Data & Databases
Basic Data Fundamentals
Data vs Information
Data: facts
Computer systems store data.
 Information: facts organized for a
specific application
Information is the output of a computer
system

Data



Atomic Data
Data in units that cannot be subdivided
• First Name, Price, etc.
Binary Large Objects (BLOB)
Images and figures
• Pictures, Cartoons
Objects
Data and associated processes
• Spreadsheet tables, graphics components
Atomic Data
Most current systems store atomic data.
Atomic data is typically made up of
characters (letters and numbers) stored
in coded groups of 8 bits called bytes.
ASCII
American Standard Code for
Information Interchange
EBCDIC Extended Binary Coded Decimal
Interchange Code
Atomic Data
Because atomic variables are
made up of a relatively small
number of codes, computers
can interpret and manipulate
them
Binary Large Objects
These are typically bit mapped pictures or
images (such as FAXs) that are stored.
Parts of these pictures have meaning
(unlike atomic data). Digital pictures,
video clips, stored images and signatures
are BLOBs.
PIXEL
blobs are usually stored as pixel
codes that represent a point on a video screen
Bit Maps
1028
800
1028 x 640 = 657,920 pixels
Black & White = 1 bit per pixel
256 tone Color = 8 bits per pixel
High Resolution
Image Processing
Images cannot be processed
easily (other than displayed and
scaled) by normal technology and
usually require atttached atomic
indexes. Text images can be converted although the software is not
fully reliable.
Objects
Objects combine data and the processes
that manipulate it. An example of an
object is a spreadsheet table imported
with the manipulation rules.
 Encapsulation
 Formal Interface for Messages
 Inheritance
Object Processing
Object databases are new technologies
with immature design methodologies.
They promise extensive code reuse and
easy system development if the technology proves itself.
Data, Metadata and
Business Rules
Metadata is data about data, the structure
descriptions of the stored files.
Metadata includes location, format, field
name, data description, etc.
Business rules include editing and
processing rules as well as automatic
procedures that must be processed for
accurate data.
Data Access Technology

Flat File structures.
Data in one location; metadata and business rules in
programs

Database Management Systems
Data and metadata together; business rules in
programs

Object Oriented systems
Data, metadata and business rules together
Database Approach
Program 1
Meta-Data
Program 2
Meta-Data
Program 3
Meta-Data
Program 1
Program 2
Program 3
FILE SYSTEM
Data
DATABASE
MetaData
Data
Distribution Strategies for
Databases
Centralized Data and Processing: Dumb terminal with
"screen scraping".
Intelligent Terminal: Data and processing centralized; data
preparation and display on remote devices.
Distributed Logic: Data storage distributed; processed at
the optimal location. A version of parallel processing.
Client Server: Data (usually departmental) maintained on a
server. Subsetting occurs on the server, processing on
client machines.
Distributed Database: Data distributed among different
locations; processing access data wherever it is located.
Data may be replicated or partitioned.
Data Trends
Centralized and Client/Server systems
 Multi Layered architectures
 Objects and encapsulation
 Data driven organizations

Functions of a DBMS
C.J. Date
Indexing
 Views
 Security
 Integrity
 Concurrency

Backup/Recovery
 Design
 Documentation
 Update/Query

Views
Custom representations of a
database that correspond to the
needs of a class of users.
Stored SELECT statements.
Views
Views Permit
 Maintaining a constant user interface
 Restricting access to specified attributes
 Specifying user rights
Views
3 Schema Architecture
LOGICAL
CONCEPTUAL
PHYSICAL
User Views (Views or
Queries)
Database administrators
model for the data (E-R
diagrams)
Actual data placement and
structure (SQL statements)
Security
Components that limit access or
actions to limit potential damage
to data.
Security Approaches
Views limit access and actions
 Authorization Rules identify users and
restrict actions
 User Defined Procedures in addition
to database security functions
 Encryption encode stored data
 Authentication positively identify users

