vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER
1
TITLE
PAGE
DECLARATION
ii
DEDICATION
iii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
iv
ABSTRACT
v
ABSTRAK
vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
vii
LIST OF TABLES
xi
LIST OF FIGURES
xii
LIST OF SYMBOLS
xvi
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
xviii
LIST OF APPENDICES
xx
INTRODUCTION
1
1.1 Background of the Study
1
1.2 Problem Statement
6
1.3 Objectives of the Study
10
1.4 Scopes of the Study
11
1.5 Significance of the Study
13
1.6 Research Design
17
1.7 Organization of the Thesis
20
viii
2
DESIGN AND BUILT CALIBRATION TEST SITE
FOR
ANALYSING
LOCATIONAL
22
AND
DETECTABILITY OF GPR ACCURACIES
2.1 Introduction
22
2.2 National Testing Facility
23
2.3 Design Methodology
27
2.3.1 Construction Work for Building the Test Site
27
2.3.2 Marking Buried Utility
32
2.3.3 Levelling and Global Positioning System (GPS)
34
Survey
2.4 Results
36
2.4.1 Layout and Design of the Test Site
36
2.5 Discussions
38
2.5.1 Advantages of the Design
3
38
2.6 Concluding Remarks
42
GPR DATA ACQUISITION APPROACHES AND
47
EFFECTS TO LOCATIONAL ACCURACY AND
DETECTABILITY
OF
SUBSURFACE
UTILITY
FEATURES
3.1 Introduction
47
3.2 State-of-the-Art of Subsurface Utility Mapping
50
3.2.1 Subsurface Utility Features
50
3.2.2 Utility Mapping Sensing Technologies
52
3.2.3 One-Call Centre
55
3.2.4 Mapping the Underworld (MTU)
60
3.2.5 Utility Mapping Guideline / Standard Operating
62
Procedures (SOP)
3.2.6 Utility Mapping and Its Challenge
3.3 Materials and Methods
68
72
3.3.1 GPR System Description
72
3.3.2 Test Site Description
74
3.3.3 Data Processing
76
ix
3.4 Results
82
3.5 Discussions
87
3.5.1. Case Study at Persiaran Kewajipan, Subang Jaya
4
89
3.6 Concluding Remarks
90
CHARACTERIZATION OF GPR BACKSCATTER
91
FOR RECOGNITION OF UTILITY’S FABRICATION
MATERIAL
4.1 Introduction
91
4.2 Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR)- A popular Trenchless
95
Technology for Subsurface Utility Mapping
4.2.1 Background Theory of GPR System
96
4.2.2 GPR Antenna
96
4.2.3 GPR Scanning Mechanism
99
4.2.4 GPR Data Analysis
102
4.3 Materials and Methods
111
4.3.1 Description of the Test Site
111
4.3.2 Data Acquisition
112
4.3.3 Data Processing
118
4.3.4 Numerical Modelling
119
4.3.5 Feature Detection
122
4.4 Results
125
4.4.1. Soil Moisture Laboratory Experiment- Oven-dry
125
Method
4.4.2 Feature Extraction
5
126
4.5 Discussions
134
4.6 Concluding Remarks
145
CONSTRAINTS
OF
GPR
BACKSCATTER
FOR
146
DETECTING AND MAPPING VERTICALLY AND
HORIZONTALLY
STACKED
SUBSURFACE
UTILITIES FEATURES
5.1 Introduction
146
x
5.2 Locating Technologies for Utility Mapping
150
5.2.1 Trenchless Technologies for Utility Mapping
150
5.2.2 Principle of GPR
154
5.2.3 GPR Image Formation
158
5.3 Materials and Methods
160
5.3.1 Experimental Test Site Description
160
5.3.2 Data Acquisition
161
5.3.3 Pre-processing
163
5.3.4 Numerical Modelling
163
5.3.5 Feature Detection
165
5.4 Results
6
166
5.4.1 Signal Wavelength Computation
166
5.4.2 Feature Detection
167
5.4.3 Statistical Assessment
170
5.5 Discussions
171
5.6 Concluding Remarks
173
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
174
6.1 Conclusions
174
6.2 Recommendations
178
6.2.1 Establish a Multipurpose National Testing Facility
178
6.2.2 Establish Standard Operating Procedures for
179
Utility Mapping
6.2.3 Professional Training for Certification
180
6.2.4 Regularly Updates the Utility Map
180
6.2.5 Additional Research
182
REFERENCES
183
Appendices A-D
200 - 213
xi
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE NO.
