AN EVALUATION OF THE EFFECTIVENESS OF INTERACTIVE MULTIMEDIA
TO ENHANCE DIVERGENT ANALYTICAL THINKING SKILLS
HAMIZER BIN MOHD SUKOR
A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the
requirements for the award of the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
Faculty of Education
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
JULY 2006
iii
To my beloved wife, Zanariah,
and my two sons, Zamir and Zahhar
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Praise be upon Allah for giving me the strength to complete the thesis to fulfil
the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. In preparing this thesis, I was
in contact with many researchers, practitioners and academicians who have contributed
much to my understanding and thoughts.
In particular, I would like to express my sincere appreciation to my main thesis
supervisor, Professor Madya Dr Baharuddin b Aris for his guidance, critics and
friendship. I am also very thankful to Professor Madya Mohamad b Bilal Ali for his
assistance, motivation and continued support.
I am also indebted to the students and teachers who participated in the research
and helped me through the painstaking hours in conducting the study. Without their full
cooperation and constructive feedbacks, the research would not have been as successful
as it is being presented here. I would also like to thank the Ministry of Education of
Malaysia for funding this research.
Last, but certainly not least, to my family members, thanks for bearing with me. I
value your support and understanding.
v
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this research is to develop and evaluate the effectiveness of an
interactive multimedia package, based on students’ design preferences in non-academic
domain content with an aim of enhancing students’ divergent analytical thinking skills in
a collaborative learning environment. This study defines divergent analytical thinking as
consisting of identifying and analyzing statements by considering different viewpoints.
The modus operandi of the package is the sharing of text files in an asynchronous mode
in which students’ responses can be publicly accessed and judged by their peers. It
utilized the IT infrastructure already set up in smart schools. A quasi-experimental
research design of nonrandomized control group, pre-test-post-test design was used. The
research samples consisted of 233 students in experimental and 81 students in control
groups consisting of Form Four students in three fully residential smart schools in
Johore. The students were divided into three groups, each working on one specific
module only. Data were gathered using pre-test and post-test responses, observations
and group interviews. ANOVA testing indicated that the package significantly enhanced
the experimental groups’ performance compared to the control group for all the three
modules (significant level α = 0.05). No correlation with gender was found for all the
three modules. The study indicated a positive correlation between levels of personal
satisfactions on features of the package design to the extent of initial enhancements in
performance score after first exposure to the package with respect to pre-test score. After
a second exposure to the package, the disparity began to disappear for some students.
The study also uncovered positive attitudinal transformation amongst the students in the
experimental group.
vi
ABSTRAK
Kajian ini bertujuan untuk membina dan menilai keberkesanan satu pakej
multimedia interaktif, berasaskan reka bentuk yang dicadangkan pelajar yang
merangkumi bidang di luar domain akademik dalam mempertingkatkan keupayaan
pelajar dalam pemikiran analitikal secara divergen di dalam suasana pembelajaran
kolaboratif. Pemikiran analitikal secara divergen didefinisikan sebagai mengenalpasti
dan menganalisis pernyataan dengan mengambil kira pelbagai perspektif. Modus
operandi pakej ini adalah perkongsian bebas fail teks di dalam mod asynchronous di
mana segala respon pelajar boleh diakses dan dipertimbangkan oleh rakan mereka
dengan memanfaatkan infrastruktur IT yang sedia ada di sekolah-sekolah bestari di
Johor. Kajian bercorak kuasi-eksperimental jenis non randomized control group, pretest-post-test design digunakan. Sampel pelajar adalah terdiri daripada 233 orang dalam
kumpulan rawatan dan 81 orang dalam kumpulan kawalan daripada pelajar Tingkatan
Empat daripada sekolah bestari berasrama penuh di negeri Johor. Pelajar-pelajar tersebut
dibahagikan kepada tiga kumpulan mengikut tiga modul yang disediakan. Data kajian
dikumpulkan menerusi ujian pencapaian pra dan pos, pemerhatian dan temu bual
berkumpulan. Analisis ujian ANOVA menunjukkan wujudnya perbezaan yang
signifikan dalam peningkatan skor pencapaian di dalam kumpulan rawatan berbanding
dengan kumpulan kawalan bagi ketiga-tiga modul yang digunakan (aras keertian α =
0.05). Tiada korelasi dengan jantina dapat dikesan, juga terdapatnya korelasi positif di
antara tahap kepuasan pelajar terhadap aspek reka bentuk perisian dengan tahap
peningkatan awal skor pencapaian selepas pendedahan pertama terhadap perisian. Tahap
peningkatan awal skor pencapaian tidak mempengaruhi pencapaian pelajar secara
vii
keseluruhan selepas pendedahan kali kedua. Kajian ini juga mendedahkan perubahan
sikap yang positif di kalangan pelajar yang didedahkan kepada perisian.
viii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER
TITLE
PAGE
DECLARATION
ii
DEDICATION
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
iv
ABSTRACT
v
ABSTRAK
vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
vii
LIST OF TABLES
xvii
LIST OF FIGURES
xxvii
LIST OF APPENDICES
xxxi
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
xxxiv
ix
1
2
INTRODUCTION TO THE RESEARCH PROJECT
1
1.1
Introductory Remarks
1
1.2
The Background to the Research Project
2
1.3
The Statement of the Problem
9
1.4
The Objectives of the Research Project
9
1.5
The Specific Questions to be Addressed
10
1.6
Theoretical Framework of the Study
14
1.7
Operational Framework
17
1.8
The Rationale of the Research Project
20
1.9
The Significance of the Research Project
21
1.10
Limitations of the Study
22
1.11
Definition of Some of the Main Terms Used
23
1.12
Summary
27
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
28
2.1
28
Introduction
x
2.2
Types of Thinking Skills
29
2.3
Conceptions of Divergent Analytical Thinking
31
2.4
Direct Teaching of Thinking Skills
34
2.5
Formation of Thinking Skills within the Zone of
35
Proximal Development
2.6
Teaching Divergent Analytical Thinking Skills in a
37
Non-academic Context
2.7
Using Cognitive Apprenticeship Model to Simulate
39
Divergent Analytical Thinking Strategies
2.8
Use
of
Collaborative
Learning
to
Enhance
43
The Role of Graphic and Verbal Organizers and
44
Divergent Analytical Thinking
2.9
CoRT1 Techniques as Cognitive Tools
2.10
Divergent Analytical Thinking and Self-Paced
50
Learning Using an Interactive Multimedia Package
2.11
Group
Brainstorming
in
Computer- mediated-
53
Constructivist Approach to the Design of the
54
Communication (CMC)
2.12
Package
xi
2.13
Correlation
between
Gender
and
Divergent
56
Studies on Students’ Level of Contentment towards
57
Analytical Thinking Performance
2.14
Different Aspects of the Design of the Package
2.15
2.16
3
Some Issues in Instructional Design Principles
58
2.15.1
59
Interactivity as an Instructional Strategy
2.15.2 Screen Design
59
Summary
61
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
62
3.1
Introduction
62
3.2
The Research Methodology
63
3.2.1
Phase 1 (The Analysis Phase)
64
3.2.2
Phase 2A (Design Phase-The
65
Construction of the Treatment
Instrument)
3.2.3
Phase 2B (Design Phase-The Construction
of the Research Instruments)
66
xii
3.2.4 Phase 3A (Development Phase-
68
Storyboarding)
3.2.5 Phase 3B (Development Phase-Formative
69
Evaluation)
3.2.6 Phase 3C (Modification and Completion of
75
Package )
3.2.7 Phase 4 (Implementation Phase)
76
3.2.8 Phase 5 (Evaluation Phase)
79
3.3
Sampling
88
3.4
Research Instruments
92
3.4.1 The Analytical Thinking Skills Inventory
93
for Module 1, Module 2 and Module 3 (Pretest and First Post-test)
3.4.2 The Questionnaire on Students’ Preferences
93
in an Educational Multimedia Package
3.4.3 The Package Evaluation Form (for students)
93
3.4.4 The Package Evaluation Form ( for thinking
94
skills and instructional design experts)
3.4.5 The Observation Checklist
94
xiii
3.5
3.4.6 Interview Questions for Respondents
95
The Analytical Rubric Used to Measure
96
Performance Scores
3.6
4
Summary
100
DESIGN FEATURES OF THE PACKAGE
101
4.1
Introduction
101
4.2
The Authoring Software Used for the Development
102
of the Package
4.3
The Purpose and Content of Package
102
4.4
The General Structure of the Design of the Package
103
4.5
Accommodating Students’ Preferences into the
106
Design of the Package
4.6
Results of Experts’ Formative Evaluation on the
111
Design of the Package
4.7
Incorporating the Principles of Cognitive
112
Apprenticeship Model into the Design
4.8
Elements of Instruction Used in the Design
118
4.8.1
119
Computer Text
xiv
4.9
5
4.8.2
Computer Graphics
120
4.8.3
Computer Animation
120
4.8.4
Digital Audio
121
4.8.5
Digital Video
122
Summary
123
RESULTS AND DATA ANALYSIS
124
5.1
Introduction
124
5.2
Students’ Performances in Divergent Analytical
125
Thinking in Preliminary Study
5.3
Students’ Preference in an Educational Multimedia
126
Package
5.4
Quantitative Analysis of the Impact of CADATS on
Students’
Divergent
Analytical
130
Thinking
Performance In Accordance With Modules
5.4.1 Module 1 (COMPARE AND
130
CONTRAST)
5.4.2 Module 2 (PARTS OF A
WHOLE)
136
xv
5.4.3 Module 3 (PROPOSAL
141
PONDER)
5.5
Quantitative Analysis of Gender and Initial Gain in
Performance
Score
on
Students’
Level
147
of
Contentment towards Different Aspects of the
Design of the Package
5.6
Quantitative Analysis of the Effects of Gender and
Initial
Gain
in
Performance
Score
on
151
the
Enhancements of Divergent Analytical Thinking
5.7
Patterns of Students’ Performance for each Module
153
Based on Categories of Students
5.8
The Extent of Success of the Module in the Package
in
Enhancing
Students’
Divergent
156
Analytical
Thinking Skills
6
5.9
Results from Qualitative Analysis
157
5.10
Summary of Analyses of Results
166
DISCUSSION OF THE FINDINGS
170
6.1
Introduction
170
6.2
OBJECTIVE 1: The Impact of CADATS on
170
Students’ Performance in Divergent Analytical
Thinking Skills
xvi
6.3
OBJECTIVE 2: Factors and Features of the Design
174
That Contributed to the Enhancement of Divergent
Analytical Thinking Performance Scores
6.3.1
Features of Design Used in the Package
178
that Stimulated Enhancements in Students’
Performance
6.4
OBJECTIVE 3: Correlation between Students’
182
Level of Contentment on the Design of CADATS
and the Enhancement of their Performance Scores
6.5
OBJECTIVE 4: Attitudinal Transformation in
184
Students’ Outlook on Thinking
6.5.1 Students’ Perception on the Effectiveness of
Meta-cognitive
Instruction
CADATS
Graphic
via
Used
and
185
in
Verbal
Organizers
6.5.2 Students’ Perception on the Effectiveness of
188
Group Brainstorming Approach Used in CADATS
6.5
7
Conclusion
191
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
192
7.1
Introduction
192
7.2
General Conclusions
192
xvii
7.2.1
Students’ Divergent Analytical Thinking
194
Performance in Computer-supported
Environment
7.2.2
Implications of an Asynchronous Computer
195
Mediated Communication (CMC)
Environment on Students’ Disposition
7.3
Outcomes of the Research Project
197
7.4
Contributions of the Research Study to the
200
Advancement and Application of Knowledge
7.5
Recommendations for Future Research
200
7.6
Final Remarks
201
LIST OF REFERENCES
202
Appendices A – K
221
xviii
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE NO.
TITLE
PAGE
2.1
Four levels of questioning to promote analytical thinking skills
32
2.2
The differences between real- life and school-based problems
38
2.3
Oral (verbal) organizers used in ‘Compare and Contrast’
50
(Module 1)
2.4
Oral (verbal) organizers used in ‘Parts of a Whole’ (Module 2)
50
3.1
Pearson’s correlation coefficient for Analytical Thinking
68
Skills’ Inventory between the first and second pilot study
3.2
Category of items in Package Evaluation Form (for students)
72
3.3
Bivariate correlation analysis of items of ‘Ease of Use’ to the
72
total score in the category in Package Evaluation Form (for
students)
3.4
Bivariate correlation analysis of items of ‘Design of Thinking
Activity’ to the total score in the category in Package
Evaluation Form (for students)
73
xix
3.5
Bivariate correlation analysis of items of ‘Design of
73
Motivational Elements’ to the total score in the category in
Package Evaluation Form (for students)
3.6
Bivariate correlation analysis of items of ‘Design of User
74
Interface’ to the total score in the category in Package
Evaluation Form (for students)
3.7
Bivariate correlation analysis of items of ‘Navigational
74
Design’ to the total score in the category in Package
Evaluation Form (for students)
3.8
Bivariate correlation analysis of total score for each category
75
to overall total score in Package Evaluation Form (for
students)
3.9
Summary of statistical analysis used in relation to the research
81
questions in the study
3.10
Breakdown of samples in experimental group according to
91
classes
3.11
Distribution of the number of experts used in the study
92
3.12
Example of recoded response for Module 1 to illustrate scoring
96
rubric
3.13
Example of recoded response for Module 2 to illustrate scoring
rubric
97
xx
3.14
Example of recoded response for Module 3 to illustrate scoring
99
rubric
5.1
Participants in study of students’ preferences in an educational
127
multimedia package according to gender
5.2
Mean scores recorded for items in study of students’
127
preferences in an educational multimedia package
5.3
Students’ comments attached to questionnaire in the study of
129
students’ preferences in an educational multimedia package
5.4
Independent samples T- Test analysis on pre-test means of
131
experimental and control group for Module 1
5.5
Independent samples T-test analysis on pre-test means of
132
experimental and control groups with respect to gender for
Module 1
5.6
Paired sample T-Test analysis on pre-test and first post-test
132
means of experimental and control group for Module 1
5.7
Independent samples T- Test analysis on first post-test means
133
of experimental and control group for Module 1
5.8
Independent samples T-test analysis on first post-test means of
experimental and control groups with respect to gender for
Module 1
133
xxi
5.9
Independent samples T-test analysis on initial gain in
134
performance score of experimental and control groups with
respect to gender (pre-test scores as covariate) for Module 1
5.10
Independent samples T-test analysis on second post-test means
135
of experimental group with respect to gender for Module 1
5.11
Independent samples T-Test analysis on pre-test means of
137
experimental and control group for Module 2
5.12
Independent samples T-test analysis on pre-test means of
138
experimental and control groups with respect to gender for
Module 2
5.13
Paired sample T-Test analysis on pre-test and post-test means
138
for experimental and control group for Module 2
5.14
Independent samples T-test analysis on first post-test means of
139
experimental and control groups with respect to gender for
Module 2
5.15
Independent samples T-test analysis on initial gain in
140
performance score of experimental and control groups with
respect to gender (pre-test scores as covariate) for Module 2
5.16
Independent samples T-test analysis on second post-test means
141
of experimental group with respect to gender for Module 2
5.17
Independent samples T-Test analysis on pre-test means of
experimental and control groups for Module 3
143
xxii
5.18
Independent samples T-test analysis on pre-test means of
143
control and experimental groups with respect to gender for
Module 3
5.19
Paired sample T-Test analysis on pre-test and post-test means
144
of experimental and control groups for Module 3
5.20
Independent samples T-Test analysis on post-test means of
144
experimental and control group for Module 3
5.21
Independent samples T-test analysis on post-test means of
145
experimental and control groups with respect to gender for
Module 3
5.22
Independent samples T-test analysis on initial gain in
146
performance score of experimental and control groups with
respect to gender (pre-test scores as covariate) for Module 3
5.23
Independent samples T-test analysis on second post-test means
147
of Experimental group with respect to gender for Module 3
5.24
Analysis of variance of students’ level of contentment towards
149
different aspects of the design of the package between
categories of students
5.25
To probe the effectiveness of each module by comparing
means of difference between second post-test and pre-test
performance scores between categories of students using
analysis of variance
151
xxiii
5.26
Analysis of variance of mean difference of second post-test
156
scores and pre-test scores of students to reveal the most
effective module in the package
5.27
General students’ responses from group interviews related to
157
the use of collaborative learning techniques in the package
5.28
Quantity of collaborative participation amongst student
159
respondents
5.29
General students’ responses from group interviews related to
160
the effectiveness of thinking tools used in the package
5.30
General students’ responses from group interviews related to
162
the instructional design of the package
5.31
General students’ responses from group interviews related to
164
the elements of motivational aspects incorporated into the
package
A1
List of problem scenarios posed to the participants of the
221
preliminary study
A2
Students’ answer sheet for Module 1 (Compare and Contrast)
222
A3
Students’ answer sheet for Module 2 (Parts of a Whole)
222
A4
Students’ responses to inventory used in the preliminary study
223
for Module 1 (Compare and Contrast)
xxiv
A5
Students’ responses from inventory used in the preliminary
229
study using Module 2 (Parts of a Whole)
C1
Students ‘think aloud’ responses for items in Module 1
270
(Compare and Contrast) in first pilot test
C2
Students ‘think aloud’ responses for items in Module 2 (Parts
273
of a Whole) in first pilot test
C3
Students ‘think aloud’ responses for items in Module 3
276
(Proposal Ponder) in first pilot test
C4
Calculation of Ind ex of Difficulty and Index of Discrimination
279
for items in Analytical Thinking Skills Inventory for Module 1
(Compare and Contrast) after second pilot study
C5
Calculation of Index of Difficulty and Index of Discrimination
280
for items in Analytical Thinking Skills Inventory for Module 2
(Parts of a Whole) after second pilot study
C6
Calculation of Index of Difficulty and Index of Discrimination
281
for items in Analytical Thinking Skills Inventory for Module 3
(Proposal Ponder) after second pilot study
D1
Package evaluation results by students
282
D2
Comments made by students in formative evaluation of
283
prototype
D3
Results of formative evaluation of prototype by Instruction
Design Expert
285
xxv
D4
287
General comments made by Instructional Design Expert on
prototype.
