Biology
EOI
Review
P.A.S.S. Objectives
Biological Diversity
C3.1, C3.2, P2.1,
P2.2
Classification
•Developed by Carolus
Linneaus in 1730s
•Based on physical &
structural similarities
•Today, includes
evolutionary relationships
Divisions
Three Domains:
• Archaea
• Bacteria
• Eukarya
Four Eukarya Kingdoms:
• Protist
• Fungi
• Plant
• Animal
Domain: Archaea
• Characteristics
– Prokaryotic
– Unicellular
– Live in extreme
environments
Domain: Bacteria
• Characteristics
– Prokaryotic
– Unicellular
– Most habitats
Eukarya Kingdom: Protists
• Characteristics
– Eukaryotic
– Unicellular and
multicellular
– Can be autotrophic or
heterotrophic
Eukarya Kingdom: Fungi
• Characteristics
– Eukaryote
– Unicellular or
multicellular
– Absorbs nutrients from
environment
Eukarya Kingdom: Plants
• Characteristics
–
–
–
–
Eukaryotic
Autotrophic
Multicellular
Contains chloroplast
and cell walls
Eukarya Kingdom: Animals
• Characteristics
– Eukaryotic
– Multicellular
– Heterotrophs
Classification Rankings
*Domain
Kingdom
*Daring
Kings
* Phylum
* Play
Class
* Order
» Family
» Genus
» Species
Chess
* On
» Fiber
» Glass
» Stools
Genus and Species
• Genus is the first name of an organism.
The genus is always capitalized such as
• Killer whale : Orca orca
• Species is the 2nd name of an organism.
The species is always all lower case such
as for human: Homo sapien
Review Question
• Which of the three taxons below contains
the other three?
– A. Phylum
– B. Species
– C. Genus
– D. Order
Review Question
• The system of assigning two names to
identify an organism is called bionomial
nomenclature. The first name
corresponds to an organism’s
– A. Family
– B. Kingdom
– C. Species
– D. Genus
Review Question
• Upon examining samples of water and mud from a
nearby river, you come across an unidentified
organism. Closer observation indicates that the
organism is unicellular and autotrophic. In addition,
you can identify a membrane-bound nucleus within
the cell. To what kingdom dose this organism most
likely belong?
–
–
–
–
A. Archaea
B. Fungi
C. Protist
D. Bacteria
Measurements and Graphs
P.A.S.S. Objectives
Science Processes
& Inquiry
P3.5
Measurements
• Mass
• Volume
• Length
• Temperature
Mass: amount of matter in an
object
• Units – grams (g)
• Tool – Balance
• Tool -Digital Balance
Tool -Triple Beam Balance
How to read a Triple Beam Balance
• Add the numbers from each mass located on
each beam to find the total mass in grams.
Length: measurement of
distance between two points
• Units – Meter (m)
• Unit - Centimeter (cm)
• Unit - Millimeter (mm)
• Tool – Ruler
• Tool - Tape measure
• Tool – Meter stick
Volume: amount of space an
object occupies
• Unit – Liters (L)
• Unit – Milliliters (mL)
– Used for liquids
• Unit – cubic centimeter
– Used for solids with the
formula (L x W x H)
• Tools
– Graduated Cylinder
– Pipette (for small liquids)
– Tool for solid object is
based type of solid
How to Read a Graduated Cylinder
• Look at the bottom of the curve, called the
meniscus, on a flat surface to obtain a proper
measurement.
Temperature: amount of kinetic
energy of an object
• Units – degrees
Celsius
– °C
• Tool – Thermometer
• Kinetic energy is
energy in motion. As
the temperature
increase, the kinetic
energy of an object
increases.