TITLE
PAGE
2.1
Localized Colour Code for Utility Marking
33
2.2
Universal Colour Code for Utility Marking
33
2.3
Location Details of the Buried Utilities
37
2.4
Summary of the Design Details of the Test Site
45
3.1
The Classification of Various Subsurface Utility Features by
51
Its Fabrication Components and Functions
3.2
Comparison of Different Frequency GPR System with Its Depth
54
of Penetration and Applications
3.3
List of Utility Companies Operating In Malaysia
69
3.4
IDS Detector Duo Technical Specifications
73
3.5
Summary of Performance for Each GPR Data Acquisition
83
Scanning Technique
4.1
The Information of the Buried Utility Features in These Test
112
Sites
4.2
Metallic and Non-Metallic Utility Feature’s Fabrication
114
Material
4.3
Different Types of Backfill Materials (Or Construction
116
Sand)
4.4
Summary of Descriptive Statistics for Practical Data
124
4.5
Results of the Moisture Content of the Soil Samples
125
5.1
Summary of the Typical Velocities and Attenuation of the
155
Common Materials
xii
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE NO.
TITLE
PAGE
1.1
Key Element To Damage Prevention
5
1.2
Research Plan Flowchart
19
2.1
Some of the Test Sites Available on the Market
26
2.2
Location of the Test Site
27
2.3
Design of the Test Site (a) 3-D View and (b) Side View
28
2.4
Material for Test Site Construction
29
2.5
Compartment Structure of the Test Site with Its Host
31
Material
2.6
Marking Using Utility Colour Code Provided By JUPEM
32
2.7
Levelling Survey for Determining Depth Alignment
34
2.8
GPS Survey
35
2.9
The layout of the Test Site Located at FGRE, UTM Johor
36
Bahru
2.10
The Proposed Calibration Certificate
41
3.1
Unnecessary By-Pass Cables that Tarnished and
56
Jeopardized the City Image
3.2
Work Flows for the One-Call Centre
59
3.3
Utility Data Attributes Quality Level
66
3.4
National Underground Utility Database
69
3.5
Data Flow of Utility Mapping
70
3.6
Issues and challenges In Malaysia
71
3.7
The Appearance of IDS Detector Duo GPR System
72
3.8
The Details of the Utility Features (a) Test Site 1(located
75
at Wisma JUPEM, KL) and (b) Test site 2 (located at
xiii
FGRE, UTM Johor Bahru)
3.9
Scanning Orientation for Each Scanning Technique
81
3.10
Target Detectability Results for Test Site 1
84
3.11
Target Detectability Results for Test Site 2
85
3.12
Result of Numerical Modelling Analysis Using GprMax
88
Simulator
3.13
Target Detectability Result for the Case Study
90
4.1
Different Antenna Configuration of GPR System
97
4.2
Antenna Type (a) Shielded Antenna and (b) Unshielded
98
Antenna
4.3
Formation of the Hyperbola in Radargram
101
4.4
Data Processing Flow of 2D GPR Data
104
4.5
Yee Cell Used For FDTD
109
4.6
Experiment for Soil Moisture Measurement Using the
117
Over-Dry Method (a) Soil Samples for Experiment; (b)
Soil Moisture Measurement Experiment; (c) Soil Samples
Collected from the Test Site; (d) Weighting Different
Types of Soil Samples; (e) Prepare Samples for Oven-Dry;
and (f) Measure the Mass of Soil Samples
4.7
Matrix Sample for Simulation
120
4.8
Structure of Test Site 1
120
4.9
Flowchart of FDTD Modelling Procedures
121
4.10
Methodology Flowchart for Material Recognition (a) Data