D5
Results of formative evaluation of prototype by content experts
288
D6
General comments made by content experts on prototype
289
D7
Results of formative evaluation of prototype by content expert:
290
Professor Abdullah b Hassan (Universiti Pendidikan Sultan
Idris)
E1
Score distribution of pre-test and post-test of control group for
291
Module 1
E2
Score distribution of pre-test, first post-test and second post-
292
test for experimental group of Module 1
E3
Score distribution of pre-test and post-test for control group of
294
Module 2
E4
Score distribution of pre-test, first post-test and second post-
295
test for experimental group of Module 2
E5
Score distribution of pre-test and post-test for control group of
297
Module 3
E6
Score distribution of pre-test, first post-test and second posttest for experimental group of Module 3
298
xxvi
F1
Summary of students’ responses from interview questions after
300
exploring Module 1 (Compare and Contrast)
F2
Summary of students’ responses from interview questions after
304
exploring Module 2 (Parts of a Whole)
F3
Summary of students’ responses from interview questions after
308
exploring Module 3 (Proposal Ponder)
G1
Sample of top five recoded students’ responses from pre-test of
312
Module 1 (Compare and Contrast) in Bahasa Melayu
G2
Sample of top five recoded students’ responses from pre-test of
314
Module 2 (Parts of a Whole) in Bahasa Melayu
G3
Sample of top five recoded students’ responses from pre-test of
316
Module 3 (Proposal Ponder) in Bahasa Melayu
G4
Sample of top five recoded students’ responses from post-test
318
of Module 1 (Compare and Contrast) in Bahasa Melayu
G5
Sample of top five recoded students’ responses from post-test
320
of Module 2 (Parts of a Whole) in Bahasa Melayu
G6
Sample of top five recoded students’ responses from post-test
322
of Module 3 (Proposal Ponder) in Bahasa Melayu
G7
Sample of five problem scenarios created by students and
responses from their peers in second post-test for Module 1
(Compare and Contrast) in Bahasa Melayu
324
xxvii
G8
Sample of five problem scenarios created by students and
326
responses from their peers in second post-test for Module 2
(Parts of a Whole) in Bahasa Melayu
G9
Sample of five problem scenarios created by students and
responses from their peers in second post-test for Module 3
(Proposal Ponder) in Bahasa Melayu
328
xxviii
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE NO.
TITLE
PAGE
1.1
The structure of the theoretical framework
14
1.2
The structure of the operational framework
17
2.1
Progression through the four phases of the ‘zone of proximal
36
development’
2.2
Graphic and verbal organizers used in ‘Reason!Able’ to
47
nurture critical thinking skills for its users
2.3
An examp le of a graphic organizer used for ‘Compare and
48
Contrast’ (Module 1)
2.4
An example of a graphic organizer used for ‘Parts of a
49
Whole’ (Module 2)
3.1
A schematic representation of the research design
77
4.1
User interface previewing the screen layout for Module 3
104
xxix
4.2
User interface to viewing montage or direct access to
104
modules
4.3
The ‘User Registration’ interface
105
4.4
An example of a video representation of a problem scenario
113
4.5
An example of an audio representation of a problem scenario
113
4.6a
Verbal organizer requiring students to state their perspective
114
in advance
4.6b
CADATS acknowledging students’ declared perspective
115
4.7
Browsing other students’ responses for a particular problem
115
scenario
4.8
An example of a graphic organizer in Module 2 (Parts of a
116
Whole)
4.9
An example of a verbal organizer used in Module 3
116
(Proposal Ponder)
4.10
‘Meter prestasi’ (Performance meter) to indicate students’
120
performance based on current score for the module in
progress
5.1
Profile of students’ level of contentment towards different
aspects of the design of the package
148
xxx
5.2
Trends of performance scores for Module 1 according to
153
categories of students
5.3
Trends of performance scores for Module 2 according to
154
categories of students
5.4
Trends of performance scores for Module 3 according to
155
categories of students
6.1
Facility for full collaborative mode used in second posttests
173
6.2
An example of graphic organizer used in Module 3
181
6.3
Set of icons and pull-down menu for modules in CADATS
182
6.4
Meta-cognitive instructions used in Module 1
186
6.5
Meta-cognitive instructions used in Module 2
187
6.6
Meta-cognitive instructions used in Module 3
187
6.7
Example of list of students’ responses which were accessible
190
to all users
H1
Overall structure of CADATS
330
H2
Structure of introductory interface of CADATS
331
H3
General structure of modules in CADATS
332
H4
General structure of ‘Collaborative Learning’ segment
333
xxxi
J1
User interface in ‘Kenal’ segment
334
J2
User interface in ‘Demonstrasi’ segment
334
J3
User interface in ‘Ajar’ segment
335
J4
User interface in ‘Aplikasi’ segment
335
J5
User interface displaying other users’ responses before
335
embarking on a problem scenario
J6
User interface in ‘Refleksi’ segment
336
J7
User interface in online assessment of CADATS using
336
questionnaire-type document
J8
Interactive chart that portray one’s assessment scores of
336
CADATS against the average scores indicated by their peers
J9
User interface of free text-based feedback form on CADATS
337
J10
User interface of interactive quiz in CADATS
337
J11
User interface of ‘Collaborative Learning’ segment
337
xxxii
LIST OF APPENDICES
APPENDIX
A1
TITLE
PAGE
Divergent Analytical Thinking Inventory Used
221
in Preliminary Study
A2
A Recoded Representation of Students’
223
Responses from Divergent Analytical Thinking
Inventory Used in Preliminary Study (Set 1)
A3
A Recoded Representation of Students’
229
Responses from Divergent Analytical Thinking
Inventory Used in Preliminary Study (Set 2)
B1
Students’ Preferences in a Multimedia Package
250
B2
Package Evaluation Form (For Students)
252
B3
Package Evaluation Form (For Thinking Skills
254
Experts)
B4
Package Evaluation Form (For Instructional
256
Design Expert)
B5
Observational Checklist
258
xxxiii
B6
Interview Questions for Respondents
260
B7
Analytical Thinking Inventory For Module 1
261
(Pre-test)
B8
Analytical Thinking Inventory For Module 2
264
(Pre-test)
B9
Analytical Thinking Inventory For Module 3
267
(Pre-test)
C
Results From Pilot Study
270
D
Results of Formative Evaluation of Package
282
E
Results of Summative Evaluation of Package
291
F
Summary of Students’ Responses From Group
300
Interviews
G
Examples of Students’ Responses From Pre-
312
and Post-Test Sessions
H1
Overall Structure of CADATS
330
H2
Structure of Introductory Interface of CADATS
331
H3
General Structure of Modules in CADATS
332
xxxiv
H4
General Structure of “Collaborative Learning’
333
Segment
J
User Interfaces Used in CADATS
334
K
List of Related Papers Presented by Researcher
338
Confirmation Letters by Experts for Formative
Evaluation of Package
Letters of Consent by Ministry of Education of
Malaysia and Johore Education Department to
Conduct Research
xxxv
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
CADATS
-
Collaborative Approach Divergent Analytical Thinking Simulator
CoRT1
-
Cognitive Research Trust tools for divergent thinking
PMI
-
Plus, Minus, Interesting (One of the thinking tools in CoRT1)
CAF
-
Consider All Factors (One of the thinking tools in CoRT1)
C&S
-
Consequence and Sequel (One of the thinking tools in CoRT1)
OPV
-
Other Peoples’ Views (One of the thinking tools in CoRT1)
LAN
-
Local Area Network
p
-
Significance level for statistical analyses purposes
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO THE RESEARCH PROJECT
1.1
Introductory Remarks
This chapter introduces the reader to the research project. It attempts to explain
the background of the research, the statement of the problem, the research questions and
the significance of the study. It then gives a description of the structure of the research,
outlining the research and theoretical framework and finally, it defines some of the main
terms used in the thesis.
In Malaysia, relatively little has been done to investigate divergent analytical
thinking capabilities of its students in a collaborative, multimedia environment. In view
of the objectives of the present educational system to develop the quality of manpower
for it to enter the new knowledge era, a better understanding of the resourcefulness of
Malaysian students and factors which could affect or enhance it becomes more crucial.
The influence of personal variables such as gender, extent of enhancement in
performance as well as students’ level of contentment on the design of the package
provide useful information on the practicability of integrating multimedia technology
into the teaching of thinking skills which would be of concern to the educator and the
policy- makers. The development of the interactive multimedia package was based on
the premise that computer supported systems can support and facilitate group process
2
and group dynamics in ways that are not achievable by face-to-face, although not
designed to replace face-to-face communication. It was typically tailored for use by
multiple learners working at the same workstation or across networked machines in
asynchronous mode to support communicating ideas and information and providing
access to peer group’s responses to a specific problem. Since the package developed
utilized the concept of file sharing in a group brainstorming session, the study would
contribute significantly in the area of direct teaching of thinking skills in a computersupported collaborative environment.
1.2
The Background to the Research Project
As, for several reasons, divergent analytical thinking is not successfully
integrated within traditional classroom instruction; it is an interesting question, whether
it can be trained with computer-based instruction. In the era of the Internet and of
information society, “divergent analytical thinking” represents a major qualification.
Gilster (1997) regarded analytical thinking as the most important skill when using the
Internet, because the Internet is full of information gathered from multiple points of
views. Reinmann-Rothmeier (1998) and Mandl (1998), as quoted by Astle iner (2002),
found in a Delphi-study, that experts from economy and education nominated critical
and analytical thinking as the most important skill in knowledge management. Enis
(2002) saw critical and analytical thinking as “an important, perhaps the most important
of all present time educational tasks”. For achieving this complex goal, schools and
teachers have to be assisted from educational theory and research.
Educational research activities showed that analytical thinking is significantly
anchored within curricula and related teaching goal taxonomies, but that it is not
supported and taught systematically in daily instruction. The main reasons for this
shortcoming are that teachers are not educated in analytical thinking, that there are no
textbooks on analytical thinking available and that teachers have no time and other
3
instructional resources to integrate analytical thinking into their daily instruction
(Astleitner, 2002). This shortcoming counts a lot, because analytical thinking is highly
correla ted with students' achievements. Frisby (1992) reported correlation coefficients of
about 0.40 with the US-school achievement test (SAT). Also, Yeh and Wu (1992) found
similar correlation coefficients with other standardized school achievement tests and
grades. Very high correlation coefficients ranging from 0.45 to 0.47, or effect sizes
larger than 1 were reported for mathematics and science instruction. These correlations
have to be considered in educational research, even though they can be explained to
some degree with the moderating effect of student's intelligence.
In the field of education and instruction, this kind of research and related
approaches were used to develop programs for promoting thinking skills in students.
But, only very few of these programs realized a comprehensive “analytical thinking
program” in a way that is actually suggested by educational researchers and instructional
designers.
According to Halpern (1998), such programs for promoting analytical
thinking should have the following features: 1) they should consider a disposition or an
attitude against analytical thinking; 2) they should regard analytical thinking as a general
skill that must be deepened within different subject matters or contexts; 3) they should
offer a segmented and instructionally fully developed training in specific skills; 4) they
should focus on all (or many) relevant subskills of analytical thinking and integrate
them; 5) they should include parts for stimulating the transfer of knowledge; 6) they
should support meta-cognitive skills for assisting self-regulation activities; 7) they
should not include formal, mathematical, etc. algorithms, but everyday language
problems; 8) they should train students for a several week's or month's period; and 9)
they should consider the organizational context of classroom instruction.
When traditional classroom instruction do not work, then it is obvious to ask for
alternative classroom scenarios. In such scenarios, the teacher should be assisted by
some additional help or the students should be able to work for their own and therefore
release the teacher from some duties. Such assisting and releasing functions can be
realized by computer-based instruction, especially CDROM and networked-based
4
instruction for collaborative learning. CDROM and Internet-based instruction showed to
be successful for learning in general and for lower order thinking skills in a literature
review compiled by Dillon and Gabbard (1998). But, such reviews were not yet made
for higher order thinking skills, like analytical thinking. It is an open question, whether
CDROM and Internet-based instruction can successfully promote analytical thinking in
daily instruction.
Jonassen (1996) postulated that mulimedia can be used as content and as tool (for
problem solving) in order to stimulate and support analytical thinking. Duffelmeyer
(2000) pointed out that relevant everyday problems infused into daily instruction could
be used to teach analytical thinking and to use multimedia to deliver analytical think ing
skills. Reimann and Bosnjak (1998), however, delivered some empirical data about the
efficiency of computer tools for analytical thinking. They used hypertexts as a tool to
stimulate and guide analytical thinking. In their study, students had to critic ize and to
expand an argument structure and had free access to a content-rich hypertext. But, using
the hypertext did unexpectedly not improve analytical thinking. The authors of this study
concluded that it is not sufficient to offer content information, but that analytical
thinking has to be supported by carefully designed instructional activities. This
assumption is also confirmed by a study from Glebas (1997), in which another computer
tool, a spreadsheet, was found to be ineffective for analytical thinking when it is not
integrated within an instructional context. Scarce (1997) found that the use of email —
as communication tool without any further instructional function — did not improve
analytical thinking in comparison with traditional classroom instruction. Santos and
DeOliveira (1999) found similar non-significant results when using the Internet as tool
for content presentation.
Within traditional learning environments, in contrast to many other findings,
positive effects of collaborative learning on analytical thinking were reported (e.g.,
Gokhale, 1995). These results are mainly due to the fact that carefully designed
collaborative learning generally delivers many different point-of- views, and therefore
many different learning experiences and multi- faceted learning support. Newman,
5
Johnson, Cochrane, and Webb (1996) compared a traditional course with a course in
which an Internet-based discussion forum for assisting collaborative learning was used.
They found that using the discussion forum resulted in better analytical thinking,
because students had more learning materials available and related more often their
arguments to each other. Overall, students in the discussion forum condition experienced
more learning opportunities than students in the traditional course. Despite this
remarkable result, this study tells nothing about the design of learning environments for
promoting analytical thinking. Bullen (1998) delivered more background knowledge
about the design of learning environments based on students' surveys about using an
Internet-based discussion forum. A content analysis of students' messages showed,
however, that students did not acquire analytical thinking. The author gave several
reasons for this finding, but without testing them in a controlled setting. Also, students
missed specific instructional activities which were related to a certain teaching goal.