Density: amount of matter in a
given volume
• Density = mass/volume
– g/mL or grams per milliliter
– Very important measurement for identifing
different objects in the biosphere and beyond
• Population density = the number of
organisms in an area
– Pop. Density = # of organisms/ area of land
Measurement Prefixes:
words in place of
numerical values
|_micro-__|_______|_______|__milli-__|_centi-__|_deci-__|__Base__|__Deka- |_Hecto-_|_Kilo-_|
1/1000000
1/1000
1/100
1/10
Unit (1)
10X
100X
1000X
10-6
10-5
10-4
10-3
10-2
10-1
10 0
101
102
103
(0.000001)
(0.001)
(0.01)
P.A.S.S. Objective: P1.3
Conversion of measurements
1. Change 1 meter into centimeters:
1 m X 100 cm = 100 cm
1m
2. Change 5 cm to microns (micrometers):
5 cm X 1 m X 1 x 106 µm = 5 x 104 µm
100 cm
1m
P.A.S.S. Objective: P1.3
P.A.S.S. Objectives
Science Processes &
Inquiry
P3.1, P3.2, P3.4, P4.4,
P4.5, P6.1, P6.2
Steps to the Scientific Method
• State a Problem (in the form of a question)
• Research background information
• State a testable hypothesis (an educated
guess)
• Set-up a controlled experiment
• Collect and analyze data
• Conclusion (either null or accepted)
• Re-work hypothesis, if null conclusion
Experiment Set-Up
• Independent Variable – what causes a change;
the one item different in experimental set ups.
• Dependent Variable – what changes or the
results of the change if any; what is measured.
• Constant – factors that are kept the same in both
groups.
• Control – the experimental set up that is not
receiving the Independent Variable; what might
be considered “normal” conditions.
Example of the Scientific Method
• Problem: Does Raid or Black Flag kill ants better?
• Read the can labels & look for chemical differences.
• If Raid contains chemical “X” then it will kill more ants
than Black Flag (BF).
• 3 sets of ten black ants, all under the same
environmental conditions: 1 is given a 1 second blast of
Raid; 1 is given a 1 second blast of BF; and the 3rd is left
alone (control)
• In the Raid container, 8 of 10 ants died; In the BF
container, 7 of 10 ants died; In the control, 2 of 10 ants
died
• Conclusion: Both products seem to work about the same
on black ants.
Experiment Set-Up:
Types of Experimental Data
• Qualitative data: data that does NOT
require a numerical value such as color,
smell, texture.
• PASS Objectives: P4.2, P4.6, P4.7
• Quantitative data: data does require a
numerical value and an unit usually a
measurement. Examples include the
number of organisms, length of object, or
temperature of the ecosystem.
Review Question
• A sound experiment will test a hypothesis
by the process of
– A. collecting information under varied
conditions.
– B. collecting information under controlled
conditions.
– C. observing phenomena under varied
conditions.
– D. asking questions under varied conditions.
Review Question
• Information gathered from an investigation
is called data and can be expressed
– A. as verbal, written or numerical information.
– B. only in a graph or table.
– C. as a hypothesis or a theory.
– D. as a peer-reviewed journal article.
Graphs: PASS P4.3 & P4.8
Making a graph
• 1. Write a title.
• Independent v.
Dependent
• 2. Create X & Y
axis
• 3. Label the axis
• 4. Determine the
units for each axis
• 5. Graph the data
Graph Set-Up
• Independent Variable on the x-axis
– Label (should include units)
• Dependent Variable on the y-axis
– Label (should include units)
• Title
– Y vs. X
• Key – optional to the presenter
Line Graphs
• Shows a relationship
between the two
variables
• Positive Relationship:
When one variable
increases, as does the other
• Negative Relationship
When one variable
increases, the other
decreases
Line Graphs
• Single line
graph shows
change over
time.
• Multiple line
graphs can
also show
comparisons.
Bar Graph or Histograms
• Shows comparisons.
Circle or Pie Chart
• Graph that shows the
percentage of each
variable
THE CELL
Organelles, DNA, and Genetics
P.A.S.S. Objectives
The Cell
C1.1
Unless indicated
otherwise
Cell Organelles
Nucleus
• Function:
– Cell’s Control Center
– Eukaryotic Cells
Nucleolus
– Plant and Animal Cells
– Not found in
Prokaryotic Cells
– Location of DNA and
RNA
Cell Membrane
• Function
– Major part of
controlling
homeostasis
• Lets material in and out
to maintain balance
• Located in prokaryotic
and eukaryotic cells
• Consist of a
phospholipid bilayer
with embedded
proteins.
Cell Membrane
• Homeostasis is the
maintaining of a
constant internal
environment
• Phospholipids are
fatty molecules which
consist of two layers.
• Proteins are used for
ACTIVE and
PASSIVE transport.