123
Acquisition; (b) Pre-Processing; (c) Feature Detection; and
(d) Retrieval of Absolute Backscatter Signature
4.11
The Thresholding Segmentation Coding
124
4.12
Simulation Image Containing Combination of Nine
127
Different Utility Features Buried Near To Each Other’s
4.13
Different Fabrication
Material Containing Different
129
Hyperbola Pattern (a) Ductile Iron; (b) Mild Steel; (c)
Clay; (d) PVC; (e) HDPE; and (f) MDPE
4.14
Variation Buried Depth’s Simulation Images for Mild
Steel (a) 2.515 m; (b) 2.315 m; (c) 2.115 m; (d) 1.915 m;
130
xiv
(e) 1.715 m; and (f) 1.515 m
4.15
Different Surrounding Host Material’s Simulation Images
131
for Mild Steel (a) Dry Fine Sane; (b) Wet Fine Sand; (c)
Dry Coarse Sand; (d) Silty; (e) Dry Gravel; and (f) Wet
Gravel)
4.16
Results of Feature Detection (a) Test Site 1; (b) Test Site
132
2; and (c) Thean Hou Temple, near Robson Heights,
Malaysia.
4.17
Absolute Backscatter Signature Extracted from Simulation
135
Images Generated Based on Different Utility’s Fabrication
Material
4.18
Absolute Backscatter Signature Extracted from Simulation
136
Images Generated Based on Different Buried Depth
4.19
Absolute Backscatter Signature Extracted from Simulation
137
Images Generated Based on Using Fine Sand as
Surrounding Host Material
4.20
Absolute Backscatter Signature Extracted from Simulation
138
Images Generated Based on Using Coarse Sand as
Surrounding Host Material
4.21
Absolute Backscatter Signature Extracted from Simulation
139
Images Generated Based on Using Gravel as Surrounding
Host Material
4.22
Absolute Backscatter Signature Extracted From Case
142
Study Experimented at Test Site 1
4.23
Absolute Backscatter Signature Extracted From Case
143
Study Experimented at Test Site 2
4.24
Absolute Backscatter Signature Extracted from Case Study
144
Experimented Under Real World Condition at Thean Hou
Temple, Malaysia
5.1
Horizontal and Vertical Coverage Detail
149
5.2
Available Locating Technologies for Subsurface Utility
151
Mapping
5.3
Commonly Used Technologies for Utility Mapping
151
xv
5.4
GPR System That Commercially Available in Today’s
153
Market
5.5
Principle of GPR System
156
5.6
GPR Imaging Mechanism
157
5.7
Photo of the Test Site (Side View)
161
5.8
Pre-Processing Routine
163
5.9
Input Matrix for Simulation of (a) Vertically Stacked and
164
(b) Horizontally Stacked Subsurface Utility Features
5.10
Utility Congestion Situation within Current Subsurface
165
Spaces (a) Congested Shallow Subsurface Cause Trouble
for Determination of Type of Pipe; (b) Lack of Space for
Burying Pipes; (c) Stacking of Gas Line in a 150mm
Sewer Line by HDD; and (d) Vertically and Horizontally
Stacked Utility Features
5.11
Horizontally Stacked Buried Utility Features With
168
Different Interval Distances for Examining the Sensing
Constraints of GPR System
5.12
Vertically Stacked Buried Utility Features With Different
169
Interval Distances for Examining the Sensing Constraints
of GPR System
5.13
RMSE versus the Interval Distance between Two Adjacent
170
Utilities that Horizontally Stacked
5.14
RMSE versus the Interval Distance between Two Adjacent
Utilities that Vertically Stacked
171