Sloffer, Dueber, and Duffy (1999) as quoted by Astleiner (2002) implemented a
synchronous and an asynchronous conferencing tool for promoting analytical thinking
which considered the suggestions given by Bullen (1998). In addition, they stimulated
analytical thinking by visualizing elements of the analytical thinking process. For
example, students had to assign to their messages symbols indicating important elements
of analytical thinking, like “hypotheses” or “evidence”. The authors also implemented a
mechanism that only those students could read other messages which accomplished their
own duties. Finally, a human tutor had to motivate students. Results showed that many
students delivered contributions with high-quality analytical thinking content and that
almost all students read the messages of the other students. However, this positive result
was not confirmed by comparable research stud ies.
To sum up, it can be stated that the effect of collaborative learning with
multimedia on analytical thinking, cannot be evaluated properly. The given results show
some instructional elements that can help to improve the situation, but these elements
have not yet been tested within controlled research. When using this type of new media
for promoting analytical thinking, then everyone has to be aware of the fact that
collaborative learning has to be enhanced by specific analytical thinking tasks and tha t
6
learning in such environments has to be managed comprehensively in respect to time,
group meetings, etc. Overall, the state-of-the-art of research on collaborative learning,
multimedia, and analytical thinking shows no consistent fmdings, but it shows that
preparing and managing this form of learning require significant additional time
resources and advanced technical skills. When having a closer look at the present
situation in daily school, then it is not realistic that analytical thinking can be promoted
by collaborative learning and related media, because the necessary effort in time,
preparation, etc. for teachers significantly exceeds the expectable learning effects for
students.
According to Chan et.al.(2001), divergent analytical thinking is vital in
producing ideational fluency (capability of producing many ideas), resistant to closure
(the ability to keep an ‘open mind’), flexibility (the ability to produce a large variety of
ideas), originality (the ability to produce ideas that are unusual), elaboration (the ability
to develop ideas) and abstractness of titles (the ability to transfer the essence of a figural
into another modality). Preliminary study done by the researcher revealed that students
did not give much importance to this aspect.
According to Astleiner (2002), analytical thinking consists of identifying and analyzing
diverse arguments and of logical reasoning. Paul (1997) defined analytical thinking as
“to break up a whole into its parts, to examine in detail so as to determine the nature of,
to look more deeply into an issue or situation. Students should continually be asked to
analyze their ideas, claims, experiences, interpretations, judgments, and theories and
those they hear and read." Analytical thinking forms the core of analytical thinking
which constitute a higher-order thinking skill mainly consisting of evaluating arguments
(Astleiner, 2002).
Overall, it seems very difficult to successfully implement divergent analytical
thinking skills into traditional classroom instructio n. Ediger (1999) saw that problems
faced in engaging students in thinking were that: (1) Students want factual answers
rather than thinking things through when analyzing subject matter (2) Students are in a
7
hurry to discuss alternatives in and during time devoted to thinking (3) Students do not
wish to take time to deliberate on ideas presented (4) Students fail to engage in depth
thinking when coming up with alternative ideas (5) Students lack background
information and mind models to do analytical and analytical thinking. Thus, according
to Gifford (2000), a positive attitude as well as competence to be able to think
enthusiastically, methodically and successfully need to be inculcated amongst students.
The package is an attempt by the researcher to alleviate these problems amongst
Malaysian Form Four students, particularly in fully residential smart schools in the state
of Johore.
Past researches done in Malaysia seem to point out the lack of success in
propagating analytical and analytical thinking in schools. Asmah (1994) conducted a
survey of teachers’ knowledge, skills and attitudes in secondary schools in Kuching,
Sarawak. Results of the study include: (a) teachers have a minimal knowledge of basic
skills and tasks emphasized in analytical thinking. (b) a course on analytical thinking
had an effects on teachers' skills and attitudes towards analytical thinking. The findings
of this study suggested that analytical thinking instruction is best achieved by
incorporating it into present subjects but the delivery and effectiveness is wanting. This
phenomena was echoed in the research done by Lam (1994) which indicated a general
lack of analytical and analytical thinking skills amongst teachers and students.
Sadhna Nair (1998) conducted a case study on the thinking skills in a Malaysian
ESL (English as Second Language) context. The findings of this study indicated that
although teachers are aware of the importance of integrating thinking skills into the
English Language curriculum, they do not seem to have the appropriate knowledge and
skills needed to assist them in their attempts at integrating these thinking skills into
lessons successfully.
Rajendran (1998) set out to probe the teaching of higher-order thinking skills in
language classrooms in Malaysia. The contributions of the study to knowledge about
teacher learning include (1) Teachers perceived that they are not prepared to make this
8
innovation in their own classrooms. Teachers also lack the attributes to construct the
pedagogical content knowledge. The number of years teachers have been teaching
significantly influenced their perceptions of their knowledge and skills. (2). Many
factors such as teachers' own orientations towards teaching, curricular requirements, and
myths about teaching thinking inhibit the teaching of higher-order thinking skills. (3).
There is a dissonance between what teachers believe and carry out and the kind of
teaching recommended by reformers. Their own orientations towards teaching are often
not changed by their pre-service and in-service training. (4). All the four language
components are underutilized in promoting higher-order thinking skills. There is a
serious need for teachers to understand the importance of active student participation
and encourage it in their own classrooms. Some strategies, such as the problem solving
strategy, have the potential to promote higher-order thinking skills in language
classrooms. Teachers are not adequately prepared to use the infusion approach.
Another aim of the research was to examine degree of satisfaction on the design
aspects of the package and its correlation with performance gain in divergent analytical
thinking exercises. The style of display has a great influence on the learning
performance (Levin, 1997). Weiss (1994) divided multimedia interface into several
units: (1) the display interface (2) the conversation or interactivity interface (3) the
navigation interface and (4) the control interface. This study was based on the premise
developed by Crook (1991) that to extract the maximum educational potential of
computers in education, the interface design must create a positive emotional reaction or
intrinsic satisfaction amongst the users. Passig and Levin (2000) reported the presence
of gender differences in the level of contentment to varying designs of multimedia
interfaces which affect the user in terms of performance and the desire to use the
package. An in-depth study into the influence of these individualistic factors would thus
contribute in revealing their correlation wit h students’ performance in a Computermediated-Communication (CMC) environment which forms the perimeters of this
project.
9
1.3
The Statement of the Problem
The primary focus of this research was to
1.
analyse the difference in levels of proficiency in divergent analytical thinking
skills before and after exposure to an interactive multimedia courseware specially
developed for that purpose with regards to gender and level of contentment towards the
instructional design used in the package
2.
examine students’ perception towards the instructional techniques adopted by the
courseware to upgrade divergent analytical thinking.
3.
analyse the features in an interactive multimedia courseware that can contribute
to the enhancement of divergent analytical thinking skills of students
1.4
The Objectives of the Research Project
1.
To conduct a quasi-experimental study to measure quantitatively any significant
improvement in students’ performance in divergent analytical thinking after exposure to
the developed interactive multimedia package with respect to
(i)
control and experimental groups
(ii)
gender
2.
To investigate features of an interactive multimedia courseware package that
could contribute to the enhancement of divergent analytical thinking skills amongst it s
users
3.
To investigate possible correlation between students’ performance scores on
divergent analytical thinking skills and their level of contentment towards the design of
the package.
10
4.
To investigate students’ perception on the instructional design adopted by the
package that would contribute to a positive change to divergent analytical thinking.
In order to achieve the objectives stated above, the researcher has to
a.
To conduct a preliminary study of the adeptness of students of Form Four in
fully residential smart schools in Johore towards divergent analytical thinking skills
using real- life ill-structured problems.
b. To develop an interactive multimedia package prototype using group brainstorming
technique in a networked environment based on meta-cognitive model through the usage
of graphic and verbal organizer and several CoRT1 tools. Three modules were
developed to represent three different facets of analytical thinking namely: Module 1:
Compare and Contrast; Module 2: Parts of a Whole and Module 3: Proposal Ponder.
This package is entitled ‘Collaborative-Approach Divergent Analytical Thinking
Simulator’ (CADATS).
c. To conduct formative and summative evaluation in order to produce a fully- tested
interactive multimedia package.
d. To conduct quantitative and qualitative analyses on students’ performance scores
and students’ perception of instructional methodologies adopted by the package.
1.5
The Specific Questions to be Addressed
(A)
To test whether male and female students were equally competent in control and
experimental group in the pre-test:
Q1.
Were there any statistically significant differences in performance in divergent
analytical thinking before exposure to the package between the control and experimental
group for each of the three modules?
11
Q2
Were there any statistically significant differences in performance in divergent
analytical thinking before exposure to the package for each of the three modules in the
package between male and female respondents in the control group?
Q3.
Were there any statistically significant differences in performance in divergent
analytical thinking before exposure to the package for each of the three modules in the
package between male and female respondents in the experimental group?
(B)
To ascertain whether the package did significantly affect performance in
analytical thinking skills
Q4.
Were there any statistically significant differences in performance in divergent
analytical thinking scores for each of the three modules in the package between the pretest and first post-test scores for the experimental and control groups?
Q5.
Were there any statistically significant differences in performance in divergent
analytical thinking for each of the three modules in the package between male and
female respondents in the first post-test scores for the control group?
Q6.
Were there any statistically significant differences in performance in divergent
analytical thinking after exposure to the package (first post-test) for each of the three
modules in the package between male and female respondents in the experimental
group?
(C)
To investigate whether any of the gender groups showed significant improvement
in first post-test performance scores with pre-test scores as covariate (initial
performance score gain) in the experimental and control groups:
Q7.
Were there any statistically significant differences in initial performance gain in
divergent analytical thinking in first post-test for each of the three modules in the
package shown by the male and female respondents in the control group?
Q8.
Were there any statistically significant differences in initial performance gain in
analytical thinking in first post-test for each of the three modules in the package shown
by the male and female respondents in the experimental group?
12
(D)
To test whether any significant difference was shown by male and female
students on the second post-test in the experimental group:
Q9.
Were there any statistically significant differences in performance on second
post-test scores (full collaborative mode) with respect to gender for experimental group?
For the next batch of research questions, students were categorized into 4 groups based
on gender and initial level of gain in performance score (first post-test minus pre-test
scores)
(1) Male-Low Gain
(3) Female-Low Gain
(2) Male-High Gain
(4) Female-High Gain
Low and High Gain were determined by the students’ rank in initial gain in performance
score with respect to the overall mean gain in performance score in the experimental
group only.
(E)
To depict the level of contentment shown by different categories of students
towards different aspects of the design of the package:
Q10.
What were the profiles of the level of contentment indicated by the different
categories of students in the experimental group after exposure to the package in terms
of the factors below:
a.
Ease of use
b.
Design of thinking activity
c.
Design of motivational elements
d.
Design of user interface
e.
Navigational design of the interactive multimedia package
13
(F)
To test whether any statistically significant difference was indicated by different
categories of students on their level of contentment towards different aspects of design of
the package:
Q11.
For each category of students, was there any statistically significant difference in
the level of contentment indicated for each module in terms of the factors below:
a.
Ease of use
b.
Design of thinking activity
c.
Design of motivational elements
d.
Design of user interface
e.
Navigational design of the interactive multimedia package
(G)
To compare efficiency of the three modules in enhancing performance of students
in divergent analytical thinking capabilities:
Q12.
Which category of students benefited the least and the most from exposure to the
interactive multimedia package based on the second post-test performance score for each
module?
Q13.
Which one of the three modules was the most effective in terms of enhancing
students’ performance scores in divergent analytical thinking based on the second posttest scores?
(H)
Qualitative data to probe performance of different categories of students in using
the package:
Q14.
How did students with different gender and levels of initial performance gain in
divergent analytical thinking scores view the group brainstorming techniques as well as
the graphical and verbal organizers employed in the interactive multimedia package?
Q15.
What were the features of the package that contributed to the enhancement of
divergent analytical thinking skills amongst its users?
14
1.6
Theoretical Framework of the Study
Developing package
using the ADDIE Model
‘KADAR’
METHODOLOGY OF
TEACHING
THINKING SKILLS
COGNITVE
APPRENTICESHIP
MODEL
Worked examples
Interactivity
between individuals
Activation of
students prior
knowledge and
experience
Ill-structured
problems with many
possible answers
Use of motivational
elements
Use of graphic and
verbal organizers
as scaffolds
KENAL
Introduce the skill
AJAR
Teach the skill
DEMONSTRASI
Demonstrate the
skill
APLIKASI
Apply the skill
REFLEKSI
Make decision
using the products
ANALYSES
ON THE EFFECTIVENESS
OF THE PACKAGE
Figure 1.1
The structure of the theoretical framework
The methodology adopted in developing the interactive multimedia package was
based on the ADDIE model as shown in Figure 1.2 in the operational framework. The
framework for the development of the multimedia prototype consisted of the five
developmental stages of the ADDIE model, namely:
•
Analysis
•
Design
15
•
Development
•
Implementation
•
Evaluation
The research project involved the preliminary needs analysis, exploring methods
for direct teaching of thinking skills, constructing instruments to divulge divergent
analytical thinking skills of respondents and checking for validity and reliability, design
and development of prototype, content validation by experts, implementation and
evaluation of an interactive multimedia package in analytical thinking skills using three
techniques; verbal and graphic organisers and several CoRT1 tools. These are strategies
adopted by local experts in thinking skills and are found in numerous documents
published by the Ministry of Education (Som and Mohd Dahlan, 1998 and Poh, 2000).
The underlying concepts that served as underpinnings for this study are namely:
•
Cognitive Apprenticeship Model
•
KADAR methodology of direct teaching of thinking skills
a.
Cognitive Apprenticeship Model
Cognitive apprenticeship is situated within the social constructivist paradigm. It
suggests students to work in teams on projects or problems with close scaffolding of the
instructor. The main characteristics of cognitive apprenticeship have been identified and
elaborated upon by De Corte (1990) in his analysis of powerful learning environments.
De Corte explained how powerful learning environments allow students to move from
apprentices to master or expert status. For example, students need to observe an expert
performing the task (modeling) and to be given hints and feedback on their own
performance (coaching). They need to be given direct support (scaffolding) in the early
stages of learning a task and to move gradually from other-regulation to self-regulation
(fading). Students also need the opportunity to articulate their own cognitive and metacognitive strategies and to make comparisons with other learners; they should explore,
identify and define new problems within a domain and be shown how strategies acquired
16
in one domain can be used to learn and solve problems in another domain (teaching for
transfer).
Cognitive apprenticeship model demand that student tasks to be slightly more
difficult than students can manage independently, requiring the aid of their peers and
instructor to succeed (Collins, Brown and Holum, 1991). Gilliani (2000) outlined the
phases that would lead to a student achieving his full potential, which included ‘reliance
on others’, ‘collaborate with others’, ‘self-reliance’ and lastly ‘internalization’ of
knowledge and skills. These phases formed the basis of the instructional design of the
interactive multimedia package.
Proponents of collaborative learning claim that the active exchange of ideas
within small groups not only increases interest among the participants but also promotes
thinking. According to Gokhale (1995), there was evidence that collaborative teams
achieve at higher levels of thought and retain information longer than students who work
quietly as individuals. The shared learning gives students an opportunity to engage in
discussion, take responsibility for their own learning, and thus become analytical and
analytical thinkers (Gokhale, 1995).
b.
KADAR methodology of direct teaching of thinking skills
This strategy was introduced by Phillips (1997) for teaching thinking skills and is
referred to as KADAR. The acronym appropriately stands for KENAL (Introduce),
AJAR (Explain), DEMONSTRASI (Demonstrate), APLIKASI (Apply) and REFLEKSI
(Reflect).
A slight modification was made in the developed interactive multimedia
package in that the sequence of instruction was modified to KDAAR based on the
researcher’s own findings conducted in the formative evaluation stage of the
effectiveness in its implementation. The output from the exercise would then be
scrutinized by the respondents in the ‘decision- making’ stage (REFLEKSI). The
respondents would then be assessed by the scores they accumulate during the session.