Cell Wall
• Function
– Supports and protects
the cell which contains
cellulose
• Located in
– Eukaryotic Cells and
some Prokaryotic
Cells
– Plants ONLY in
Eukaryotic Cells
– Bacterium have cell
walls
Cytoplasm
• Function
– Provides internal
structure for the cell
– Located in
prokaryotic and
eukaryotic cells
– Cytosol is the
solution that fills the
cytoplasm
AKA rRNA
• Function
– Site where proteins
are produced
• Located
– Both prokaryotic and
eukaryotic cells
– Plant and animal cells
Mitochondria
• Function
– “Powerhouse of the
cell”
– Location of cellular
respiration that
produces energy
(ATP)
– Found in eukaryotic
cells
– Found in plants and
animals
Chemical Reactions:
Composed to three parts
• 1. Reactants:
• The ingredients
that make a
reaction possible.
• 2. Yield arrow or
sign
• always points
AWAY from
reactants.
• 3. Products:
• The products are
the results of a
reaction
• 2. Yield arrow or
sign
• always points
TOWARD
products.
Cellular Respiration
Cellular Respiration
Cellular Respiration Facts
• Requires food (glucose) and oxygen
(ingredients)
• Produces carbon dioxide and water (results)
• Releases energy in the form of ATP (result)
• Reaction is completed in the mitochondria and
cytoplasm of the cell
Chloroplast
• Function
– Produces food in the
form of glucose
– Site of
photosynthesis
– Eukaryotic Cells
– Plant Cells ONLY
Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis Facts
• Requires light (energy), water, carbon
dioxide (ingredients)
• Produces oxygen and food (glucose)
(results)
• Processed in the chloroplast in the
components called the thylakoid and
stroma.
Photosynthesis Facts
Two Reactions
• Light-dependent reaction occurs
in the thylakoid membrane.
• Light-independent reaction
occurs in the solution filled area
called the stroma
Review Question
• Chromosomes are produced in what part
of the eukaryotic cell?
– A. Cell wall
– B. Nucleus
– C. Ribosome
– D. Vacuole
Diffusion
• Movement of particles across a membrane
• Movement from high concentration to low
concentration makes a concentration gradient.
• Osmosis – diffusion of water by way of the plasma
membrane due to a concentration gradient.
Osmotic Solutions
Solution
Inside the
Cell
Outside the
Cell
Net Flow
Hypotonic
Low Water
High
Molecules
High Water
Low
Molecules
INTO THE
CELL
Hypertonic
High Water
Low
Molecules
Low Water
High
Molecules
OUT OF
THE CELL
Isotonic
Equal
Equal
INTO AND
Concentration of Concentration of OUT AT THE
water and
water and
SAME RATE
molecules
molecules
SHRINKING
NO CHANGE
SWELLING
Active Transport
• Active Transport: movement
of molecules or compounds
across a barrier against the
concentration gradient with the
use of energy such as ATP
Active
Transport
http://image.tutorvista.com/content/biomembranes/active-transport-stages.jpeg
Review Question
• If a cell contains a ten percent
concentration of salt and is surrounded by
water that also contains a ten percent
concentration of salt, which of the
following will occur?
– A. Water will leave the cell only.
– B. Water will enter the cell only.
– C. Water will enter and leave the cell at same
rate
– D. The cell will die.
Review Question
• Active transport of materials through a
membrane against a concentration
gradient requires
– A. a carrier protein and energy.
– B. energy only.
– C. an isotonic solution.
– D. a carrier protein only.
Classification of Cells
• Eukaryotic vs. Prokaryotic
– Eukaryotes – has a nucleus and membrane bound
organelles, complex
– Prokaryotes – do not have a nucleus, simple
Classification of Cells
– Eukaryotes –
– 1. Contains a
nucleus
– 2. Contains
membranebound
organelles
– 3. Complex in
design
Classification of Cells
– Prokaryotes – do not have a nucleus, simple in
design
Amoeba
• Unicellular vs.
Multicellular
– Unicellular – one cell
– Multicellular –
multiple cells
Worm
• Animal
Cell
• 1. Contains
lysosomes
• 2. Does not
contain cell
wall &
chloroplast
• Plant
cell
• 1. Contains a
cell wall for
support and
protection
• 2. Contains
chloroplasts for
autotrophic
activity
Organization Levels
• Organism
– Organ systems
• Organs
– Tissue
» Cell
» The basic unit of life –
• Cell (can be broken down further)
– Organelles
• Molecules
– Atoms
Organization Levels:
smallest to largest level
A ATOMS
M MOLECULES
O ORGANELLES
C
CELLS
T
TISSUES
O
ORGANISMS
O ORGAN
S ORGAN SYSTEMS
Review Question
• Which of the following is the correct order,
from simplest to most complex?
