Biology EOI Review P.A.S.S. Objectives Biological Diversity C3.1, C3.2, P2.1, P2.2 Classification •Developed by Carolus Linneaus in 1730s •Based on physical & structural similarities •Today, includes evolutionary relationships Divisions Three Domains: • Archaea • Bacteria • Eukarya Four Eukarya Kingdoms: • Protist • Fungi • Plant • Animal Domain: Archaea • Characteristics – Prokaryotic – Unicellular – Live in extreme environments Domain: Bacteria • Characteristics – Prokaryotic – Unicellular – Most habitats Eukarya Kingdom: Protists • Characteristics – Eukaryotic – Unicellular and multicellular – Can be autotrophic or heterotrophic Eukarya Kingdom: Fungi • Characteristics – Eukaryote – Unicellular or multicellular – Absorbs nutrients from environment Eukarya Kingdom: Plants • Characteristics – – – – Eukaryotic Autotrophic Multicellular Contains chloroplast and cell walls Eukarya Kingdom: Animals • Characteristics – Eukaryotic – Multicellular – Heterotrophs Classification Rankings *Domain Kingdom *Daring Kings * Phylum * Play Class * Order » Family » Genus » Species Chess * On » Fiber » Glass » Stools Genus and Species • Genus is the first name of an organism. The genus is always capitalized such as • Killer whale : Orca orca • Species is the 2nd name of an organism. The species is always all lower case such as for human: Homo sapien Review Question • Which of the three taxons below contains the other three? – A. Phylum – B. Species – C. Genus – D. Order Review Question • The system of assigning two names to identify an organism is called bionomial nomenclature. The first name corresponds to an organism’s – A. Family – B. Kingdom – C. Species – D. Genus Review Question • Upon examining samples of water and mud from a nearby river, you come across an unidentified organism. Closer observation indicates that the organism is unicellular and autotrophic. In addition, you can identify a membrane-bound nucleus within the cell. To what kingdom dose this organism most likely belong? – – – – A. Archaea B. Fungi C. Protist D. Bacteria Measurements and Graphs P.A.S.S. Objectives Science Processes & Inquiry P3.5 Measurements • Mass • Volume • Length • Temperature Mass: amount of matter in an object • Units – grams (g) • Tool – Balance • Tool -Digital Balance Tool -Triple Beam Balance How to read a Triple Beam Balance • Add the numbers from each mass located on each beam to find the total mass in grams. Length: measurement of distance between two points • Units – Meter (m) • Unit - Centimeter (cm) • Unit - Millimeter (mm) • Tool – Ruler • Tool - Tape measure • Tool – Meter stick Volume: amount of space an object occupies • Unit – Liters (L) • Unit – Milliliters (mL) – Used for liquids • Unit – cubic centimeter – Used for solids with the formula (L x W x H) • Tools – Graduated Cylinder – Pipette (for small liquids) – Tool for solid object is based type of solid How to Read a Graduated Cylinder • Look at the bottom of the curve, called the meniscus, on a flat surface to obtain a proper measurement. Temperature: amount of kinetic energy of an object • Units – degrees Celsius – °C • Tool – Thermometer • Kinetic energy is energy in motion. As the temperature increase, the kinetic energy of an object increases. Density: amount of matter in a given volume • Density = mass/volume – g/mL or grams per milliliter – Very important measurement for identifing different objects in the biosphere and beyond • Population density = the number of organisms in an area – Pop. Density = # of organisms/ area of land Measurement Prefixes: words in place of numerical values |_micro-__|_______|_______|__milli-__|_centi-__|_deci-__|__Base__|__Deka- |_Hecto-_|_Kilo-_| 1/1000000 1/1000 1/100 1/10 Unit (1) 10X 100X 1000X 10-6 10-5 10-4 10-3 10-2 10-1 10 0 101 102 103 (0.000001) (0.001) (0.01) P.A.S.S. Objective: P1.3 Conversion of measurements 1. Change 1 meter into centimeters: 1 m X 100 cm = 100 cm 1m 2. Change 5 cm to microns (micrometers): 5 cm X 1 m X 1 x 106 µm = 5 x 104 µm 100 cm 1m P.A.S.S. Objective: P1.3 P.A.S.S. Objectives Science Processes & Inquiry P3.1, P3.2, P3.4, P4.4, P4.5, P6.1, P6.2 Steps to the Scientific Method • State a Problem (in the form of a question) • Research background information • State a testable hypothesis (an educated guess) • Set-up a controlled experiment • Collect and analyze data • Conclusion (either null or accepted) • Re-work hypothesis, if null conclusion Experiment Set-Up • Independent Variable – what causes a change; the one item different in experimental set ups. • Dependent Variable – what changes or the results of the change if any; what is measured. • Constant – factors that are kept the same in both groups. • Control – the experimental set up that is not receiving the Independent Variable; what might be considered “normal” conditions. Example of the Scientific Method • Problem: Does Raid or Black Flag kill ants better? • Read the can labels & look for chemical differences. • If Raid contains chemical “X” then it will kill more ants than Black Flag (BF). • 3 sets of ten