The Role of Shapers in Virtual
Firm-based Practice Networks
using Wikis: Implications for
Systems Engineering
Ann Majchrzak,
Professor of Information Systems
University of Southern California
majchrza@usc.edu
Background: What is a Wiki?
Wikis = “Fast” Website:
Example  Katrina Wiki
Open
Wiki Way: Wiki content not owned by individual authors;
focus on community ; everyone can contribute and
change content easily, if given access to page
Simple
Wiki Way: content maintenance principles. Simplified
mark-up (language), rules for modifying and integrating
other authors’ pages (“refactoring rules”), as well as page
design standards (templates).
Incremental
Wiki Way: Incremental growth. Links to
missing pages permitted and rendered as
open questions for someone else to
address. Hyperlink automatically created
when a missing page is added.
Observable
Wiki Way: observability of all content, past
and present leads to broad reviews and
better quality.
Organic
Wiki Way: Organic growth. A wiki structure
can be changed by any wiki author, as the
need arises.
“Sweet Spots”:Collaboration
and Coordination
different
CMS
E-mail /
Listserv
Portal
Wiki
Coordination
across time
zones
Discussion
Forum
Weblog
Groupware
same
Chat
room
few
Collaborators
many
“Sweet Spots”: Dispersion of
Knowledge
many
Wiki
Knowledge
Sources
Discussion
Forum
E-mail /
Listserv
Group- Weblog
ware
few
CMS
few
Portal
Knowledge Recipients
many
“Sweet Spots”: Knowledge
Maintenance
Community KMS
high
E-mail /
Listserv
Weblog
Discussion
Forum
Ease of
Knowledge
Maintenance
CMS
Wiki
Groupware
Enterprise KMS
low
Portal
low
Knowledge Organization high
Systems Engineering Uses of Wiki
Applications
• Company, project, or department intranet with
collaboratively editing pages on new
technologies, project status, customer
information (as a CRM with dashboards), bug
tracking, competitor information (with RSS
feeds)
• Fast problem identification and resolution
mechanism
• Project management (meeting minutes, task
status, repository, workflow automation)
• Solutions sharing (FAQ, best practice)
• Distributed meeting coordination
Corporate Directory
Summary of Wiki’s Potential for
Systems Engineering
• Encourages people to share knowledge by
project, practice area, function, problem,
or issue within firms emergently
• Allows for organizing knowledge as it
evolves
• The opportunity of a ‘shaping’ role
emerges
*
Wasko & Faraj 2005
Shaping
• Contributing by integrating, distilling,
organizing & rewriting contributions of
others
• Shaping is a practice-based role*
• Facilitates knowledge transformation by
helping community to exchange &
combine its knowledge to refine its
perspective & to take new perspectives**
* Brown & Duguid 2001, Feldman & Pentland 2003, Orlikowski 2002
** Boland & Tenkasi 1995, Dougherty 1992, Carlile 2004, Nahapiet & Ghoshal 1998
Example of a Shaper: Howard
• 75-person software engineering group at a multibillion dollar tech company
• “I spend up to two hours a day working on the
wiki. Much of this time I reorganize other
people’s materials, rename pages, create new
links on the home page, or restructure the home
page. Benefits aren’t to mean personally, but
they help the group collaborate more effectively.
They can find things easier”
Motivation for Research
• Prior research focused on why people
contribute personal content knowledge to
networks & repositories*
• Shapers relatively ignored**
• Shapers & Personal Knowledge
Contributors (PKCs) have different barriers
to overcome: “some edit others work, &
some don’ts”
* Fulk et al 1996, 2004; Bagozzi & Dholakia 2006, Bock et al 2005, Kalman et al 2005, Roberst et sl 2006, Wasko & Faraj 2005
**Butler et al in press is an exception
Research Questions
• Are there unique characteristics of
participants in virtual practice networks
who a) primarily shape vs b) primarily
contribute personal knowledge?
• Are the factors explaining the level of
participation in each role different?
Hyp 1: Unique Chars?
PKCs
Barriers:
Lose sole claim to
knowledge
H1: Predicted
profile to
overcome
barriers
Deep task expertise*
- self-proclaimed
- relative to others
in network
(network
perceived to have
well-developed
transactive
memory)
*Gray 2001, Kankanhalli et al 2005, Bock et al 2005, Menon et al 2006
**Boland & Tenkasi 1995
Shapers
Reactions of others
to edits
(especially if
converging on
domain)
Focus on divergence
in domain**(new
business
opportunities)
More general
expertise
Hyp 2: Explain Level of
Participation in Each Role?