Operational Framework
Design Phase
Analysis Phase
1.7
Prepared Analytical Thinking Skills Inventory and test for reliability and
validity
Preparing media elements such as audio and animations
Design of analytical rubric to measure performance scores of pre and posttests
Use of tools for delivering content: Graphic and Verbal Organizers, CoRT1
Integrated relevant theories and strategies as design platform
Prepared storyboard
Students’ preferences in an educational multimedia courseware package
explored
Results obtained from tests and interviews tabulated and conclusions
drawn
Performed tests to investigate divergent analytical thinking pattern and
performance level of Form Four students (34 students)
17
Implementation
And Evaluation Phase
Development Phase
Figure 1.2
The structure of the operational framework
Quantitative evaluation of package by respondents
Qualitative case studies (structured group interviews, in-depth interviews
and observation checklist) to probe attitudinal transformation after
exposure to package
Pre-test, Post-test and Second Post-test on
divergent analytical thinking skill levels of respondents on three separate
modules
Formative evaluation by respondents; implement results of evaluation on
package development
Content validation by experts on three separate modules of analytical
thinking
Used of Authorware 6 as platform for implementing storyboard and
compiling package
18
19
The structural content underlying the development of the package was based on
the cognitive apprenticeship model using a modified approach of teaching thinking skills
namely KADAR, proposed by Phillips (1997). Three modules representing three
different facets of analytical thinking were constructed using graphic and verbal
organizers as tools of thinking. The modules were Compare and Contrast (Module 1),
Parts of a Whole (Module 2) and Proposal Ponder (Module 3). Graphic and verbal
organizers as laid out by Poh (2000) and Som and Mohd Dahlan (1998) formed the
backbone for Module 1 and Module 2, whilst the researcher constructed the graphic and
verbal organizers for Module 3. Several CoRT1 tools were implanted into the package
to facilitate divergent thinking. Elements of multimedia, interactivity and collaborative
learning were then installed and undergone formative evaluation. The computer
laboratories in three fully residential smart schools in Johore were chosen for the venue
of the study to simulate collaborative learning in a intranetworked environment, where
sharing of text files within a group of work stations were possible. Results of the
formative evaluation by students and expert teachers were used to rectify weaknesses in
the design. The interactive multimedia package developed as a vehicle for divergent
analytical thinking skills enhancement then underwent summative evaluation to
determine its effectiveness. The respondents from the randomly assigned control and
experimental groups were administered pre-testing to determine levels of divergent
analytical thinking performance using the ‘pencil and paper’ technique. Each student
was tested using only one module. Their performance was evaluated based on ideational
fluency and flexibility using an analytical rubric devised by the researcher and validated
by expert teachers in the field of ‘Analytical and Creative Thinking’. After a time lapse
of two to three weeks, the control groups underwent post-tests whilst the experimental
groups were then given the opportunity to explore the package based on the same
module that they were initially tested in the pre-test. Respondents’ behavioural
dispositions were documented using an observational checklist. A second post-test were
administered the next day where the respondents participated in a fully collaborative
session. In this session, respondents create their own problems or scenarios and their
peers would then have a go at them. Responses were recoded and scrutinized by the
analytical rubric to calculate the performance score. Structured group interviews were
20
conducted in which the members were picked based on types of modules exposed. The
transcripts were then recoded and summarize to include all the respondents’ experiences
and perceptions towards the package based on their responses from the pre-determined
interview questions. Another session of a smaller scale in-depth group interviews was
conducted in which the members were picked from different groups of respondents
based on gender and level of gain in performance scores after the first post-tests were
conducted. The transcripts were then analyzed qualitatively by cross-checking responses
from different categories of students with the previous larger-scale group interviews’
feedbacks to explore in-depth their personal experiences and any contrasting outlook on
the effectiveness of the package.
1.8
The Rationale of the Research Project
Many important aspects of school life and home learning climate were
predominantly motivated by the need to do well in examinations which curtailed
students’ mental process to conforming to ideas presented to them from the textbooks
and other main stream resources (Nickerson, 1988). In addition, Kartini (1998)
deliberated on the lack of emphasis given by trainee teachers on thinking skills’
instructions in teaching colleges in the country. Results from other studies done locally
exposed a low command of analytical thinking skills amongst Malaysian students
(Safiah, 1996; Ravi, 1999; Razali, 1999).
One of the primary considerations in the Integrated Curriculum for
Secondary School (KBSM) is ‘to develop and enhance (students’) intellectual
capacity with respect to rational, analytical and creative thinking’ (Ministry of
Education, 1989). This is in line with the National Education Philosophy. The need to
develop and enhance thinking skills amongst students is important and pressing
so as to achieve one of the goals of Vision 2020 which is to produce a thinking
society. An integrated or infusion approach of teaching thinking skills is adopted
21
which involves the inclusion of thinking skills instruction within the subject
matter ever since. Thus, the need to inculcate the culture and skills in thinking is
ranked highly in the educational achievements of Malaysian students. Roman
(2003) deliberated the skills that the 21st century worker will need and amongst them
are logical and intuitive analytical skills.
Evidence that is available from the literature on scientific reasoning suggests
significant weakness in methodical thinking within school students that have
implications on their thinking skills (Beyer, 1987). Cognitive strategies, even though
they have been the focus of attention in scientific reasoning research, may sadly be the
most analytical element that is lacking in our student s’ forte. This fact became apparent
from the pre-test results administered in this study. The researcher thus raised the
possibility that students at the middle school level have a non-existent mental model that
underlies weakness in methodical thinking, and that impedes the ir analytical thinking
capability.
Why should we be concerned about students’ adeptness in divergent analytical
thinking in our classrooms? Obviously we want to educate citizens of Malaysia whose
decisions and choices will be based upon a multitude of ideas that span across a wide
ranging school of thought. Maintaining a high level of productivity in today’s modern
society requires one to be analytical and analytical in processing ideas as well as
capability in utilizing a number of different strategies of thinking.
1.9
The Significance of the Research Project
Indeed, very few studies have been conducted using newer instructional
techniques, such as by means of multimedia package in a networked environment using
the collaborative learning approach. From the researcher’s literature search, it can be
generalized that the teaching of skills, especially in divergent analytical thinking skills,
22
is still very much an emerging field of study in Malaysia. Since the aim of the current
research project was to develop multimedia technology to meet the needs of Malaysian
students and teachers, it was felt that the project would contribute to the literature on the
teaching of thinking skills using interactive multimedia technology. The correlation
between students’ degree of contentment towards different aspects of design used in the
package and their improvements in performance would also throw some light on issues
regarding factors that could influence students’ readiness and acceptance to use a new
medium of instruction.
1.10
Limitations of the Study
Some of the limitations of the study will now be reviewed.
The first limitation of the study is the lack of generalization. The results could
not be generalized outside fully residential smart schools in Johore, since the study only
involved students of those schools. Entry requirements and socio-cultural background
of these schools are not representative of day schools in the country. Superior academic
excellence is a dominant factor of the respondents involved in the study.
Limited
exposure to social environment might have inhibited diversity in students’ responses.
Although variance was homogeneous in this study through the method of sample
selection, it would be interesting to look into a more heterogeneous population.
Secondly, the number of scenarios posed to the respondents for each module was
limited to six. This was due to the time constraint involved in each session. Respondents
showed a much more positive eagerness in exploring the package in the second post-test
when they tried out scenarios or problems created by their peers which was more diverse
in nature, more relevant to their personal interests and much greater in number.
23
Thirdly, the effects of the package on enhancing students’ performance and any
attitudinal change that followed would be seen as short term effect. This is due to the
short length of exposure time for respondents to explore the package.
1.11
Definition of Some of the Main Terms Used
1.
Divergent Analytical Thinking Skills
It is regarded as a thinking exercise in which students generate as much verbal
ideas as possible on a task based divergent thinking paradigm, universally known as
ideational fluency. Since the scope of this project is focussed on analytical thinking
based on peer group’s views as the knowledge base and involved only verbal tasks, the
term divergent analytical thinking was coined. Ainon and Abdullah (1995) pointed out
that analytical thinking is an effort to perceive a situation in detail, breaking up entities
into its components, to compare and contrast, to find the root cause of a problem and to
find correlations between facts and situations. Modules in the package facilitate the
generation of ideas either from one’s own thought or reproduce ideas generated from
his/her peers. The performance score would take into account the number of ideas
generated by a student (ideational fluency) and the number of view points taken
(ideational flexibility). The quality of ideas generated is not judged.
The elements in the interactive multimedia package are comprised of three
modules on analytical thinking skills namely: Comparing and Contrasting, Relationship
between Parts to a Whole and Proposal Ponder. It is an endeavor to cover some and not
all aspects of analytical thinking skills.
The items posed to the students are designed to generate analytical and creative
thinking in considering all possible solutions and view points. The ability to generate
24
statements through the use of graphic and verbal organizers with the utilization of
CoRT1 techniques and peers’ responses as knowledge base to proliferate these ideas will
be the success indicator of the multimedia package.
The analytical rubric used to measure divergent analytical thinking performance
scores are illustrated in Section 3.5.
2.
Graphic organizers
It is defined as a mapping framework or symbolic guidelines to organize factual
data and highlight relationships between them (Poh, 2000). Module 1 (Compare and
Contrast) and Module 2 (Relationship between Parts to a Whole) of the developed
package made use of graphic organizers taken from Poh Swee Hiang’s (2000) “KBKK:
Kemahiran Berfikir Secara Kritis dan Kreatif” and Som and Mohd Dahlan’s (1998)
book of the same name with a slight modification by the researcher of this study. The
graphic organizer used in Module 3 (Proposal Ponder) is constructed specially for this
study by the researcher. Please refer to Figures 2.3, 2.4 and 4.9 for diagrammatic
illustrations.
3.
Verbal organizers
Som and Mohd Dahlan (1998) viewed the importance of planting probing
questions in thinking as “a tool to stimulate a person to procure information, to explore
understanding, to generate interest and evaluate one’s aptitude on a subject.” The use of
verbal organizers in this study is not in the usual form of questions posing but statements
generated by the package based on respondents input to confirm, substantiate and verify
ideas put forward. This constituted a meta-cognitive element in the package to facilitate
reflection on individual responses. Please refer to Tables 2.3 and 2.4 and Figure 4.9 for
diagrammatic illustration.
25
4.
Interactive multimedia
Interactive multimedia refers to an interactive learning material incorporating
different, integrated types of media which is interactive in nature. Hofstetter (1995)
defined multimedia as “a computer to present and combine text, graphics, audio, and
video.” Hofstetter also maintained: “If one of these components is missing, you do not
have multimedia. For example, if a computer does not provide interactivity, you have
mixed media, not multimedia”. Vaughan (1999) further strengthened the definition of
multimedia, and described it as “woven combinations of text, graphic art, sound,
animation, and video elements. When you allow an end user – the viewer of a
multimedia project – to control what elements are delivered, and when, it is called
interactive multimedia.” The use of audio and video materials as well as appropriate
Flash animations and helpful navigational buttons will be highlighted in the package.
5.
Analytical thinking skills performance score and initial performance score gain
The respondents’ performance in the pre-test, first post-test and second post-test
sessions are based upon the total number of statements produced by the respondents for
the module that they worked on. These scores will be further amplified if the responses
given are categorically different or from different view points. This is to cater for
ideational fluency and flexibility of the responses key- in. This analytical rubric used will
be further elaborated in Chapter 4.
The initial gain in performance score would
constitute the difference between first post-test and pre-test scores to indicate the extent
of initial impact of the package and used later to correlate with students’ level of
contentment on the design of the package.
6.
CoRT1 tools
CoRT stands for Cognitive Research Trust initiated by Edward de Bono. CoRT1
tools are used in education to train the mind to be more creative, constructive and
analytical by widening one’s perception or views (Poh, 2000). It is composed of seven
26
techniques but only PMI (Plus, Minus, Interesting), CAF (Consider All Factors), C&S
(Consequence and Sequel) and OPV (Other Peoples’ Views) were used in this study.
These tools constitute the ‘divergent’ factor of the package.
7.
Collaborative approach in an intranetworked environment
Students are individually involved in authentic inquiry such as organizing ideas
and resources, questioning and interpreting responses and decision making. Responses
and feedbacks by peers are open to free access by all the members of the group through
the sharing of text files stored on the network server in asynchronous mode. Thus, each
and every member in the Local Area Network would collaboratively contribute ideas
towards the problems at hand.
8.
Problem scenarios
Questions in the pre-test and post-test are posed using everyday situational
problems that are seen relevant to the students’ past experiences or knowledge base.
These ill-structured questions do not have a right or wrong answer attached to it and is
entirely dependent on the students’ own discretion to provide as many responses as they
possibly could. Nevertheless, towards the end of each problem scenario, the students
would have to reflect and decide on the best response as they saw fit to represent the
outcome to the problem. This was to provide a purpose for the whole exercise as well as
to accommodate for analytical thinking and decision making skills but would not affect
their performance scores.
27
1.12
Summary
The study is aimed at investigating the feasibility of providing students with an
alternative mode of enhancing divergent analytical thinking skills through multimedia
driven, collaborative learning approach. The possible relationships between students’
level of analytical thinking skills, gender and their level of contentment towards
different aspects of the design of the package were also explored. It is imperative that
the design of research is capable of magnifying differences in effectiveness of the
package between different profiles of students so as to ensure a profound and
multifaceted study can be carried out successfully, thus specific strategies were
employed in the data analysis stage to highlight any significant differences that might
have existed between them.
28
CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.1
Introduction
The most fundamental question in educational practice relates to how to
organize materials to impart skills for optimum learning effects by the students. In
setting up a computer-based learning environment, the question is reformulated as what
theoretical concepts and pedagogical strategies to be implemented to facilitate learning.
The conceptual framework used in this research are primarily focused on cognitive
apprenticeship model, Vygotsky’s ‘zone of proximal development’ and constructivist
approach to aspects of design used in the package. The researcher attempts to outline the
methodology for direct teaching of thinking skills in a collaborative, multimedia
environment and the influence of gender and students’ level of contentment on different
aspects of the designs used in the package exhibited by different groups on their
enhancement in performance. A justification for direct teaching of thinking skills is
presented based on the limited success of the infusion method currently being practiced
in the Malaysian educational system. This chapter attempts to provide insights to
features of cognitive apprenticeship model, thinking tools and strategies that are needed
to support divergent analytical thinking skills processes and explorations made by
researchers to achieve a favorable strategy for promoting think ing skills in an interactive
29
multimedia open-learning environment as well as gender and affective influence on
students’ performance.
2.2
Types of Thinking Skills
Lewis (1997) categorized thinking skills into four types as follows:
2.2.1 Strategic thinking
Strategic thinking includes vision, resources, values and assumptions. Strategic
thinkers start by establishing their vision in clear, concise and measurable terms. For
example, as part of your marketing plan you may want to increase sales 20 percent the
next year. The resources available may include:
*
Money:
How much is in the advertising budget? Can more be added for a
new advertisement campaign?
*
Time:
Is it realistic to expect sales to increase that much in just a year?
*
People:
Should sales staff be added? If so, how many positions?
*
Equipment :
Do you have the equipment you need to increase sales? How
about upgrades or new equipment?
*
Skills:
Does everyone have the know-how to improve sales? What
additional training may be needed?
Strategic thinking involves making assumptions. The person might assume that
customers will buy more product if prices are lower or sales might increase if quality is
increased slightly and prices remain steady.
30
2.2.2. Power Thinking
Power thinking allows the person to remain upbeat and positive, no matter what
happens. It gives him/her confidence to reach goals and influence people. But staying
positive requires extra effort. These four steps are usually practiced by power thinkers:
1. Recognize what's right.
2. Go with positives.
3. Keep your eye on negatives.
4. Turn negatives into positives.
2.2.3 Creative thinking
Despite differences in how people are creative, everyone should follow the same
process when searching for creative answers:
1. Get ready:
Realize an opportunity for creative solutions exists. Gather
information and work on understanding the problem.
2. Mull it over:
This step requires that you take a mental break from the problem,
allowing your subconscious to take over.
3. The AHA!:
In this step, your mind connects information and the solution
comes to you in one quick flash of inspiration.
4. Check it out :
Is it valid? In other words, will it really work?
To stimulate creative thinking, creative thinkers would follow these guidelines.
