the result of rapid industrialization and growth in wealth.
Previously people would ride bicycles and use public transportation but with the
development of wealth there has been a higher demand for autos.
The pollution problems have been an area that the United States has tried to negotiate
with China. The United States would like to persuade China to develop in a way that
would allow for industrialization that is environmentally conscious.
E. 2008 Summer Olympics
The significance of the 2008 Olympics is to show to the world the development and
industrialization that has been achieved. China saw the Olympics as an opportunity for
world awareness that China is a modern state and their ability to host something so
monumental. The Olympics were also an opportunity for the CCP to show that they are
still in power and the public supports the party. Additionally, the party can use the
Olympics as propaganda to convince the Chinese public that the CCP is working well for
them. The CCP used the Olympics as evidence of the power of the government and the
respect other nations have for the Chinese government.
The Olympics put a lot of stress on the population. There were many activities to get
ready for the Olympics such as construction of buildings, roads, cleaning up air quality,
and converting all signage to both English and Chinese. Leading up to the Olympics, the
government became very restrictive of any civil liberties the population was enjoying.
The government cracked down on political protest, religious groups, and any type of
dissent group.
There were also great risks to the government from hosting the Olympics. The risk of
embarrassment from pollution and inefficiencies were always present. Instead, the reality
became embarrassments from a phony child singer at the opening ceremonies to
restrictive policies for reporters.
The Olympics had mixed results of success. It did show the world the great
improvements made in modernization but also highlighted the restrictive control of the
CCP.
F. Preservation v. Urban development
China is undergoing a major dilemma regarding historic areas and their preservation.
With their current urbanization, the government has razed many communities and moved
residents into newly built housing. These older communities, hutongs, are in the city
center and have families that have lived in the same location for generations. These
building have been allowed to fall into disrepair and do not have modern conveniences
such as plumbing. With greater world scrutiny, China is trying to improve their
reputation and tear down what appears to be slums. The displaced families are moved to
modern condos but these condos are often far from the city center. Modern expensive
condos replace the hutongs which only rich business owners can afford to purchase.
This is a modern problem that all countries face when going through urbanization.
Dilemma for China will be creating a balance between a necessary urbanization and
preserving these historic areas. The additional complication is that communities are
being destroyed that have been together for hundreds of years. With this destruction also
comes the destruction of an entire family network of support.
The number of hutongs still in existence has dramatically decreased. The few remaining
hutongs seem to be preserved for tourist value rather than any real sense of preservation.
Preservation efforts include:
 There is a movement to try to preserve the hutongs not in actuality but through a
pictorial representation. Many photographers are displaying pictures on the
internet to preserve the history of the hutong.
 The government’s answer to this preservation is to build new developments that
are built to look historic.