PKCs
Barriers:
H2: Diff
theories to
explain level
of
participation
Lose sole claim to
knowledge
Social Exchange:
Benefits > Costs
*Gray 2001, Kankanhalli et al 2005, Bock et al 2005, Menon et al 2006
**Boland & Tenkasi 1995
Shapers
Reactions of others
to edits
(especially if
converging on
domain)
Social Capital:
Combination
Process to
foster new
intellectual
capital
Hyp 2 (cont):
Predictors to Level of Participation
Shapers
PKCs
Social Exchange Theory
Costs in time
Benefits for indiv work
Benefits for group work
(member of core group)
Social Capital Theory
Exchange/Combo Opportunity
- # accesses by community
Anticipation of new knowledge creation
- perceived novelty of task
Motivation to combine/exchange
- worth to organization
Benefits to orgztn
Combination capability
- Received reputation
Research Methods: Survey of firm
wiki users that protects firm &
personal identity
• Solicitation on 10 listservers likely visited
by firm-based wiki participants
• Followed accepted recs for decreasing
response bias
• Identified Shapers & PKCs within sample:
factor analysis of types of contributions,
then median splits on two types
Means for Shaper vs PKC
Contributions
A.Entire Sample
Mean (1=never,
7=all the time), (Sd)
N=168
B.Shaper Sub
sample
Mean(Sd)
N=47
C.PKC Subsample
Mean(Sd)
N=47
How often have your contributions to the wiki been:
Adding new pages
5.0(1.4)
3.9(1.1)
5.7(1.3)
Adding content to existing pages
5.4(1.1)
4.5(1.0)
6.0(0.9)
Rewriting whole paragraphs
2.3(1.3)
2.5(1.2)
1.7(0.9)
Reorganizing a set of pages
2.8(1.5)
2.9(1.3)
2.3(1.3)
Integrating ideas already posted onto existing pages
3.5(1.5)
3.8(1.3)
2.6(1.4)
H1 Confirmed: Profiles Different for
Shapers vs. PKCs
Independent
Variables
B
S.E.
Wald
Sig.
Expertise Depth
-.488
.232
4.439
.035
Transactive Memory
System
Use of Wiki to
Identify Bus.
Opportunities
Control Variables
Months Individual
Using Wikis
Months Organization
Using Wikis
Months Wiki in
Existence
-.977
.460
4.499
.034
.495
.201
6.034
.014
Mean Difference
Between Subgroups
e
Shaper
PKC
4.17
4.70
.614
t = 2.31, p< .05
.41
.79
.377
t = 2.76, p< .01
2.57
2.0
1.64
B
t = 2.31, p< .05
-.033
.014
5.576
.018
.246
.277
.784
.376
-.086
.285
.091
.763
78.5% classification accuracy
.967
21.83
32.62
t = 2.35, p< .05
4.77
4.81
t = .11, p= .91
4.34
4.43
t = .22, p= .83
H2 & H3 Test
• Moderator Regressions
2-Tiered Regression Results on Level of
Participation for Shapers and Personal
Knowledge Contributors Combined
Variables Entered
Constant
Freq. Wiki Access
Task novelty
Use of Wiki to Improve
Org. Processes
Reputation Received
Costs in Time
Benefits to Indiv. Work
Membership in core group
Sub-group
Grp X Freq. Access
Grp x Task Novelty
Grp X Costs in Time
Grp X Benefits to Indiv.
Grp x Member Core Grp
Grp X Reputation Rec’d
Adjusted R2
Change in R2
***=p<.001; **p<.01, *p<.05
Model 1
Model 2
.24**
.13
.34***
.27***
.21**
.33***
.03
-.18*
.30***
.13
.16
.03
-.18*
.25*
.09
.14
.00
.25*
.16*
-.07
-.26***
.19*
.51***
.16***
.37***
.29***
Interaction Effects
Interaction Effects
Regressions of Level of
Participation for Each Group
a. Personal Knowledge Contributors only (n=47)
Variables Entered
Main Effects: Costs in Time
Benefit to Individuals’ Work
Membership in Core Group
Use of Wiki to Improve Work
Processes
2
Adjusted R
b. Shapers only (n=47)
Variables Entered
Main Effects: Freq. of wiki accesses
Task Novelty
Reputation Received
Use of Wiki to Improve Work
Processes
2
Adjusted R
**p<.01, *p<.05
Standardized B Coefficient
-.32**
.25*
.30*
.35**
.40***
Standardized B Coefficient
.30**
.38**
.29*
.33**
.53***
Implications for Systems
Engineering
• Seed networks with technology and technology
norms that encourage collaborative editing
• Encourage networks to take on novel tasks,
encourage benefits at multiple levels in
organization, promote network to increase
frequency of accesses
• DON’T assume that deep task expertise is
needed for each network or need to assign
formal roles
Give network the seeds; allow it to bloom