First, by postponing judgment, the person would come up with more possibilities and
increase the chances of finding the right solution. Second, ridiculous ideas are not
discounted. It may result in unique, innovative solutions. Third, the person would
generate as many ideas as he possibly could using brainstorming, mind mapping or idea
writing, then passing them on to others for their input.
31
2.2.4
Analytical Thinking
Analytical thinking helps a person to make the right choice. Analytical thinkers
keep these guidelines in mind:
*
Using power thinking to stay positive and identify the best solutions.
*
Relying on strategic-thinking tools, such as logic and common sense, to
stay organized.
*
Seriously consider all ideas generated by creative thinking.
*
Stay focused and choose solutions that can meet the goals that have been
set.
An analytical thinker would step away from the situation and carefully plan his
strategy by comparing and ranking options available.
2.3
Conceptions of Divergent Analytical Thinking
In the literature the terms `analytical thinking' and ‘critical thinking’ are often
used in tandem to describe competencies which seem not only to be applicable to
teaching- learning in context but also to learning in many workplace contexts. As it is
conceived, critical thinking involves abilities in identifying a problem and its associated
assumptions; clarifying and focusing the problem; and analyzing, understanding and
making use of inferences, inductive and deductive logic, as well as judging the validity
and reliability of the assumptions, sources of data or information available (Kennedy,
Fisher and Ennis, 1991). For instance, Ennis's view of critical thinking involves broad
dispositions, transferable over various domains such as being `open- minded', `drawing
unwarranted assumptions cautiously' and `weighing the credibility of evidence' (Enis,
2002). Ainon and Abdullah (1995) pointed out that analytical thinking is an effort to
perceive a situation in detail, breaking up entities into its components, to compare and
contrast, to find the root cause of a problem and to find correlations between facts and
situations. Wilen (1985) deliberated that analytical thinking focuses upon parts and their
32
functionality in the whole. Behavioral verbs often linked with this level are: analyze,
compare, categorize, take apart, differentiate, examine, subdivide, distinguish and
contrast. He proposed four levels of line of questioning to extricate analytical thinking
amongst students comprising of convergent questions which seek to ascertain basic
knowledge and understanding and divergent questions which require students to process
information analytically as shown in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1:
Four levels of questioning to promote analytical thinking skills
Level I –
Low Order Convergent
Questions requiring students to engage in
reproducing information. Emphasis is upon
memorization, recitation and experience.
Questions requiring students to do productive
thinking. Student understands and mentally
Level II –
High Order Convergent
organizes information. Examples: summarize,
explain, translate, paraphrase, and compare (Bloom's
comprehension and application levels).
Questions requiring students to supply a reason or
cause, citing evidence to support or verify their
Level III –
Low Order Divergent
answers. Implies: give evidence, provide reasons
for, infer, deduce, draw conclusions, and analyze
causes (Bloom's analysis level).
Questions requiring students to respond creatively
Level IV –
and originally to problems or scenarios. Examples:
speculate, give an opinion, pose solutions, value,
High Order Divergent
judge, and generate possibilities (Bloom's synthesis
and evaluation levels).
33
The interactive multimedia package was developed to meet the criteria for the
fourth level of questioning (High Order Divergent) where divergent thinking was also
involved in pondering over responses and feedbacks from peer groups.
Divergent thinking tests are scored in terms of the number of distinct ideas
(ideational fluency), the number of unique or unusual responses (ideational originality),
and the number of categories in the responses (ideational flexibility). However, these
scores have been criticized because of their marginal predictive validity and their lack of
validity (Chan et al., 2001). Specifically, originality and flexibility have been found to
be redundant with fluency in gifted and non-gifted samples (Runco, Okuda and
Thurston, 1987). The nature of this study has sidelined ideational originality since
collaborative facilities incorporated into the package allowed free access to peers’
responses, thus duplicating responses could not be avoided. Nonetheless, divergent
thinking in general and ideational fluency measures in particular are now generally
regarded as informative measures of one component of creative performance (Runco,
1990).
Potts (1994) outlined the strategies to effectively promote analytical thinking
skills amongst students. These include
•
Promoting interaction among students as they learn - Learning in a group setting
often helps each member achieve more.
•
Asking open-ended questions that do not assume the "one right answer" –
Analytical thinking is often exemplified best when the problems are inherently
ill-defined and do not have a "right" answer. Open-ended questions also
encourage students to think and respond creatively, without fear of giving the
"wrong" answer.
•
Allowing sufficient time for students to reflect on the questions asked or
problems posed – Divergent analytical thinking seldom eventually involves
judgments; therefore, posing questions and allowing adequate time before
soliciting responses helps students understand that they are expected to deliberate
and to ponder, and that the immediate response is not always the best response.
34
2.4
The Direct Teaching of Thinking Skills
Teachers interested in developing student thinking abilities have often stimulated
their students through thought-provoking questions, discussions, and assignments.
Activities such as these contribute to a thoughtful classroom. However, Edwards (1991)
pointed out that they may not necessarily result in the improvement of thinking for every
student. He viewed that a more direct approach may be needed to develop the specific
skills and strategies of good thinking.
Any identified thinking skill or process can be taught directly. To this end, Beyer
(1987) has identified the following six-step lesson model for introducing any thinking
skill:
Step 1 - Introduce the Skill
Step 2 - Explain the Skill
Step 3 - Demonstrate (model) the Skill
Step 4 - Review What Was Done
Step 5 - Apply the Skill (guided practice)
Step 6 - Reflect on the Skill
This approach is mirrored by Phillips (1997) in which he introduced a strategy
for teaching thinking skills referred to as KADAR. The acronym appropriately stands for
KENAL (Introduce), AJAR (Explain), DEMONSTRASI (Demonstrate), APLIKASI
(Apply) and REFLEKSI (Reflect). A slight modification was made in the developed
interactive multimedia package in that the sequence of instruction was modified to
KDAAR based on the researcher’s own findings conducted in the formative evaluation
stage of the effectiveness in its implementation. The output from the exercise would then
be scrutinized by the respondents in the ‘decision- making’ stage (REFLEKSI). The
respondents would then be assessed by the scores they accumulate during the session.
35
The research on transfer (Johnson, 1995) points out that, in general, students do
not spontaneously apply thinking skills le arned in one situation into new contexts. Thus,
the direct teaching of thinking skills must include overt attention to transfer by helping
students to make the connection of newly- learned thinking skills into various content
areas as well as into “real world,” out-of-school contexts. Several underlying factors are
deemed vital in implementing direct teaching of thinking skills: a non competitive
learning atmosphere through peer groups, the students’ perceived need for the skill and
the teachers’ acceptance for divergent thinking (Jackson, 1986).
2.5
Formation of Thinking Skills within the Zone of Proximal Development
A salient feature of constructivist standpoint is that human development and
learning such as cognitive ability originates and develops out of social and cultural
interaction within what is known as the ‘zone of proximal development’, a term coined
by Vygotsky. Vygotsky introduced the ‘zone of proximal development’ to explain the
dynamic relationship between learning and development as the distance between actual
developmental level as determined by the individual and the level of potential
development under guidance or collaboration with more capable peers or expert
guidance. Transformation of actual development to potential development progressed
through several phases where there is gradual internalization of knowledge (Gilliani,
2000). These phases involved reliance on others, collaboration with others, self-reliance
and internalization. These phases constitute the ‘zone of proximal development’ which
formed the foundation of the interactive multimedia package developed as shown in
Figure 2.1.
36
Actual development
Zone of Proximal Development
Potential Development
Reliance on others
Collaborate with others
Self-reliance
Internalization
Figure 2.1:
Progression through the four phases of the ‘zone of proximal
development’
In phase 1, the students are passive as they rely on the modeling and presentation
of the package. The package would invoke their prior knowledge and generate their
interest on the content and scenario presented. Strategies used would be the inclusion of
multimedia materials such as audio and video components to focus students’ attention
and interest. In phase 2, the students become interactive and begin to use collaboration
and communication facility with the social situation to begin construction of their own
ideas. In phase 3, the students become active and rely on their own knowledge and
experience for further accumulation of knowledge. In phase 4, the students would be
capable of using their newly acquired knowledge, without much conscious effort, to
generate decisions based on their own perception and not based on consensus.
Gilliani (2000) suggested the following implications on educational design: (1)
Education should be socially situated whereby students’ cultural background and
personal experience are considered (2) Communication, collaboration and interaction
should be included (3) Zone of proximal development should provide the basis of
educational design (4) Within each level, different activities must be designed with
37
sufficient assistance provided for the students (5) The role of students should progress
from passive to collaborative to active. These concepts formed the basis of the design of
the interactive multimedia package which aspired to enhance students’ divergent
analytical thinking skills. Nevertheless, the role of the students exposed to the package
was restricted to collaborative rather than active. This was to inculcate students’
appreciation for multi-perspective outlook on problems.
2.6
Teaching Divergent Analytical Thinking Skills in a Non-academic Context
Since the late 1980s, in particular, there has been much argument in the
literature that schools and universities are lacking in their ability to produce students
who can think creatively, who can solve problems and who can use the knowledge they
have acquired in appropriate and adaptive ways. The assertion is that students' abilities
to think and reason are not being developed, and the culture of classrooms promotes
superficial rather than deep learning (Standen and Herrington ,1997).
Sternberg, Wagner and Okagaki (1993) analyzed the differences between the
kinds of problems learners face in academic situations and practical, real- world
applications. For example, academic problems tend to be: formulated by others, welldefined, complete in the information they provide, characterized by having only one
correct answer, characterized by having only one method of obtaining the correct
answer, irrelevant from ordinary experience, and of little or no intrinsic interest to the
students. In direct contrast to the academic approach, practical problems tend to be
characterized by: the key roles of problem recognition and definition, the ill-defined
nature of the problem, substantial information seeking, multiple correct solutions,
multiple methods of obtaining solutions, the availability of relevant prior experience,
and often highly motivating and emotionally involving contingencies. These key
differences between the school-based approach and real life have been summarized by
Lebow and Wager (1994) as depicted in Table 2.2.
38
Table 2.2:
The differences between real- life and school-based problems
Real-life
In-school
1. Involves ill formulated problems and
1. Involves 'textbook' examples and well
ill structured conditions.
structured conditions.
2. Problems are embedded in a specific
2. Problems are largely abstract and
and meaningful context.
decontextualized.
3. Problems have depth, complexity and
3. Problems lack depth, complexity, and
duration.
duration.
4. Involves cooperative relations and
4. Involves competitive relations and
shared consequences.
individual assessment.
5. Problems are perceived as real and
5. Problems typically seem artificial with
worth solving.
low relevance for students.
According to many of these writers, traditional school and university learning
is in danger of becoming isolated, irrelevant and marginalized from mainstream realworld activity and performance. The challenge is for educators to align formal learning
more substantially with the way learning is achieved in real- life settings, and to base
instructional materials design on more recent theories of learning which reflect this shift.
One method which has the potential to achieve this is the theory of situated cognition or
situated learning. Brown, Collins and Duguid (1989) were the first to use the ideas to
produce a proposal for a model of instruction that has implications for classroom
practice. In their model of situated cognition, they argued that meaningful learning will
only take place if it is embedded in the social and physical context within which it will
be used.
39
2.7
Using Cognitive Apprenticeship Model to Simulate Divergent Analytical
Thinking Strategies
Research has demonstrated that experts approach and solve problems much
differently from novices (Hendricks, 2001). According to Scoenfeld (1985), experts tend
to rely on mental analogies or patterns to get at the basic nature of complex problems or
to reinterpret them until solutions become apparent. Novices use routine procedures built
on limited knowledge.
Cognitive apprenticeship uses the familiar concept of craft or trade
apprenticeship as the prevailing metaphor for teaching basic and advanced skills in
reading, writing, and arithmetic (Collins, Brown and Holum, 1991). Authentic activities
are used to guide student experiences and involvement. Many instructional approaches
found in conventional apprenticeship experiences are also useful in cognitive
apprenticeship models, such as learning through observation, modeling, coaching and
fading,
scaffolding,
and
guided
practice. Yam (1995) considered cognitive
apprenticeship model as (a) viewing knowledge and skills as socially constructed
through action, communication and reflection involving learners (b) teaching- learning
processes outside the traditional classroom boundaries (c) starts with what the learner
knows and construct understanding based on it (d) use of a modeling expert to promote
change in learner concepts towards proficient performance.
Unlike conventional apprenticeship models, which have a singular focus on
concrete, observable (physical) skills, cognitive apprenticeship emphasizes symbolic,
mental (thinking) skills taught in combination with physical skills. Here, internalized
mental processes are externalized through social interaction, observation, practice, and
reflection about tasks to be completed. A strong emphasis is placed on generalizing
knowledge to a wide variety of settings through systematic course of action. Collins,
Brown and Holum (1991) stated that "learning should be embedded in a setting that is
more like the real world, where the tasks have some 'authentic' relationship to students'
40
lives and a community of people working together to accomplish real-world goals."
Therefore, the problem of transfer is addressed for students who typically experience
difficulties transferring what they learn from school to everyday life.
The cognitive apprenticeship model is developed around four main elements-content, methods, sequence, and sociology (Collins, 1991). These four elements are not
new to education, but, when taken together, they may define a more effective learning
situation. Content refers to types of knowledge and skills that experts use to solve
complex, real world problems. These include domain knowledge and heuristics.
Together, they form a comprehensive "package" of information needed to solve
authentic problems. Domain knowledge consists of subject- matter-specific concepts,
facts, and procedures or strategies. This type of knowledge is usually found in textbooks
or class lectures and is essential for understanding any subject area. However, when
taught in isolated and abstract ways, domain knowledge provides insufficient clues
about how to solve problems and accomplish higher level tasks. To solve complex
problems, experts often rely on heuristics or "tricks of the trade" that are acquired only
through experience (Cervero, 1992).
In a cognitive apprenticeship model, the package’s role is to mediate or facilitate
learning among its respondents. There are two main areas of teaching/learning methods
employed- articulation and reflection which consist of modeling, coaching, scaffolding,
and fading (Brown, Collins and Duguid, 1989). The package offer hints, provide support
and feedback. All coaching methods are aimed at bringing learner performance closer to
expert behavior. Scaffolding is an instructional method that relies prominently on
dialogue between the student and the package to help a student successfully carry out a
task. Supporting questions provide respondents with just enough support and guidance
to achieve goals or reflect and verify ideas. These articulation methods will encourage
students to verbalize their knowledge, mental reasoning, or approaches to problem
solving.
41
Presenting global before local skills allows students to first see the big picture or
build a mental map. Specific details are then filled in as instructional opportunities are
presented. This approach can provide students with an understanding of how individual
pieces of work fit a larger scheme, and are consistent with the idea that we seek to make
our learning meaningful (Caine and Caine, 1991). An advantage of using a "big picture"
approach is that learners are more empowered to monitor their own progress using and
practicing control/meta-cognitive strategies.
A final characteristic of the cognitive apprenticeship model emphasizes four
aspects related to the beliefs, values, culture, and social settings of real world learning.
These aspects include situated learning, community of practice, intrinsic motivation, and
taking advantage of opportunities for cooperative learning (Brown, Collins and Duguid,
1989).
Developing intrinsic motivation among learners is the key to activating
knowledge. One educationist has contended that learning tasks must be
….intrinsically related to an interesting or at least cohe rent goal rather than for
some extrinsic reason, such as getting a good grade or pleasing the teacher.
(Brown, 1991: 302)
Further, when knowledge is valued by the learner, the effectiveness of teaching
methods such as modeling, coaching, and scaffolding is enhanced. Teachers who exploit
and foster cooperation among learners will greatly enhance advanced cognitive skills.
Learning through cooperative or collaborative problem solving is both a powerful
motivator and a powerful mechanism for extending learning resources (Brown, Collins
and Duguid, 1989).
Cognitive apprenticeship is situated within the social constructivist paradigm.
