SOCI 1301:
Introduction to
Sociology
Social Research Methods
4 Basic Research Methods
in Sociology
 1.Survey Research (an objective method)
 Questionnaire or interview studies
 2. Analysis of Existing Sources (Document
Studies) (objective or subjective)
 3. Observational Research
 Two types: unobtrusive or participant
 4. Experimentation (most objective, least
variance of any method but not often used
Advantages/Disadvantages
with the Methods
 Surveys- easy to do, fast but missing data,
problems in sampling, biases
 Analysis of Existing Sources- easy data
collection but someone else’s data
 Observation-simply subjective…
 Experiments- excellent control of variance but
ethics and application issues keep it generally
unused in sociology
Steps in the Research
Process
 1. Define the Problem- choose subject
 2. Review the literature
 3. Formulate Hypotheses (or research
questions)
AND THEN…
4. Design the Methodology
Methodological Design
 Results of a study are only as good as
the methodology used.
 What will be specifically measured?
 Where? Identify the study environment.
 Sampling? Who and how many?
 A sample is a cross-section of the population
under investigation that is both random and
representative of that population
Methodology, contd.
 How will the study variables be
operationalized?
 Variables—known or unknown quantities that affect
or are affected by the presence of another variable.
 Independent variables CAUSE change in Dependent
variables (the EFFECT)
 If A  B, A is the independent variable and B is the
dependent variable
 Operationalization is defining what is meant by a
variable label (i.e. Crime—define it for the purposes
of this study)
Methodology, cont’d.
5. Collect the Data
6. Data Analysis
--SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social
Sciences) is excellent
7. Draw Conclusions--accept or Reject
hypotheses or answer research questions
How might someone conduct a study to
determine if the full moon has any effect on the
crime rate? Design a study from beginning to
end using these steps.
Flaws in Research
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Bias (question, sampling, etc.)
Teleology
Poor methodology
Misanalysis of findings
Statistical conclusions
Misinterpretation of results
Significance levels
Famous Research Errors
 The 1936 Presidential Poll
Literary Digest used auto registration lists and telephone directories
from which to draw a random sample in their presidential poll to
see if Franklin Roosevelt or Alfred Landon would win the race. The
sample was random but not representative. The only people who
had telephones in 1936 were urban dwellers and the only ones
with cars (at the height of the Great Depression) were wealthier
Americans. These groups would have voted for the pro-urban,
pro-business candidate Landon. FDR got most of his support
from rural America, underrepresented in the survey… the result of
the poll was that Landon would win… FDR won easily.
 This was a classic error in sampling.
Another Research Error
 The Hawthorne Experiments
Industrial Psychologist Elton Mayo (1920’s) conducted a series of experiments at
Western Electric’s Hawthorne Plant in Illinois. In one trial he wanted to see if light
levels in the factory would increase production. After getting an initial reading of
productivity, he brought in more lighting. Productivity rose. He increased light
again with the same result. About to conclude that light levels in fact DO increase
productivity, he turned off the extra lights and productivity rose yet again! He
turned down the lighting even more (below where it was originally) and productivity
continued to rise. He could not understand what was occurring… Then he
discovered that the workers had been told that an “efficiency expert” was observing
their plant. The workers were simply reacting to the fact that they were being
watched… some thought the tests were about keeping their jobs—so all were very
productive regardless of lighting conditions.
This phenomena came to be know as the Hawthorne Effect—the unintended effect(s)
of a researcher’s presence. A modern example– the change in one’s driving habits
when being followed by a policeman…
Reliability and validity
 Reliability refers to consistency in
measurement
 Validity refers to accuracy in
measurement
 Good research always uses RELIABLE
methods to achieve ACCURATE results.
Conclusions of Research
 Hypotheses—statements about what one expects to find in their
research—cannot be proven or disproven—they can only be
accepted or rejected. Research proves nothing—it only
demonstrates that a relationship may exist between two factors at
some level.
All relationships are not cause and effect, some are mere
correlations– variables related to each other, but perhaps only
indirectly…(Ex. Death rates and seeing a doctor are correlated
variables—death rates are higher for people who have recently
seen a doctor, but seeing a doctor does not cause death rates to
rise—sickness causes BOTH.)