black ants, all under the same environmental conditions: 1 is given a 1 second blast of Raid; 1 is given a 1 second blast of BF; and the 3rd is left alone (control) • In the Raid container, 8 of 10 ants died; In the BF container, 7 of 10 ants died; In the control, 2 of 10 ants died • Conclusion: Both products seem to work about the same on black ants. Experiment Set-Up: Types of Experimental Data • Qualitative data: data that does NOT require a numerical value such as color, smell, texture. • PASS Objectives: P4.2, P4.6, P4.7 • Quantitative data: data does require a numerical value and an unit usually a measurement. Examples include the number of organisms, length of object, or temperature of the ecosystem. Review Question • A sound experiment will test a hypothesis by the process of – A. collecting information under varied conditions. – B. collecting information under controlled conditions. – C. observing phenomena under varied conditions. – D. asking questions under varied conditions. Review Question • Information gathered from an investigation is called data and can be expressed – A. as verbal, written or numerical information. – B. only in a graph or table. – C. as a hypothesis or a theory. – D. as a peer-reviewed journal article. Graphs: PASS P4.3 & P4.8 Making a graph • 1. Write a title. • Independent v. Dependent • 2. Create X & Y axis • 3. Label the axis • 4. Determine the units for each axis • 5. Graph the data Graph Set-Up • Independent Variable on the x-axis – Label (should include units) • Dependent Variable on the y-axis – Label (should include units) • Title – Y vs. X • Key – optional to the presenter Line Graphs • Shows a relationship between the two variables • Positive Relationship: When one variable increases, as does the other • Negative Relationship When one variable increases, the other decreases Line Graphs • Single line graph shows change over time. • Multiple line graphs can also show comparisons. Bar Graph or Histograms • Shows comparisons. Circle or Pie Chart • Graph that shows the percentage of each variable THE CELL Organelles, DNA, and Genetics P.A.S.S. Objectives The Cell C1.1 Unless indicated otherwise Cell Organelles Nucleus • Function: – Cell’s Control Center – Eukaryotic Cells Nucleolus – Plant and Animal Cells – Not found in Prokaryotic Cells – Location of DNA and RNA Cell Membrane • Function – Major part of controlling homeostasis • Lets material in and out to maintain balance • Located in prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells • Consist of a phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins. Cell Membrane • Homeostasis is the maintaining of a constant internal environment • Phospholipids are fatty molecules which consist of two layers. • Proteins are used for ACTIVE and PASSIVE transport. Cell Wall • Function – Supports and protects the cell which contains cellulose • Located in – Eukaryotic Cells and some Prokaryotic Cells – Plants ONLY in Eukaryotic Cells – Bacterium have cell walls Cytoplasm • Function – Provides internal structure for the cell – Located in prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells – Cytosol is the solution that fills the cytoplasm AKA rRNA • Function – Site where proteins are produced • Located – Both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells – Plant and animal cells Mitochondria • Function – “Powerhouse of the cell” – Location of cellular respiration that produces energy (ATP) – Found in eukaryotic cells – Found in plants and animals Chemical Reactions: Composed to three parts • 1. Reactants: • The ingredients that make a reaction possible. • 2. Yield arrow or sign • always points AWAY from reactants. • 3. Products: • The products are the results of a reaction • 2. Yield arrow or sign • always points TOWARD products. Cellular Respiration Cellular Respiration Cellular Respiration Facts • Requires food (glucose) and oxygen (ingredients) • Produces carbon dioxide and water (results) • Releases energy in the form of ATP (result) • Reaction is completed in the mitochondria and cytoplasm of the cell Chloroplast • Function – Produces food in the form of glucose – Site of photosynthesis – Eukaryotic Cells – Plant Cells ONLY Photosynthesis Photosynthesis Photosynthesis Facts • Requires light (energy), water, carbon dioxide (ingredients) • Produces oxygen and food (glucose) (results) • Processed in the chloroplast in the components called the thylakoid and stroma. Photosynthesis Facts Two Reactions • Light-dependent reaction occurs in the thylakoid membrane. • Light-independent reaction occurs in the solution filled area called the stroma Review Question • Chromosomes are produced in what part of the eukaryotic cell? – A. Cell wall – B. Nucleus – C. Ribosome – D. Vacuole Diffusion • Movement of particles across a membrane • Movement from high concentration to low concentration makes a concentration gradient. • Osmosis – diffusion of water by way of the plasma membrane due to a concentration gradient. Osmotic Solutions Solution Inside the Cell Outside the Cell