Authorization Rules
Some DBMS products authorize actions
based on specific records and functional
descriptions. However, most DBMS’s limit
actions on tables to one of:
• Read: view but not change
• Insert: read and add records
• Update: read, insert and change records
• Alter/Delete: read, insert, update and
delete records, change table structure
Authorization Rules
Subject
Object
Action
Constraint
Sales Dept
Cust
Insert
Credit < $5000
Program Ar4
Order
Modify
None
Terminal 12
Cust
Modify
Balance Due
Order Trans
Cust
Read
None
Integrity
Components that preserve the
relationship among different
related records in the database
Integrity
The relationship among records in the
database
 Referential Integrity
 Non Key Integrity
 Derived Conditions
Concurrency
Preventing two users from
interfering with each other when
they use the same information
Concurrency

Lockout
Restricting access to users who could be
misled by partial transactions

Versioning
Making trial updates on versions of the
database and denying one if there is a data
conflict.
Locks
00
01
02
03
Master
Student
Fred
Anthony
Steve
Ivan
Grade
Program 1 locks record
<exclusive>.
No other program can
read the record.
No program can have
an active lock.
Program 2 locks record
<shared>
Other programs can
read, but not change
record.
No program can have
an exclusive lock.
Versioning
Version 1
Time 1 Version 2
Version 3
Time 2
Time 3
Commits version 3 only after changes to versions 1
and 2 have been rolled back.
Backup and Recovery
Processes to confirm and repeat
transactions so that database
can be restored to a valid state
after a problem.
Backup and Recovery

Backup Copies
• Master
• Transaction Log

Journalization
• Forward Log
• Backward Log

Checkpoints
DBMS Logs
00
01
02
03
Master
Student
Fred
Anthony
Steve
Ivan
Grade
Transaction
Insert Li with grade A
Change Fred’s grade to A
Recover from Backup
Backup


+
Transaction
=
Recovered
Database
Slow
May give different answers from original
DBMS Logs
Transaction
Ins Li with grade A
Chg Fred’s grade to A
00
01
02
03
Master
Student
Fred
Anthony
Steve
Li
Grade
A
A
Forward Log
Student Grade
03 Li
A
00 Fred
A
Backward Log
Student Grade
03 n/p
00 Fred
DBMS Logs
Transaction
Ins Li with grade A
Chg Fred’s grade to A
10:00 Checkpoint
00
01
02
03
Master
Student
Fred
Anthony
Steve
Li
Grade
A
A
Forward Log
Student Grade
03 Li
A
00 Fred
A
Chkpt
Backward Log
Student Grade
03 n/p
00 Fred
Chkpt
DBMS Logs
Transaction
Ins Li with grade A
Chg Fred’s grade to A
10:00 Checkpoint
Chg Steve grade to B
00
01
02
03
Master
Student
Fred
Anthony
Steve
Li
Grade
A
B
A
03
00
02
03
00
02
Forward Log
Student Grade
Li
A
Fred
A
Chkpt
Steve
B
Backward Log
Student
Grade
n/p
Fred
Chkpt
Steve
Recover to Checkpoint
Using Logs
Contaminated
Database
+
-
Backward
Log
Recent
Transactions
=
=
Correct at
Checkpoint
Recovered
Database
Transaction Processing
A set of computer operations required to
process a single unit of work.
A transaction must conclude with the
database in a valid state whether the
transaction terminates correctly or
abnormally
Transaction Boundaries

Set Boundary
• Obtain Locks
• Execute Code Modules
• Evaluate Correctness

Commit or Rollback
• Release Locks
Transaction Boundaries
Premiere Products Example
SALESREP
CUSTOMER
ORDER
PRODUCT
ORDER-PRODUCT
Place an order for a new customer
with a 1500 credit limit
Transaction Boundaries
Premiere Products Example
SALESREP
CUSTOMER
ORDER
PRODUCT
ORDER-PRODUCT
•Insert CUSTOMER Record
•Update CUSTOMER with SALESREP Foreign Key
•Insert ORDER Record
•Insert ORDER-PRODUCT with Foreign Keys
•Update ProductOnHand in PRODUCT
•Check Credit Limit
D A
T
A