They suggest students work in teams on projects or problems with close scaffolding of
the instructor. Cognitive apprenticeships are representative of Vygotskian "zones of
42
proximal development" in which student tasks are slightly more difficult than students
can manage independently, requiring the aid of their peers and instructor to succeed
(Collins, 1991). Schank and Jona (1991) have proposed the cognitive apprenticeship
method in teaching thinking skills. This method emphasizes on three aspects. First, it is
directed at teaching processes that experts use to handle complex tasks. It requires that
knowledge and skills be exemplified and situated in the contexts of their use. Secondly,
cognitive apprenticeship focuses on the development of cognitive and meta-cognitive
processes of learning rather than physical skills. It seeks to encourage the development
of self-correcting through reflection of one’s own learning activity.
And thirdly,
learning occurs in an embedded social context through collaboration techniques and real
life situations. Thus transfer of learning becomes minimal.
Attempts have been made to employ cognitive apprenticeship models within
computer environments. Kramarski and Ritkof (2002) used a meta-cognitive teaching
and learning strategy using the cognitive apprenticeship model of instruction called
IMPROVE to learn about graphs in EXCEL environment. The study addressed the
extent of promoting meta-cognitive behaviors among experimental and control lowachievers. One class was exposed to EXCEL software embedded within email
interaction, and the other class was exposed to EXCEL software embedded within email
interaction and meta-cognitive instruction. They reported positively that students who
were exposed to meta-cognitive treatment with IMPROVE tended to construct graphs
better and were able to reflect better on their learning compared to those who were not
exposed to such treatment. Looi and Tan (1998) used WordMath, a computer software
designed on instructional cognitive apprenticeship methodology, on thirty-six 11-12
year-olds and concluded that the software has a good potential of supporting thoughtful
practice in students by enabling them to engage actively and reflectively in problem
solving. Teong (2003) who probed further on the use of WordMath provided evidence
that the role of low achievers’ meta-cognition, influenced by meta-cognitive training in
cognitive-apprenticeship-based environment, contributed to their word-problem solving
performance.
43
This study utilized graphic and verbal organizers and CoRT1 techniques to
impose on the students features of scaffolding in their minds to structure their thoughts
so as to enhance their analytical thinking performance. This activity was conducted as
collaborative group-work and discussions are encouraged to facilitate active exchanges
of ideas. Problems posed were designed to be as near to real life as possible.
2.8
Use of Collaborative Learning to Enhance Divergent Analytical Thinking
The concept of collaborative learning, the grouping and pairing of students for
the purpose of achieving an academic goal has been widely researched and advocated
throughout the professional literature. The term "collaborative learning" refers to an
instruction method in which students at various performance levels work together in
small groups toward a common goal. The students are responsible for one another's
learning as well as their own. Thus, the success of one student helps other students to be
successful.
Proponents of collaborative learning claim that the active exchange of ideas
within small groups not only increases interest among the participants but also promotes
thinking skills. According to Miller (1996), there is persuasive evidence that cooperative
teams achieve at higher levels of thought and retain information longer than students
who work quietly as individuals. The shared learning gives students an opportunity to
engage in discussion, take responsibility for their own learning, and thus become critical
and analytical thinkers (Gokhale, 1995).
A study conducted by Gokhale (1995) examined the effectiveness of individual
learning versus collaborative learning in enhancing critical thinking skills. One of the
research questions examined in his study was will there be a significant difference in
achievement on a test comprised of critical thinking items between students learning
individually and students learning collaboratively. After conducting a statistical analysis
44
on the test scores, it was found that students who participated in collaborative learning
had performed significantly better on the critical thinking test than students who studied
individually. This result is in agreement with the learning theories proposed by
proponents of collaborative learning. The collaborative learning group participants were
asked for written comments on their learning experience. Most of the participants felt
that group work helped them to better understand the material and stimulated their
thinking process. In addition, the shared responsibility reduced the anxiety associated
with problem- solving. From this research study, it can be concluded that collaborative
learning fosters the development of analytical and critical thinking through discussion,
clarification of ideas, and evaluation of others' ideas. Therefore, if the purpose of
instruction is to enhance analytical and critical thinking skills, then collaborative
learning is more beneficial.
2.9
The Role of Graphic and Verbal Organizers and CoRT1 Techniques as
Cognitive Tools
Graphic organizers provide a visual, holistic representation of facts and concepts
and their relationships within an organized frame. They have proven to be effective tools
to aid learning and thinking by helping students and teachers to represent abstract
information in more concrete form, depict relationships among facts and concepts and
organize thoughts. Graphic organizers exist in a variety of forms such as the concept
map, sequence chain, story map, main idea table, flowchart, matrix, and Venn diagram.
Graphic organizers convey relationships and content structures in a pictorial
fashion. These visual representations provide learners with a structural overview of
information at hand. This overview directs student's attention towards conceptual
relationships rather than seemingly isolated facts. The use of graphic organizers
enhances the understanding, organization, and long-term retention of information and
accentuates meaningful learning and information manipulation (Stevensold and Wilson,
45
1990). Graphic organizers also facilitate the extrapolation, combination, inference, and
other logical reasoning mechanisms that allow learners to transfer and apply information
(Ritchie and Gimenez, 1995).
During analytical thinking instruction in a collaborative learning approach, they
helped students to actively process and reorganize information. And after instruction,
graphic organizers may be used to summarize learning, encourage elaboration, help
organize ideas and provide a structure for review (Stevensold and Wilson, 1990). The
usage of these tools in the package acknowledged and verified the conception.
The name CoRT comes from Cognitive Research Trust which de Bono
established at Cambridge, England and is divided into six sections, CoRT1 to CoRT VI.
CoRT1 consist of strategies aimed at broadening students’ thinking and stimulating a
diverse range of ideas from different viewpoints. Improvements in self concept as a
thinker were reported where students saw themselves as being more interested in ideas,
thinking more broadly, being able to tell which ideas are more important, having more
important ideas and using their thinking in real life (Edwards, 1991).
CoRT-trained students were reported to show a statistically significant overall
improvement in academic performance compared to the control group (Edwards, 1991).
Particularly, these marked improvements were shown in social science subjects while no
significant change were found in mathematics and science subjects. The study to be
conducted did not however attempt to highlight this issue in the local scene.
Meta-cognitive strategies refer to the awareness of and control over one’s
cognitive processes. Effective thinking and learning requires frequent checking, goalsetting, reassessing, and evaluation. To help students become effective thinkers, we must
help them develop meta-cognitive skills. Students need instruction, guidance, and
practice to help them learn how to apply effective self- monitoring strategies for effective
thinking. Verbal organizers and cues in the form of probing questions or reflective
statements can cater for this aspect (Poh, 2000). This is seen as the foundation of critical
46
thinking skills. Thoughtful application of meta-cognitive strategies is central to
becoming a more skillful thinker and accomplished learner.
In this study, the researcher used the constructivist model of open-ended
learning. Self-directed learning and increased student responsibilities are tenets of openended learning (Hannafin, Land and Oliver, 1999). Such environments do not teach facts
removed from their context; they involve students in authentic inquiry such as
organizing resources, interpreting data, drawing hypotheses, representing information.
Oliver and Hannafin (2000) investigated the use of cognitive tools to help
students collect, organize, annotate, and evaluate complex information during authentic
science inquiry. They investigated the proposition that tools allow students to process
resources at higher levels to solve complex, open-ended problems.
Their primary
research question was, "How do students use technological cognitive tools to find,
frame, and resolve open-ended problems ?" They investigated how tools support student
thinking about multimedia resources while solving open-ended problems. Their findings
did not provide evidence that usage of cognitive tools supported higher order thinking,
nor did they refute that possibility. Open-ended learning environments require an
integrated combination of tools, resources, and scaffolds as well as a well- formulated,
enabling context (Hannafin, Land and Oliver, 1999). However it was deduced that
cognitive tools did not support the functions for which they are intended if students did
not possess the meta-cognitive awareness to apply them strategically. Students might
have benefited from training in strategic tool use or modeling of tool-enhanced problem
solving. That combination of scaffolding and tool support might have helped students to
apply tools more strategically towards understanding and resolving complex, openended problems.
Example of utilization of organizers in thinking skills software:
‘Reason!Able’ is a brilliant piece of software that allows the user to practice the
skills of reasoning while developing critical thinking skills by guiding and scaffolding
47
the user's thinking (www.goreason.com or info@goreason.com). It utilized graphic and
verbal organizer in its structural design. Figure 2.2 shows some of the interfaces
captured from the trial version of the software.
Figure 2.2:
Graphic and verbal organizers used in ‘Reason!Able’ to nurture critical
thinking skills for its users
In Figures 2.3 and 2.4, designs of graphic organizers used for ‘Compare and
Contrast’ and ‘Parts of a Whole’ by Som and Mohd Dahalan (1998) and Poh (2000)
which was based on a short passage are laid out. These designs were implemented in the
development of the interactive multimedia package for Module 1 (Compare and
Contrast) and Module 2 (Parts of a Whole).
48
PG* MEMBANDINGKAN DAN MEMBEZAKAN
Persamaan
Tukang Dobi dan Tukang Periuk
Kedua-duanya:
1.
Menjalankan perniagaan sendiri
2.
Tinggal di kampung yang sama
3.
Lelaki
Perbezaan dari aspek
Tukang dobi
Tukang periuk
Pekerjaan yang dijalankan
Mencuci pakaian
Membuat periuk
Kemajuan
Lebih maju
Kurang maju
Sikap
-Rajin
-Malas
-Baik hati
-Iri hati
Lebih cerdik
Tidak cerdik
Pemikiran
Corak Persamaan dan Perbezaan Yang Penting
Kedua-duanya lelaki, dan menjalankan perniagaan sendiri, serta tinggal di
kampung yang sama. Sungguhpun begitu mereka berbeza dari segi bentuk
perniagaan yang dijalankan, sikap dan pemikiran masing-masing
Kesimpulan
Kedua-duanya lelaki dan menjalankan perniagaan sendiri tetapi berbeza dari segi sikap
dan pemikiran
*
PG: Pengurusan Grafik (Graphic Organizer)
Figure 2.3:
(Module 1)
An example of a graphic organizer used for ‘Compare and Contrast’
49
PG* MENELITI BAHAGIAN-BAHAGIAN KECIL DAN KESELURUHAN
Objek/ Perkara
Pokok kelapa
Bahagian-bahagian objek/ perkara?
Daun
Batang
Bunga
Buah
Akar
Apakah peranan/ fungsi bahagian-bahagian tersebut?
Tidak boleh
memproses
makanan
Tiada
Tiada
Tiada
penyokong
pendebungaan
pembiakan
Tiada penyerap
makanan dan
penyokong
Apakah yang akan terjadi seandainya bahagian ini tiada?
Daun
Mendapatkan
Proses
Proses
Menyerap air
menjalankan
sinaran
pendebungaan
pembiakan
dan galian dari
fotosintesis
matahari
tanah
Kaitan antara bahagian-bahagian kecil dan keseluruhan
Untuk hidup pokok memerlukan makanan yang diperoleh daripada daun, batang dan
akar; air galian melalui akar dan batang; sokongan melalui akar dan batang;
pendebungaan melalui bunga dan pembiakan melalui buah.
*
PG: Pengurusan Grafik (Graphic Organizer)
Figure 2.4:
An example of a graphic organizer used for ‘Parts of a Whole’
(Module 2)
Som and Mohd Dahalan (1998) used oral (verbal) organizer in the form of
probing questions to promote strategic and organized thinking amongst students as
shown in Table 2.3 and Table 2.4. These set of inquiry techniques were also implanted
into the package developed by the researcher.
50
Table 2.3:
Oral (verbal) organizers used in ‘Compare and Contrast’ (Module 1)
1.
Apakah persamaan yang terdapat antara kedua-dua benda tersebut?
2.
Apakah aspek-aspek yang yang berbeza?
3.
Nyatakan perincian bagi setiap aspek yang berbeza itu?
4.
Apakah perbezaan yang paling ketara?
5.
Apakah kesimpulan yang boleh dibuat daripada persamaan dan perbezaan
tersebut?
Table 2.4:
Oral (verbal) organizers used in ‘Parts of a Whole’ (Module 2)
1.
Apakah objek atau perkara yang hendak dikaji?
2.
Apakah bahagian-bahagian kecil objek atau perkara tersebut?
3.
Apakah yang akan terjadi jika bahagian-bahagian kecil itu tiada?
4.
Apakah fungsi setiap bahagian kecil itu?
5.
Apakah kaitan antara bahagian kecil dan keseluruhan objek atau perkara itu?
2.10
Divergent Analytical Thinking and Self-Paced Learning Using an
Interactive Multimedia Package
Students' logical and creative thinking abilities have been of interest to scholars
who study self-directed and self-paced learning (e.g. Torrance and Mourad 1978;
Garrison 1997). Self-paced learning occurs when students make informed decisions
regarding each part of the learning process on their own pace including what to learn,
why to learn it, how to learn it, and how to assess the validity and value of the learning.
Garrison (1997) discussed the important link between analytical thinking and selfdirected learning, arguing that insight and intuition are part of analytical thinking, which
is needed for self-directed and self-paced learning to take place. This idea is shared also
51
by Brookfield (1997) who considers the ability to envision alternatives- a key feature of
creativity- to be an essential component of analytical thinking.
Multimedia technology as a teaching media has always mesmerized students.
Students are interested in new methods of communication and learning (Baharuddin,
1999), since they are being exposed to the new media in the home. From a very early
age, they want access to various media so as to enable them to read critically, listen
critically and observe critically and also be able to interact with the media (Baharuddin,
1999). However, Zarinah and Siti (2002) cited a study that showed that the use of
multimedia did not have a significant effect for all situations. It only showed a
significant impact on lower achievers than the middle to high achievers group. This
research is also designed to study the extent of enhancement of divergent analytical
thinking brought about by an interactive multimedia on different groups of students, thus
verifying the previous assertion.
Over the past twenty years, research studies have constantly supported the view that, in most
cases, well designed computer-based learning materials provide both an effective instructional system and
an effic ient learning environment (Baharuddin, 1999). For example, at present, an interactive multimedia
package has an important role in the learning process. This may be due to the fact that, to quote
MacDonald and Cairncross (1995):
In general, mastery and retention rates improve when
interactive multimedia is used as more senses are involved
in the learning process and the process becomes more
active with the learner in control.
(MacDonald and Cairncross ,1995:186)
A large and growing body of research exists to substantiate the claim that
computer-delivered instruction increases student learning and improves attitudes. With
respect to attitudes, researchers have often reported that teachers’ responses to
multimedia technology were positive and that students showed enthusiasm for using
multimedia package. In terms of learning performance, some studies have also shown
52
that the retention rate of students using interactive multimedia package is up to 30%
greater than the rate achieved by students using other traditional methods (Crowe and
Palmera- Leynes, 1995).
Brandon (1988) reviewed some research on the effectiveness of instructional
software. The effects of using computer-based learning appear to include the following:
•
Some literature reviews have reported positive student attitudes towards computers
or the course taught with computers.
•
Some studies have shown that computer-based learning is more useful as a
supplement to instruction rather than as a replacement.
•
Studies have shown that computer-based learning reduces the time required for
learning.
•
Research studies have shown that computer-based learning helps to improve
students’ performance in terms of higher scores or grades.
Frear and Hirschbuhl (1999) examined the impact on students' grades and
higher level thinking skills when computers were added to the classroom. Interactive
multimedia simulations of "real world situations" (actual field trips of a geology
professor with 22 years' experience) were incorporated into one section of an
environmental geolo gy course. The interactive multimedia modules, which promoted
participation and interaction, were designed for students to gain scientific knowledge
and concepts, and develop problem-solving skills without the heavy use of math.
Variables of achievement and problem solving skills on non-science majors were used.
The findings indicated that interactive multimedia had a significant effect on both of the
variables. There was a significant difference in pre- and post-test GALT scores for the
treatment group. The proportion of students with a passing grade (B or better) was
significantly higher for those in the treatment group when compared with those students
in the control group. The study validated the effectiveness of the interactive multimedia
package treatment in significantly increasing student achievement and problem solving
skills in environmental science.
53
2.11
Group Brainstorming in Computer-mediated-Communication (CMC)
Sapp (2000) reflected on the need for thinking skills to be taught and developed
by the teacher since it does not come naturally for all students. She discussed on the use
of brainstorming activities to loosen the mindset of her students towards a ‘one-right
answer’ point of view. She managed to procure a diverse response and inculcate the
need for analytical thinking to evaluate the responses.