– A. cells, tissues, organs, organ system
– B. tissues, cells, organs, organ system
– C. cells, organ system, organs, tissues
– D. molecules, cells, compounds, organs
DNA and Genetics
DNA
• Double Helix
• Complementary base
Pairs
– AT
– CG
• Found only in the
nucleus
• Composed of
phosphate, sugar, &
nitrogenous base
RNA
• Single strand
• Found in nucleus
and ribosomes
• Three types
– mRNA
– rRNA
– tRNA
Heredity Material
DNA
Nucleic Acid
Name
Base
Sugar
Location
RNA
Deoxyribonucleic
Acid
Ribonucleic Acid
A, T, C, G
A, U, C, G
Deoxyribose
Ribose
Only in nucleus Nucleus &
Cytoplasm
Shape
Double Helix
Single Strand
Cell Cycle
Includes prophase,
anaphase,
metaphase, &
telophase
Replication
• DNA  DNA
– Base Pairings
•
•
•
•
AT
TA
CG
GC
– Making an exact copy
or identical copy or the
original strands
Transcription
• DNA  RNA
– Base Pairings
•
•
•
•
AU
TA
CG
GC
– Type of RNA
• mRNA
Mitosis
• The division of the nucleus in nonsex cells
• 1 diploid cell  2 diploid cells
– diploid – 2 sets of chromosomes
Meiosis
• Division of the nucleus in sex cells
– Spermogeneis – making of sperm
– Oogenesis – making of eggs
• 1 diploid cell  4 haploid cells (gametes)
Meiosis Phases
Review Question
• The DNA message depends on the order
of the
– A. nitrogen bases.
– B. acids.
– C. sugars.
– D. genes.
Review Question
• When DNA replicates, each replicated
DNA molecule has
– A. two new strands.
– B. one original stand and one identical strand.
– C. two original strands.
– D. one new strand.
Genetics
Alleles – different forms
of the same gene
Example: Some
alleles for the eye
color gene are
• B – Brown eyes
• b – blue eyes
Traits
• Dominant Trait
– Written as a capital
letter to show that it is
overpowering
• Recessive Trait
– Written as a lowercase
letter to show that it
can be covered up
• Genotype
– The actual allele
combination
– Example:
• AA, Aa, or aa
• Phenotype
– The physical
appearance which
expresses the genetic
trait.
– Example:
– brown eyes or blue
eyes
• Homozygous
– When the two alleles
are the same
– BB or bb
• Heterozygous
– When the two alleles
are different
– Bb
Punnett Square
Review question
• Brown eyes are dominant to blue eyes. If
a homozygous brown-eyed individual is
mated with a blue-eyed individual, what
percent of their offspring will have blue
eyes?
– A. 0%
– B. 25%
– C. 50%
– D. 75%
Biological Diversity
Evolution
• Defined as changes that occur in a population of
organisms over time;
• Changes occur as organisms better suited to a
particular environment survive and produce
more offspring than those organisms less fit.
• Example: A polar bear with its white fur is better
suited to Arctic conditions than a brown furred
grizzly bear. Does that mean brown furred polar
bears are never born? No, it means they do not
survive in the Arctic to reproduce.
Evidence to Support Evolution:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Homologous structures
Analogous structures
Vestigial structures
Embryonic development comparisons
Fossils
DNA comparisons
Selective breeding
Homologous Structures
• Definition
– Structures that came
from a common
ancestor
• Example
– Limbs in tetrapods
Analogous Structures
• Definition
– structures that are similar, but do not have a common
ancestor
• Example
– Wings in different species
Vestigial Structures
• Definition – a
structure that is now
no longer used as its
original purpose
– Hip bones in whale
– Appendix
Cladograms
• A model of
evolutionary history of
organisms
– Primitive traits evolve
first
– Derived traits are
shown later in the
cladogram
• Part of phylogeny
Dichotomous Key
• Tool used for
identification of an
organism by asking
two questions at a
time.