xvi
LIST OF SYMBOLS
D
-
Depth of the target
v
-
Electromagnetic wave travel velocity
t
-
Two-way travel time (TWT) of electromagnetic wave
X’, Y’
-
Coordinates for points at subsurface
x, y
-
Coordinates for points at the ground surface
Xm, Ym
-
Mean of transformed points
xm, ym
-
Mean of the observed points
N
-
Number of points observed
rxi, ryi
-
Residual of a sample point
Zo
-
Observed depth
Z
-
Computed depth
∆t
-
Time delay
εr
-
Dielectric relative permittivity
cm
-
Speed of light
tn
-
Echo delay in position yn
t0
-
Echo delay
i0, j0
-
Hyperbola apex
Γ2
-
Voltage reflectance coefficient at a lower surface
σt
-
Material’s cross-section
d
-
Distance travel by signal
τ
-
Layer thickness
µ
-
Magnetic permeability
σ
-
Electrical conductivity / standard deviation
T
-
Threshold values
n
-
nth of utility
xvii
λ
-
wavelength
ô
-
Object distribution
R1 (t)
-
Backscatter amplitudes
Tn
-
Distance from the antenna to point (x1, y1, z1)
xt, yt, zt
-
Location of transmitter
xrn yrn zr n
, ,
-
Location of the receiver
xviii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
ABS
-
Acrylonitrile-butadiene-stryrene
ANOVA
-
Analysis of variance
APWA
-
American Public Works Association
ASCE
-
American Society of Civil Engineering
BGS
-
British Geological Society
CAT
-
Cable Avoidance Tool
CCTV
-
Closed-circuit television
CEM
-
Computation electromagnetic methods
COTS
-
Commercial Off-The-Shelf
DC
-
Direct Current
DE
-
Differential Equation
DI
-
Ductile Iron
EM
-
Electromagnetic
EPSRC
-
Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council
FDTD
-
Finite-Difference Time-Domain
FGRE
-
Faculty of Geoinformation and Real Estate
FMCW
-
Frequency Modulated Continuous Waveform
FRP
-
Fiberglass Reinforced Plastic
GIS
-
Geographical Information System
GPR
-
Ground Probing Radar/ Ground Penetrating Radar
GPS
-
Global Positioning System
HDD
-
Horizontal Directional Drilling
HDPE
-
High Density Polyethylene
IDS
-
Ingegneria Dei Sistemi
IE
-
Integral Equation
xix
JUPEM
-
Jabatan Ukur dan Pemetaan Malaysia
KDI
-
Knowledge and Data Integration
MDPE
-
Medium Density Polyethylene
MOSTI
-
Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation
MS
-
Mild Steel
MTU
-
Mapping the Underworld
NETTWORK
-
Engineering Programme Network in Trenchless
Technologies
PADU
-
Pangkalan Data Pemetaan Utiliti Kebangsaan
PE
-
Polyethylene
PML
-
Perfectly Match Layer
PVC
-
Polyvinyl chloride
R&D
-
Research and Development
RMSE
-
Root mean square error
RTK
-
Real-time Kinematik
SAR
-
Synthetic-Aperture Radar
SFCW
-
Stepped Frequency Continuous Waveform
SNR
-
Signal-to-Noise Ratio
SOP
-
Standard Operation Procedure
SUE
-
Subsurface Utility Engineering
SYABAS
-
Syarikat Bekalan Air Selangor
TWT
-
Two-way travel time
UHF
-
Ultra High Frequency
UKWIR
-
UK Water Industry Research
UTHM
-
Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
UTM
-
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
VHF
-
Very High Frequency
WADGPS
-
Wide Area Differential GPS
xx
LIST OF APPENDICES
APPENDIX
TITLE
PAGE
A
Simulation Images for Different Buried Depth
200
B
The Specification of GPR Systems, Available
205
on the Market
C
List of Publications
208
D
List of Awards
210