Interactive, anonymous, computer-supported brainstorming has been shown to be
useful for a variety of forms of group work. Brainstorming software helps students work
together to generate and evaluate ideas together effectively and efficiently (Jessup and
Egbert, 1996). Research on group brainstorming processes in education suggests that
learners work best in large groups and that this may help them work at their ideal pace
(Maddison and Maddison, 1987). The benefits of group work can include greater
efficiency, greater learner achievement, more social modeling and peer reinforcement,
and more attention to higher level activities (Watson, 1990). Other studies have
documented the additional gains made by learners working in groups around a computer
(Webb, 1985).
Group Support System (GSS) is one of several computer-based information
system technologies that have been developed to aid various forms of group work
throughout business and education. GSS combines communication, computer, and
decision technologies to support intellectual, goal-directed, collaborative work. A GSS is
typically operationalized as a collection of microcomputers connected together to a
central file server via a local area network, housed in a computer-based classroom along
with a computer projection system and other forms of audio/visual support. GSS
software enables group members to engage in tasks such as simultaneous, interactive,
anonymous idea generation, evaluation, and organization; text composition and editing;
54
voting and ranking; drawing; and graphic design. Nearly all GSS software packages
contain a brainstorming tool, which is the most used component of GSS because it
provides information in terms of member-generated ideas and alternatives which is then
used with the other GSS tools.
The GSS software package enables participants to
collaborate with each other at different times and from different places. GSS products
now available include Group Systems by Ventana Corporation and Vision Quest by
Collaborative Technologies (Jessup and Egbert, 1996)
A study was conducted by Jessup and Egbert (1996) on GSS where subjects
worked on an idea- generating task individually and in groups using an automated
brainstorming system. Interacting groups were found to outperformed individuals, with
groups in the frequently interacting condition producing the highest number of total
comments and total ideas during their sessions. Interacting groups were found to
produce more original ideas than did individuals. A closer inspection of the comment
categories revealed that frequently interacting groups tended to make more supportive
and critical remarks and arguments, ask more questions about problems and solutions,
make more comments about the group and about ancillary issues, and ask more
questions overall than did groups working individually.
2.12
Constructivist Approach to the Design of the Package
Early educational applications of computers were based on objectivist views of
knowledge and behaviorist psychology (Albion and Gibson, 1998). More recently, the
dominance of behaviorist psychology as a foundation for instructional design has been
challenged by advocates of constructivist theory. This alternative view is underpinned
by the propositions that cognitive dissonance is stimulus for learning and knowledge
evolves through social negotiations (Savery and Duffy, 1995).
55
Several constructivist principles were used by Albion and Gibson (1998) in
developing an educational interactive multimedia package design for problem-based
learning. Amongst the constructivist principles implemented were: (1) Utilizing
authentic real- life scenarios (2) Provision of multiple view points (3) Scaffolding learner
performance (4) Provision for access to relevant information (5) Provision for self
evaluation facility and (6) Supporting individual and collaborative learning.
New technologies, such as the use of multimedia, can afford rich opportunities
for constructivist approaches in the field of education. Just what is constructivism?
Simplified, it has been described as "learning by assembling meaning from pieces of
reality . . ." (D'Ignazio, 1992). Constructivists would certainly agree that learning is
constructed within the mind of the learner and that genuine transferable knowledge is
more likely to occur when, "the emphasis is shifted from . . . activities that teachers do,
to those that students should perform" (Bailey, 1996). In this mode, learning which is
active becomes a reality as the learner is not a passive non participant who easily ignores
or forgets the encounter. Constructivists then, advocate student-centered learning which
is self-directed, which has personal relevance to the learner, and which is manifested by
a form of active demonstration (which is not necessarily limited to verbal or written
form).
Following is such a framework involving six constructivistic principles,
assembled from various sources by Black et al. (1994) at Columbia University's
Teachers College that are replicated in the design of the package developed:
1.
Set the stage but have STUDENTS GENERATE THE KNOWLEDGE for
themselves as much as possible (Users of the package key in their responses
based on their experience on the topic that they choose. They can add on or
delete any statements that have entered)
2.
Anchor the knowledge in AUTHENTIC SITUATIONS and activities (The topics
that are made available for the users are real life problems that they can relate to)
3.
Use the COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP methods of modeling, scaffolding,
56
fading, and coaching to convey how to construct knowledge in authentic
situations and activities (The use of graphic and verbal organizers and help
button for each activity cater for these aspects)
4.
Situate knowledge in MULTIPLE CONTEXTS to prepare for appropriate
transfer to new contexts (Users can create their own topic to be accessed and
attempted by other users, thus providing for diverse contexts)
5.
Create COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY by ensuring that all knowledge is seen from
multiple perspectives (Users have the facility to change their view point so as to
look at a topic from a new perspective and the package will acknowledge this by
awarding extra points to the user)
6.
Have the STUDENTS COLLABORATE in knowledge construction (The
package provides facility for collaboration whereby the users are able to browse
the responses by other users on the same topic and provide comments on their
responses).
2.13
Correlation
between
Gender
and
Divergent
Analytical
Thinking
Performance
Krampen (1997) presented the results of experimental studies on the effects of a
certain exercise on divergent performance. His results consistently showed significant
improvements of divergent and convergent performance in the experimental groups. In
all his experiments, gender was not found to be significant moderators of the positive
effect of the exercises on thinking performance. Moutafi, Furnham and Crump (2003)
investigated the extent of gender amongst other variables on psychometric intelligence
scores. He found that there were no gender differences with respect to the respondents’
performance scores. Reese et al. (2001) reported the effects of intellectual variables, age
and gender on divergent thinking in adulthood. He found out that gender differences in
divergent thinking were evidently negligible. Chan et al. (2001) explored gender and
grade differences in ideational fluency and found that female students, being more
57
mature than boys of similar age and more articulate in expressing themselves, scored
less well than boys in verbal ideational fluency. They did not deliberate on whether this
has to do with the cautiousness of female students or the outspokenness of male students
in completing the tasks. Nevertheless, this phenomenon was not reflected for figural
tasks that they conducted.
2.14
Studies on Students’ Level of Contentment towards Different Aspects of
Design of the Package
Another aim of the research was to examine differences in preferences for
multimedia learning interfaces and its relationships to different group of students based
on gender and level of initial performance gain after exposure to the package. The style
of display has a great influence on the disparity of the learning performance between
genders (Levin, 1997).
This study was based on the premise that to extract the maximum educational
potential of computers in education, the interface design must create a positive
emotional reaction or intrinsic satisfaction amongst the users (Crook, 1991). Passig and
Levin (2000) reported the presence of gender differences in the level of contentment to
varying designs of multimedia interfaces which affect the user in terms of performance
and the desire to use the package. There were clear differences between boys and girls
on the level of contentment of the various interfaces depending on the learning interface
design. A distinct preference for good navigational support was desired by boys
compared with girls. Meanwhile the girls gave great importance to receiving help from
the system, thus user-friendliness of the system was rated highly by the girls. The boys
were more sensitized by animations while the girls preferred illustrations on the user
interface. Tsai, Lin and Yuan (2001) developed and evaluated a web-based concept map
testing system for science students. An analysis of students’ future use of the system
58
indicated that those who showed a higher contentment level for the learning activities
and motivational elements in the system were more willing to revisit the system.
A study by Masseti (1996) on students’ contentment level on two different
applications that support idea generation indicated that subjects' contentment varied
depending on the software they used. Univariate comparisons revealed significant
differences in perceptions of software like ability (p < .01) and ease of use (p < .01).
While the students rated their preferences for the designs differently, their performance
on using the two creativity support applications was unaffected. Thus students’
contentment level was shown not having any influencing effect on their level of
performance after exposure to the software.
2.15
Some Issues in Instructional Design Principles
Kaur (1996) reviewed some Malaysian- made computer-based learning material
and found that the majority of multimedia titles that were reviewed presented little or no
evidence of instructional design principles. She added:
From the review of a list of multimedia titles produced by Malaysians, the
multimedia programs seem to focus more on the amusement rather than the
instructional domain.
(Kaur, 1996: 140).
Thus, through meticulous planning and designing, the researcher hoped that the
package produced would not fall into same category.
59
2.15.1 Interactivity as an Instructional Strategy
A useful educational package should help the learner maintain a sense of
mission, and the instructional process must be planned in ways that enhance the student's
confidence and ability to succeed (McKenna, 1999). Clark and Craig (1992) surveyed
available multimedia and interactive videodisc research. They concluded that the
measured gains in studies of the instructional uses of multimedia are mostly likely due to
instructional strategies such as interactivity. Interactivity will in practically all cases
enable learners to become an active participant rather than a passive observer, making
significant decisions and encountering their consequences. More specifically, learners
are interactively involved with the information presented via the technology (Weller,
1988).
Learning is at its most effective when it is an active process (Baharuddin, 1999).
Thus, content and information delivered by computer-based learning material will be
easier to comprehend and remember if the learners are active or interactively involved
with the technology.
A storyboard or an interactive script is the visual equivalent of an outline. Since
the interactive and non- linear aspects of multimedia allow the user more flexibility in
moving through the information, it is important to ha ve a visual plan to assure that all
the features intended for the package are covered. Authorware 6 articulates the structural
design of the package via icons placed on its flow chart system to indicate the elements
of interactivity and paths provided for the users to follow.
2.15.2 Screen Design
User interface in screen designs reflect particular characteristics of computerbased learning materials which support the delivery of the content by enhancing the
60
individual’s ability to focus on the instructional content. It is useful to note that the
delivery of content should be presented smoothly. If delivery of content is poorly
presented, it will become a stumbling block to learning (Baharuddin, 1999).
One of the most powerful aspects of multimedia is the ability to convey
information and create an impact on the user through the effective use of multimedia
elements. The placement of the various elements on the screen should, in general, be
simple, since a simple design is most easily viewed and navigated by a learner. In
addition, Kearsley (1990) reminded multimedia courseware designers not to overcrowd
a single screen with a lot of information. The overall screen design should also have a
consistency in style and format, since this again makes users feel more comfortable.
The learner must be able to digest each screen quickly and easily. Thus, key text
should be visible at all times. Owens (1988) has recommended the “use of larger and
bold print and the elimination of irrelevant information”. Kearsley (1990) as well as
Scotney and McClean (1995) have suggested that scrolled text should be avoided, unless
absolutely necessary, because most of the time the text is hidden. As a general rule,
sixteen lines are the maximum for text screens. The package developed used scroll text
format to display students’ responses to save on screen space. Basic information on each
module made available to users in the early segment of the package also made use of
scroll texts to avoid overloading the screen interface.
Aspillaga (1991) conducted a study to examine location of information in textual
format and its effects on learning. Sixty undergraduate students were randomly selected
to participate in the study. Results indicated that displaying text information at a
consistent location or relating text to graphical information facilitates learning amongst
students. The researcher was vigilant of this factor thus consistency in spatial design was
one of the main concern in the formative evaluation.
61
2.16
Summary
Gokhale (1995) concluded that collaborative learning fosters the development of
thinking skills through discussion, clarification of ideas, and evaluation of others' ideas.
If the purpose of instruction is to enhance thinking skills, then collaborative learning is
more beneficial compared to individualistic learning approach.
This would involve
creating and managing meaningful experiences and stimulating students' thinking
through the use of real world problems relevant to the students’ life.
Computer Supported Collaborative Learning systems are typically tailored for
use by multiple learners working at the same workstation or across networked machines.
These systems can support communicating ideas and information, accessing information
and documents, and providing feedback on problem-solving activities. Many theories
contribute to our understanding of the computer supported collaborative learning.
Among them are Vygotsky's ‘zone of proximal development ’, constructivism theory,
situated cognition and cognitive apprenticeship. In Vygotsky' view, peer interaction,
scaffolding, and modeling are important ways to facilitate individual cognitive growth.
Critical thinking models and tools adopted in the Malaysian education system served as
the backdrop of the study.
The attempt of this study was to investigate whether self-regulated (metacognitive) strategy use in computer supported collaborative learning environment can
enhance one’s own divergent analytical thinking skills. The degree of influence of the
internal affective system involving motivational aspects and level of contentment on the
design features of the package was also looked into.
62
CHAPTER 3
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1
Introduction
This chapter describes in detail the methodology used by the researcher in
conducting the research. It attempts to enlighten the reader on the phases undergone in
the design of the package which is entitled ‘Collaborative Approach Divergent
Analytical Thinking Simulator’ (CADATS). It gives a description of the needs analysis,
the determination of validity and reliability of the research instruments used in the
formative and summative evaluation and the systematic procedure used in the data
collection. Finally, it also delved into the various instruments used in the data collection,
such as analytical thinking inventories, experts’ evaluation forms, interview questions
and observation checklist.
The research was conducted in five phases. The first phase was a preliminary
study whereby students’ aptitude and trends in divergent analytical thinking were
explored through a validated inventory and interview sessions. Aspects in interface and
design features in an educational multimedia package preferred by students were also
investigated. The second phase involved the selection of thinking modules
recommended to be used by experts in thinking skills in Malaysia that encompassed
63
analytical thinking skills. Elements of CoRT1 techniques were infused into the
modules to enrich and reinforce divergent thinking concepts. In the third phase, the
story board was then drafted and validated by thinking skills experts which was then
used to develop the prototype. Three modules were developed namely Module 1
(Compare and Contrast), Module 2 (Parts of a Whole) and Module 3 (Proposal Ponder).
A formative evaluation was performed by students and experts and their feedbacks were
utilized in updating the design features of the package. A summative evaluation was
conducted in the fourth phase by students with the help of a few teachers involving
quantitative approaches to measure the effectiveness of the package in enhancing
divergent analytical thinking skills and the correlation pattern between the respondents’
level of contentment towards different aspects of the design and their gains in
performance scores in relation to gender. Group interview sessions were conducted
towards the end of their exposure to the package to gather as much feedback as possible
about their experiences. The last phase constituted qualitative investigation involving
small group in-depth interviews with specific categories of students to probe further on
their different perceptions and experiences towards the interactive multimedia package.
3.2
The Research Methodology
The research was conducted via qualitative and quantitative method. This
triangulation of method process was used to supplement each others drawbacks so as to
enhance the validity of the study. The combination of both methods is highly
recommended by Neuman (2000). Through different strategies of data collection and
analysis, various aspects of the study could be highlighted. Zaidatun (2002) elaborated
on the different focal point of qualitative and quantitative data whereby quantitative data
delves on overall relationships and surface phenomena whereas qualitative data probes
deeper into a small area in question and data is more personalized. Both these methods
64
thus complement each other for a thorough and detailed outlook on a research question
at hand.
The research was conducted in several phases according to the ADDIE model
as follows:
3.2.1 Phase 1 (The Analysis Phase)
In this phase, all students (n=34) from two Form Four classes in one particular
residential smart school were administered with an Analytical Thinking Skills Inventory
(Preliminary Study). It comprised of six questions from Module 1 (Compare and
Contrast) and another six questions from Module 2 (Parts of a Whole). The inventory
was initially validated by a ‘Critical and Creative Thinking Skills’ resource teacher
before it was administered. The purpose of this inventory was to identify the adeptness
in divergent analytical thinking skills of the selected sample. The sample consisted of 15
male and 19 female students and they were allocated an hour to provide as many
responses to as many questions as they possibly could. The problems posed are outlined
in Table A1 in Appendix A while the trends in students’ responses are discussed in
section 5.2. The format of students’ answer sheets for Module 1 and Module 2 are
shown in Table A2 and Table A3 in Appendix A.
The next activity was the administration of the ‘Students’ Preferences in an
Educational Multimedia Package’ questionnaire (refer to Appendix B1). This
questionnaire was adapted from ‘Soal Selidik Reka Bentuk Perisian’ used by Zaidatun
(2001) (Overall alpha value = 0.9280). Since the samples of students to be taken were
from fully residential smart schools and thus were different in background to the
samples taken by Zaidatun (2001), the researcher undertook the initiative to analyse
65
these group of students using the same instrument. It was a general questionnaire to
evaluate students’ general preferences in a multimedia-based learning material.
Students’ responses are reflected in section 5.3.