Net Flow Hypotonic Low Water High Molecules High Water Low Molecules INTO THE CELL Hypertonic High Water Low Molecules Low Water High Molecules OUT OF THE CELL Isotonic Equal Equal INTO AND Concentration of Concentration of OUT AT THE water and water and SAME RATE molecules molecules SHRINKING NO CHANGE SWELLING Active Transport • Active Transport: movement of molecules or compounds across a barrier against the concentration gradient with the use of energy such as ATP Active Transport http://image.tutorvista.com/content/biomembranes/active-transport-stages.jpeg Review Question • If a cell contains a ten percent concentration of salt and is surrounded by water that also contains a ten percent concentration of salt, which of the following will occur? – A. Water will leave the cell only. – B. Water will enter the cell only. – C. Water will enter and leave the cell at same rate – D. The cell will die. Review Question • Active transport of materials through a membrane against a concentration gradient requires – A. a carrier protein and energy. – B. energy only. – C. an isotonic solution. – D. a carrier protein only. Classification of Cells • Eukaryotic vs. Prokaryotic – Eukaryotes – has a nucleus and membrane bound organelles, complex – Prokaryotes – do not have a nucleus, simple Classification of Cells – Eukaryotes – – 1. Contains a nucleus – 2. Contains membranebound organelles – 3. Complex in design Classification of Cells – Prokaryotes – do not have a nucleus, simple in design Amoeba • Unicellular vs. Multicellular – Unicellular – one cell – Multicellular – multiple cells Worm • Animal Cell • 1. Contains lysosomes • 2. Does not contain cell wall & chloroplast • Plant cell • 1. Contains a cell wall for support and protection • 2. Contains chloroplasts for autotrophic activity Organization Levels • Organism – Organ systems • Organs – Tissue » Cell » The basic unit of life – • Cell (can be broken down further) – Organelles • Molecules – Atoms Organization Levels: smallest to largest level A ATOMS M MOLECULES O ORGANELLES C CELLS T TISSUES O ORGANISMS O ORGAN S ORGAN SYSTEMS Review Question • Which of the following is the correct order, from simplest to most complex? – A. cells, tissues, organs, organ system – B. tissues, cells, organs, organ system – C. cells, organ system, organs, tissues – D. molecules, cells, compounds, organs DNA and Genetics DNA • Double Helix • Complementary base Pairs – AT – CG • Found only in the nucleus • Composed of phosphate, sugar, & nitrogenous base RNA • Single strand • Found in nucleus and ribosomes • Three types – mRNA – rRNA – tRNA Heredity Material DNA Nucleic Acid Name Base Sugar Location RNA Deoxyribonucleic Acid Ribonucleic Acid A, T, C, G A, U, C, G Deoxyribose Ribose Only in nucleus Nucleus & Cytoplasm Shape Double Helix Single Strand Cell Cycle Includes prophase, anaphase, metaphase, & telophase Replication • DNA DNA – Base Pairings • • • • AT TA CG GC – Making an exact copy or identical copy or the original strands Transcription • DNA RNA – Base Pairings • • • • AU TA CG GC – Type of RNA • mRNA Mitosis • The division of the nucleus in nonsex cells • 1 diploid cell 2 diploid cells – diploid – 2 sets of chromosomes Meiosis • Division of the nucleus in sex cells – Spermogeneis – making of sperm – Oogenesis – making of eggs • 1 diploid cell 4 haploid cells (gametes) Meiosis Phases Review Question • The DNA message depends on the order of the – A. nitrogen bases. – B. acids. – C. sugars. – D. genes. Review Question • When DNA replicates, each replicated DNA molecule has – A. two new strands. – B. one original stand and one identical strand. – C. two original strands. – D. one new strand. Genetics Alleles – different forms of the same gene Example: Some alleles for the eye color gene are • B – Brown eyes • b – blue eyes Traits • Dominant Trait – Written as a capital letter to show that it is overpowering • Recessive Trait – Written as a lowercase letter to show that it can be covered up • Genotype – The actual allele combination – Example: • AA, Aa, or aa • Phenotype – The physical appearance which expresses the genetic trait. – Example: – brown eyes or blue eyes • Homozygous – When the two alleles are the same – BB or bb • Heterozygous – When the two alleles are different – Bb Punnett Square Review question • Brown eyes are dominant to blue eyes. If a homozygous brown-eyed individual is mated with a blue-eyed individual, what percent of their offspring will have blue eyes? – A. 0% – B. 25% – C. 50% – D. 75% Biological Diversity Evolution • Defined as changes that occur in a population of organisms over time; • Changes occur as organisms better suited to a particular environment survive and produce more offspring than those organisms less fit. • Example: A polar bear with its white fur is better suited to Arctic conditions than a brown furred grizzly bear. Does that mean brown furred polar bears are never born? No, it means they do not survive in the Arctic to reproduce. Evidence to Support Evolution: • • • • • • • Homologous structures