•Circulatory system – heart, blood vessels & blood
•Supplies cells with nutrients from digestive system and removes wastes with
urinary system
•Exchange of gases with respiratory system
•Blood – connective tissue with cells in a watery extracellular matrix
•Transports all substances needed – oxygen, nutrients, hormones, wastes
•Regulates body temperature, volume, and pH
•Has defense cells to protect against infection, ability to clot to prevent blood loss
•Range 4-6 liters of blood, around a gallon
•Contains red blood cells & white blood cells & platelets
•Plasma contains water, ions, proteins, hormones, gases, nutrients, wastes
•55% of blood volume is plasma
•Plasma proteins include albumin, globulins, clotting proteins
•Electrolytes – sodium, potassium, chloride, bicarbonate, calcium, hydrogen,
magnesium
•Hormones, nutrients
•Wastes like carbon dioxide, urea, lactic acid
•Red blood cells transport oxygen
•A cubic millimeter of blood has approximately 5 million red blood cells
•Shape is a biconcave disc
•RBC’s don’t have a nucleus or mitochondria, use glycolysis for energy, but do have
300 million molecules of hemoglobin
•Hg has 4 proteins called globulins, with heme groups that have iron atoms that
bind oxygen
•Make carbonic anhydrase to transport carbon dioxide
•A hematocrit measures the concentration of RBC’s in the blood
•Stem cells produce RBC’s and are known as normoblasts or erythroblasts
•Live for 120 days and then are removed by liver and spleen macrophages
•Bilirubin from the heme groups is secreted in bile
•Erythropoietin made by the kidney stimulates RBC production
•White blood cells – 7,000/cubic millimeter
•Granular and agranular types made by bone marrow also
•Neutrophils – 60% - function in infections
•Eosinophils – 2% - fight parasites, engulf antibody-antigen complexes, moderate
allergic reactions
•Basophils – 1% - initiate the inflammatory response
•Monocytes – 5% - become tissue macrophages
•Lymphocytes – 30% - function in the immune response
•Platelets are ‘formed elements’ – particles that break off of mekaryocytes in bone
marrow
•250,000/cubic milimeter
•Function in hemostasis
•With vascular injury, there is a vascular spasm from the tunica media smooth
muscle cells, then a platelet plug forms, then plasma proteins that are clotting
factors weave around them
•Vascular spasm, then platelet plug where platelets adhere to exposed collagen, and
plasma proteins are activated forming fibrin that weaves around the plug to make it
water-tight
•Hemophilia happens with a deficiency of one or more clotting factors
•Blood types refer to antigens that are found on the cell membranes of RBC’s
•A or B or none (O), and Rh factor
•The body produces anti-B antibodies if you have type A, and anti-A antibodies if
you have type B, so blood type needs to be known for transfusions
•Iron deficiency anemia
•Hemorrhagic anemia
•Pernicious anemia
•Hemolytic anemia
•Sickle cell anemia
•Leukemia
•Multiple myeloma
•Mononucelosis
•Thrombocytopenia
•Immune system protects the body - pathogens include bacteria, viruses, fungi,
protozoans, prions, parasites
•Bacteria are single-celled organisms that have no nuclei
•Viruses are tiny infectious agents that consist of a small piece of nucleic acid
surrounded by a protein coat
•Prions are infectious proteins that can convert normal protein
•Transmission & virulence determines the extent of disease
•The lymphatic system defends the body
•Returns excess tissue fluid, transports fats
•Lymph nodes filter the lymph fluid flowing thru lymph vessels
•Lymph eventually enters circulation at the subclavian vein
•Spleen cleans blood with red pulp
•Fights infection with white pulp
•Thymus gland – T lymphocytes
•Tonsils
•Skin – barrier to infection, sweat has an antibiotic & low pH
•Tears, saliva, cerumen also have lysozyme
•Vomiting, urination, defecation rid body of harmful wastes
•Resident bacteria on mucus membranes are helpful
•With inflammation there is rubor, dolore, calore, tumor, stupor, and often a pus
discharge
•Histamine is released by cells after an injury
•Neutrophils, natural killer lymphocytes are activated
•Complement is activated
•Cells produce a factor that causes fever, and release interferons to warn
surrounding cells of injury
•Neutrophils and macrophages undergo phagocytosis to rid of pathogens and
particles
The immune response relies on the major histocompatibility complex markers that
are found on cell membranes
Foreign cells and particles are detected after being phagocytosed and antigenic
parts are displayed on the cell membrane of macrophages, the antigen-presenting
cell (APC), next to the MHC
APC’s release factors that activate lymphocytes that have specific receptors for the
antigenic part.
Those lymphocytes undergo mitosis (clonal expansion) and then attach the foreign
cell or particle
•Antibodies are produced by plasma cells that evolve from B lymphocytes, specific
for the antigen
•They surround the antigen and then are engulfed by eosinophils and other
phagocytes
•APC’s activate helper T cells, specific for the antigen, that stimulate cytotoxic T
cells, specific for the antigen, to destroy the antigen
•First ever encounter takes 2 weeks to be effective, but memory cells will
immediately respond if encountered again
•Type I allergic response – histamine from basophils and mast cells - IgE mediated
•Type II & III – antibody mediated
•Type IV – tissue rejection, poison ivy response
•Autoimmune disorders:
•Rheumatoid arthritis, lupus erythematosus, multiple sclerosis, grave’s disease,
diabetes mellitis type 1
•HIV is specific for CD4 receptors on T helper lymphocytes
•Virus is transmitted in body fluids
•When T helper count is less than 200/cubic millimeter, opportunistic infections or
cancer occur
•Urinary system maintains homeostasis
•Excretion is removal of wastes & excess materials
•Parts are the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra
•Urine includes waste water, ions, drugs, vitamins, toxins, other wastes
•Kidneys also maintain fluid volume and blood pressure
•Nitrogenous wastes come from metabolism of protein
•Amine of amino acids is toxic & converted to urea by the liver
•Other wastes are creatinine from creatine phosphate, and yellow from red blood
cell breakdown
•Kidneys help regulate ion concentrations of sodium, chloride, potassium, calcium,
and hydrogen
•The working unit of the kidney is the nephron
•Most of the fluid in the capillaries is forced into bowman’s capsule
•The cells that make up the wall of the proximal tubule, loop of henle, and distal
tubule are responsible for reabsorbing the important fluids and molecules back into
the capillaries
•Whatever remains goes into the collecting ducts that take it to the ureter
•Antidiuretic hormone and aldosterone hormones help to increase blood volume by
targeting the kidney to reabsorb more water from the forming urine
Urine flows from the ureters to the bladder
When the bladder wall is stretched, sensory nerves initiate a reflex that makes the
bladder contract
Voluntary nerves control the external sphincter of the urethra, preventing
unwanted urination