Adaptations
• Adaptation – any behavior, structure that will
allow a species to survive better
Variation with a species
• Niche – a role a species plays in an area
– What type of food the organism eats, where it lives,
how it interacts with other species.
Ecology
ABIOTIC vs. BIOTIC
• ABIOTIC
• Factors in the
environment
considered nonliving
matter.
• Such as rocks, water,
air, soil, temperature,
weather.
• BIOTIC
• Factors in the
environment
considered to be
organisms or living
matter.
Carbon Cycle
Carbon Cycle Processes
• Photosynthesis
– Takes in carbon as carbon dioxide
– Releases carbon as glucose
• Cellular Respiration
– Releases carbon as carbon dioxide
• Burning of Fossil Fuels
– Releases carbon as carbon dioxide
• Decomposition
– Releases carbon as carbon dioxide
Water Cycle
Water Cycle Processes
• Evaporation
– Water entering into the atmosphere
• Precipitation
– Water falling from the atmosphere
• Condensation
– Change from water vapor to liquid which
usually forms clouds or fog
• Transpiration
– Change from liquid to water vapor usually in
plants for movement of water from roots to
leaves.
Nitrogen Cycle
Nitrogen Cycle Processes
• Ammonification – decomposers releasing
nitrogen to the soil
• Nitrification – changing ammonia into
nitrates
• Denitrification – releasing nitrogen to the
atmosphere from nitrates in the soil
• Nitrogen-fixation – plants taking nitrogen
directly from the atmosphere and making
ammonia
Ecological Relationships
• Symbiosis – close relationship between
two different species
3 Types
Parasitism
Mutualism
Commensalism
Type of symbiosis: Parasitism
• Relationship where
one species benefits
at the expense of the
other species
Type of symbiosis:
Commensalism
• Relationship where
one species benefits
and the other species
is neither harmed nor
benefits.
Type of symbiosis: Mutualism
• Relationship where both species benefits
Limiting Factors: Competition
• When two or more species compete for the
same resource
– Examples:
•
•
•
•
•
Mates
Food
Habitat
Water
Space
Limiting Factor: Predator - Prey
• Predator – Prey
– Predator – the “hunter”
– Prey – the “hunted”
Autotrophs vs Heterotrophs
• AUTOTROPHS
• Two types:
• 1. Photoautotrophs
use sunlight to
convert energy into
glucose
• 2. Chemoautotrophs
use the compounds
around them to
survive.
• AKA producers
• HETEROTROPHS
• AKA consumers
• Organisms that eat
other consumers.
Food Chain
• Simple passage way of energy and nutrients in
an ecosystem
Food Web
• Food web - interconnected food chain to show
how species are related in an ecosystem
Ecology Terms
• Carrying Capacity
– The maximum number
of species in an area
• Limiting Factors
– The factor that
restricts the growth of
an organism
• Ex: water, food, space
• Natality – Birth rate of
organisms in an area
• Mortality – Death rate
of organisms in an
area
• Immigration –
movement of
individuals into an
area
• Emigration –
movement of
individuals out of an
area
• Biotic Potential – the
fastest rate on
population increase
for a species
• Colonization – the
start of a population in
a new area
– Pioneer species
• Biomass – the amount of living matter in an area
• Population Density – the number of individuals
in an area
Population Graphs
J-Shaped Curve
• Shows exponential
growth
• Typical of smaller
organisms
– Insects
– Flies
S-Shaped Curve
• Graphs shows
carrying capacity
• Shows how limiting
factors will affect a
population
Density
Dependent vs. Independent
• Density Dependent
Factors
•
•
•
•
•
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Illness & disease
Competition
Predators
Parasites
Food
• Density Independent
Factors
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Most are abiotic
Temperature
Weather
Drought
Chemical agents
Major habitat
disruption
Food Chains
Diet Types
• Herbivores – organisms
that only eat producers,
plants or autotrophs.
• Carnivores – organisms
that eat other
consumers
• Omnivores – organisms
that eat both plants and
animals
• Decomposers
– Eat on every level of a food chain
Ecological Pyramids
Pyramid of Energy
• Energy decreases at each level
– 90% of energy is lost at each level due to activity and
heat
• Rule of 10%
– 10% of energy transfers to the next level
Pyramid of Numbers
• Population decreases
at each level
Pyramid of Biomass
• Biomass – amount of living matter