Analogous structures Vestigial structures Embryonic development comparisons Fossils DNA comparisons Selective breeding Homologous Structures • Definition – Structures that came from a common ancestor • Example – Limbs in tetrapods Analogous Structures • Definition – structures that are similar, but do not have a common ancestor • Example – Wings in different species Vestigial Structures • Definition – a structure that is now no longer used as its original purpose – Hip bones in whale – Appendix Cladograms • A model of evolutionary history of organisms – Primitive traits evolve first – Derived traits are shown later in the cladogram • Part of phylogeny Dichotomous Key • Tool used for identification of an organism by asking two questions at a time. Adaptations • Adaptation – any behavior, structure that will allow a species to survive better Variation with a species • Niche – a role a species plays in an area – What type of food the organism eats, where it lives, how it interacts with other species. Ecology ABIOTIC vs. BIOTIC • ABIOTIC • Factors in the environment considered nonliving matter. • Such as rocks, water, air, soil, temperature, weather. • BIOTIC • Factors in the environment considered to be organisms or living matter. Carbon Cycle Carbon Cycle Processes • Photosynthesis – Takes in carbon as carbon dioxide – Releases carbon as glucose • Cellular Respiration – Releases carbon as carbon dioxide • Burning of Fossil Fuels – Releases carbon as carbon dioxide • Decomposition – Releases carbon as carbon dioxide Water Cycle Water Cycle Processes • Evaporation – Water entering into the atmosphere • Precipitation – Water falling from the atmosphere • Condensation – Change from water vapor to liquid which usually forms clouds or fog • Transpiration – Change from liquid to water vapor usually in plants for movement of water from roots to leaves. Nitrogen Cycle Nitrogen Cycle Processes • Ammonification – decomposers releasing nitrogen to the soil • Nitrification – changing ammonia into nitrates • Denitrification – releasing nitrogen to the atmosphere from nitrates in the soil • Nitrogen-fixation – plants taking nitrogen directly from the atmosphere and making ammonia Ecological Relationships • Symbiosis – close relationship between two different species 3 Types Parasitism Mutualism Commensalism Type of symbiosis: Parasitism • Relationship where one species benefits at the expense of the other species Type of symbiosis: Commensalism • Relationship where one species benefits and the other species is neither harmed nor benefits. Type of symbiosis: Mutualism • Relationship where both species benefits Limiting Factors: Competition • When two or more species compete for the same resource – Examples: • • • • • Mates Food Habitat Water Space Limiting Factor: Predator - Prey • Predator – Prey – Predator – the “hunter” – Prey – the “hunted” Autotrophs vs Heterotrophs • AUTOTROPHS • Two types: • 1. Photoautotrophs use sunlight to convert energy into glucose • 2. Chemoautotrophs use the compounds around them to survive. • AKA producers • HETEROTROPHS • AKA consumers • Organisms that eat other consumers. Food Chain • Simple passage way of energy and nutrients in an ecosystem Food Web • Food web - interconnected food chain to show how species are related in an ecosystem Ecology Terms • Carrying Capacity – The maximum number of species in an area • Limiting Factors – The factor that restricts the growth of an organism • Ex: water, food, space • Natality – Birth rate of organisms in an area • Mortality – Death rate of organisms in an area • Immigration – movement of individuals into an area • Emigration – movement of individuals out of an area • Biotic Potential – the fastest rate on population increase for a species • Colonization – the start of a population in a new area – Pioneer species • Biomass – the amount of living matter in an area • Population Density – the number of individuals in an area Population Graphs J-Shaped Curve • Shows exponential growth • Typical of smaller organisms – Insects – Flies S-Shaped Curve • Graphs shows carrying capacity • Shows how limiting factors will affect a population Density Dependent vs. Independent • Density Dependent Factors • • • • • 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Illness & disease Competition Predators Parasites Food • Density Independent Factors 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Most are abiotic Temperature Weather Drought Chemical agents Major habitat disruption Food Chains Diet Types • Herbivores – organisms that only eat producers, plants or autotrophs. • Carnivores – organisms that eat other consumers • Omnivores – organisms that eat both plants and animals • Decomposers – Eat on every level of a food chain Ecological Pyramids Pyramid of Energy • Energy decreases at each level – 90% of energy is lost at each level due to activity and heat • Rule of 10% – 10% of energy transfers to the next level Pyramid of Numbers • Population decreases at each level Pyramid of Biomass • Biomass – amount of living matter