3.2.2 Phase 2A (Design Phase- The Construction of the Treatment Instrument)
This phase involved the storyboarding process for design of the interactive multimedia
package, incorporating thinking tools such as graphic and verbal organizers serving as
scaffolds and CoRT1 techniques to facilitate divergent thinking. The graphic and verbal
organizer used in Module 1 (Compare and Contrast) and Module 2 (Parts of a Whole)
abided by the structures recommended by Poh (2000) and Som and Mohd Dahalan
(1998) which applied the Cognitive Apprenticeship Model. The graphic and verbal
organizers used in Module 3 (Proposal Ponder) were constructed by the author himself
based on ideas proposed by Professor Abdullah Hassan of Universiti Pendidikan Sultan
Idris, Tanjong Malim, during the consultation session with him on 26th December 2003.
He also strongly suggested that the term ‘Divergent Analytical Thinking’ should be
adopted since it was more relevant to ideational fluency and the need for students to
collaborate with each other and view each situation from multiple perspectives before
making a decision. Principles of Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development were
infused by implanting interactive and collaborative features into the design as detailed in
Chapter Four to facilitate peer group collaboration. The ‘zone of proximal development ’
explains the distance between actual developmental level as determined by the
individual and the level of potential development under guidance or collaboration with
more capable peers or expert guidance involving the gradual internalization of
knowledge (Gilliani, 2000) as is shown in Figure 2.1. The overall design also utilized
principles employed by Albion and Gibson (1998) during the construction of his
interactive multimedia prototype which incorporated constructivism and collaboration.
Resource teachers in ‘Critical and Creative Thinking Skills’ and Information
66
Technology Coordinator of a fully residential smart school were consulted in the
process of constructing the storyboard. The structural design of the package is dealt with
thoroughly in Chapter IV.
3.2.3
Phase 2B (Design Phase- The Construction of the Research Instruments)
The questions used to evaluate divergent analytical thinking skills of students
were developed after an exhaustive discussion and revision with two resource teachers
in KBKK (Kemahiran Berfikir Kritis dan Kreatif) which lasted for four two-hour
sessions. The items were selected to be as relevant to students’ experience as possible
and were modeled after items found in Poh (2000) and Som and Mohd Dahlan (1998).
These items were sentenced to induce students to analyze the situation divergently and
generate possibilities from different viewpoints. Thus, all the items were deliberately
suited into the level of high-order divergent category and suitable for Form Four age
group. The availability of performance scores would render the sample students to create
ideas and analyse each situation more closely to out do each other. These items were
then validated by two lectures of Universiti Teknologi Malaysia who were experts in the
field of thinking skills.
Two sessions of pilot studies were conducted to establish validity and reliability
of the Analytical Thinking Skills Inventory for Module 1, 2 and 3 to be used in the pre
and post-test. Johnson and Christensen (2000) cited by Zaidatun (2002) deliberated on
the importance of pilot testing of questionnaires to be used in the actual research by an
identical type of sample with a minimum number between 5 and 10 respondents. A
number of 18, 16 and 15 students were administered the inventories for Module 1, 2 and
3 respectively in the pilot stud ies and group interviews were then conducted using the
‘think aloud’ technique. This technique was used by Zaidatun (2002) to make
modifications on items used in her questionnaires. Tables C1, C2 and C3 in Appendix C
summarize the students’ ‘think aloud’ responses for each of the twelve problem
67
scenarios in Module 1, Module 2 and Module 3 in the effort to modify and simplify
the statements.
All the responses were recoded to ensure ideational fluency and ideational
flexibility were accounted for. An analytical rubric constructed by the author was used
to process these responses to attain performance scores for each student. A reliability
analysis test on each item was conducted using the SPSS software. The indices of
difficulty and discrimination were also calculated to establish suitability of the questions
(problem scenarios) posed based on the second pilot study results as shown in Tables
C4, C5 and C6 in Appendix C. The indices were calculated based on the assumption that
providing a minimum of three statements for each problem scenario constituted a correct
answer for Module 1 and Module 2.
Index of Difficulty =
Number of students with a minimum of 3 responses
Total number of students who attempted the problem
Index of Discrimina tion =
BT − BR
1
J
2
BT = No of students in the high score category
BR= No of stud ents in the low score category
J = Total no of students in the high and low score categories
For Module 3, results showed that students were more adept in providing
responses for each of the problem scenarios. Thus it was decided that a minimum of 4
responses would constitute a correct answer for calculating indices of difficulty and
discrimination for each problem scenario posed. Indices of difficulty for all items in
Module 1, 2 and 3 were all within 0.3 to 0.8 meanwhile indices of discrimination
obtained for all items were greater than 0.4. Thus all the items were suitable to be
administered to the students in the pre-test and post-test (Mok, 2003).
68
Index of Difficulty =
Number of students with a minimum of 4 responses
Total number of students who attempted the problem
The modified inventories were re-administered to the same students between one
to two weeks after the first pilot study to establish its stability through correlation
analysis using SPSS software and the results are shown in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1:
Pearson’s correlation coefficient for Analytical Thinking Skills’
Inventory between the first and second pilot study
Module
R coefficient
Compare and Contrast
0.72
Parts of a Whole
0.77
Proposal Ponder
0.70
The Pearson’s correlation coefficient indicated that the inventory was stable and
reliable.
The validity of the items was confirmed by two experts from Universiti
Teknologi Malaysia and two teachers who were resource persons in ‘Critical and
Creative Thinking Skills’ in Johore in their respective academic fields. The twelve
problem scenarios for each module were then divided into two groups, one group
destined for pre-test and the other to the post-test session.
3.2.4
Phase 3A (Developmental Phase- Storyboarding)
After approval by teacher experts on the thinking strategies and tools used in the
storyboard for each of the modules to be included in the package, the developmental
stage commenced. The elements that students indicated as their preferences in a
multimedia package were also given top priority for inclusion. The features of eventual
prototype are detailed out in the Chapter IV.
69
3.2.5 Phase 3B (Development Phase- Formative Evaluation)
The formative evaluation phase began with alpha testing of Module 1 (Compare
and Contrast). At this juncture the other two modules were still on the drawing board
stage. The aim of the alpha testing was to inspect the suitability of the structural design
and user interface used in the module which would be replicated in the other two
modules later. The test was performed on three Form Four students (1 male and 2
female) with the same background characteristics as the population as well as two
teachers highly knowledgeable in ‘Critical and Creative Thinking Skills’. Both were
resource teachers in KBKK (Kemahiran Berfikir Kritikal dan Kreatif) at the Johore state
level in their own academic subject. They spent about 50 minutes exploring the
prototype module. From observational results and discussion, the following data were
concluded from the students:
i.
The phrases and words used for commands and explanatory
purposes need to be rectified to avoid misunderstanding and
incorrect spelling.
ii.
The number of problems posed to the users need to be increased
from the current three.
iii.
Online help buttons for on-screen statement input was seen as
helpful for users
iv.
The students did not seem to grasp the need for the development
of the package
v.
A number of design bugs were exposed.
70
The following data were garnered from the two KBKK resource teachers:
i.
Students should be allowed to key- in short, grammatically
incorrect statements so as to stimulate individualistic creative
thinking.
ii.
The objectives should be clearly spelled out
iii.
The strategic thinking and tools used in the prototype were
adequate and capable of producing productive ideas
iv.
A high number of student users would effectively highlight the
‘collaborative’ factor in the prototype
Based on the feedbacks obtained from the alpha-testing exercise, the following
steps were undertaken to spruce up the prototype:
i.
The objectives and some of students’ weaknesses in analytical
thinking as exposed in the preliminary study (refer to section
5.2.1) were included in the early component of the package.
ii.
Online help buttons to assist the students in keying- in statements
on all user interfaces that require students’ input were introduced.
iii.
Design bugs were eliminated
The developmental process of the package was resumed for all three modules
with the feedbacks as guidance. More interactivity was included in the modules.
Students would now have the benefit of browsing and querying their peers’ responses
from the main menu. Online package evaluation system through questionnaire-type and
text-based format were included. The underlying concept behind it was that one could
compare one’s own feedback with that of other users since these feedbacks were stored
on the server and thus were accessible to all users in the network.
71
The prototype then underwent beta-testing by 15 Form Four students (six male
and nine female students per 90 minute session) from a particular residential smart
school in Johore which constituted the formative evaluation. One instructional design
expert and three content experts validated the package and gave their professional
comments and recommendations. Results of the formative evaluation are discussed in
Chapter IV and tabulated in Appendix D.
The same set of students was also administered the ‘Package Evaluation Form’
aimed at procuring each student’s level of contentment on the different aspects of the
design of the package (refer to Appendix B3 and Table D1 in Appendix D). The items in
the questionnaire comprised of 5 categories:
1.
Ease of Use
2.
Design of Thinking Activity
3.
Design of Motivational Elements
4.
Design of User Interface
5.
Navigational Design
Table 3.2 outlined the partition of items used in the evaluation form. The
construction of the categories and items were modified from ‘Multimedia Attitude
Scale’ devised by Garcia (2001) and courseware evaluation form constructed by
Zaidatun (2002) (Overall alpha value = 0.8950). Thus the items in the questionnaire
came validated in earlier studies. The researcher used bivariate correlation analyses to
confirm the reliability of the items in each construct and between constructs as
illustrated by Mohd Salleh and Zaidatun (2001).
72
Table 3.2:
Category of items in Package Evaluation Form (for students)
Aspects of the design of the package
Questions
1.
Ease of use
2,7,12,16,
2.
Design of thinking activity
14,15,17,18
3.
Design of motivational elements
1,3,5,20
4.
Design of user interface
4,6,8,9
5.
The navigational design of the package
10,11,13,19
Tables 3.3, 3.4, 3.5, 3.6 and 3.7 showed the significant correlations between the
scores for items in each category and their respective total score. This indicated that
items in each category were similar in construct. (α = 0.05 for each analysis)
Table 3.3:
Bivariate correlation analysis of items of ‘Ease of Use’ to the total score
in the category in Package Evaluation Form (for students)
Items in questionnaire to its total
Pearson correlation, r
Sig.
Item 2 – Total 1
0.870
0.000*
Item 7 – Total 1
0.673
0.006*
Item 12 – Total 1
0.775
0.001*
Item 16 – Total 1
0.775
0.001*
score for the category of ‘Ease of
Use’
* Statistically significant correlation
73
Table 3.4:
Bivariate correlation analysis of items of ‘Design of Thinking Activity’
to the total score in the category in Package Evaluation Form (for students)
Items in questionnaire to its total
Pearson correlation, r
Sig.
Item 14 – Total 2
0.796
0.000*
Item 15 – Total 2
0.650
0.009*
Item 17 – Total 2
0.792
0.000*
Item 18 – Total 2
0.715
0.003*
score for the category of ‘Design of
Thinking Activity’
* Statistically significant correlation
Table 3.5:
Bivariate correlation analysis of items of ‘Design of Motivational
Elements’ to the total score in the category in Package Evaluation Form (for students)
Items in questionnaire to its total
Pearson correlation, r
Sig.
Item 1 – Total 3
0.622
0.013*
Item 3 – Total 3
0.789
0.000*
Item 5 – Total 3
0.911
0.000*
Item 20 – Total 3
0.622
0.013*
score for the category of ‘Design of
Motivational Elements’
*
Statistically significant correlation
74
Table 3.6:
Bivariate correlation analysis of items of ‘Design of User Interface’ to
the total score in the category in Package Evaluation Form (for students)
Items in questionnaire to its total
Pearson correlation, r
Sig.
Item 4 – Total 4
0.526
0.044*
Item 6 – Total 4
0.795
0.000*
Item 8 – Total 4
0.785
0.001*
Item 9 – Total 4
0.668
0.007*
score for the category of ‘Design of
User Interface’
* Statistically significant correlation
Table 3.7:
Bivariate correlation analysis of items of ‘Navigational Design’ to the
total score in the category in Package Evaluation Form (for students)
Items in questionnaire to its total
Pearson correlation, r
Sig.
Item 10 – Total 5
0.771
0.001*
Item 11– Total 5
0.787
0.001*
Item 13 – Total 5
0.854
0.000*
Item 19 – Total 5
0.700
0.004*
score for the category of
‘Navigational Design’
* Statistically significant correlation
Table 3.8 showed that there was no statistically significant correlation between
the total scores of each category to the overall total score achieved by the respondents.
This indicated that all the categories represented different constructs to each other.
75
Table 3.8:
Bivariate correlation analysis of total score for each category to overall
total score in Package Evaluation Form (for students)
Pearson correlation, r
Sig.
Total 1 – Overall Total
0.320
0.245
Total 2 – Overall Total
0.465
0.081
Total 3 – Overall Total
0.467
0.079
Total 4 – Overall Total
0.488
0.065
Total 5 – Overall Total
-0.145
0.607
All correlation was not statistically significant.
3.2.6 Phase 3C (Modification and Completion of Package)
The answers to the questions posed in the game quiz were popular responses
procured from a group of students who attempted them. These questions were posed to a
group of 25 Form Four students and their responses were recorded by ‘pencil and paper’
method to establish consistency. This was done for Module 1 (Compare and Contrast)
and Module 3 (Proposal Ponder). The responses were the recoded into many ‘hot words’
of similar meaning. These hot words would trigger a ‘correct answer’ response by the
package whenever keyed- in by the students. Help was on- hand by two experienced
Bahasa Melayu teachers who scrutinize exhaustively the hot words so that none was left
out. For Module 2 (Parts of a Whole), an activity-based game downloaded from the
Internet was used. The jigsaw-puzzle type activity of identifying parts of a given
structure and then putting them together piece-by-piece correlated well with the content
of the module itself, thus the decision to use it in that particular module only.
The facility of linking the students to the Internet was not featured in the package
though some students were in favor of it. The author was of the opinion that much time
76
would be used up by the students for irrelevant information search which would curtail
their allocated time. In addition, communication facilities were provided in the package
for them to contact and response to their peers electronically.
Audio-visuals were added to the main menus of each of the three modules to
spruce up the main user interface. Thus scenarios were posed to the students in the form
of audio-visual material instead of just audio. Nevertheless, audio- visual materials were
not used in the activity segments because tendency for students to refer to them were
remote since they would have already understood the problem posed to them.
Some of the analytical thinking process used in Module 1 (Compare and
Contrast) and Module 2 (Parts of a Whole) were deemed too meticulous in its approach.
Since these approaches were recommended by thinking skills experts such as Poh (2000)
and Som and Mohd Dahalan (1998) and were used extensively, the need to modify them
was not considered.
3.2.7 Phase 4 (Implementation Phase)
Groups of students from four residential smart schools in Johore constituted the
experimental and control groups in the study. The composition of the groups is
described in detail in the sampling section in this chapter.
The researcher chose a quasi-experimental design model for his research. This
design model was the pre-test-post-test control-group design (refer to Figure 3.1). This
design was to ensure that internal validity is fully achieved. All the threats to internal
validity (such as history, maturation, instrumentation, selection, testing) can be
controlled in the pre-test-post-test control group design (Muler, 1985).
77
OX O
(Experimental)
O
(Control)
O
O
=
Refers to the measurement or scores.
X
=
Represents the experimental group exposed to a treatment
instrument of which the effects are to be measured.
Figure 3.1
A schematic representation of the research design
The dependent variable for this research is the post-test scores of the analytical
thinking skills achieved after being exposed to the interactive multimedia package
package (treatment instrument). This interactive multimedia package covered the usage
of graphic and verbal organizers and CoRT1 techniques to underline analytical thinking
strategies. The independent variable is represented by the pre-test scores of analytical
thinking skills done on the basis of pencil and paper format and the respondent’s gender.
The true experimental design was not chosen in this study due to the inherent
constraints already in place since the students were already grouped in their respective
classes. It makes the randomized sampling of students into control and experimental
groups quite cumbersome. This view is consented by Salkind (1997) who pointed out
that randomized selection into control and experimental groups cannot be undertaken in
school- type conditions. Salkind (1997) also stated that this quasi-experimental design
can overcome internal threats of history, maturation, selection, testing, instrument and
mortality.
Pre-test sessions were conducted where students were divided into three groups
and administered the Analytical Thinking Skills Inventory pertaining to Module 1
(Compare and Contrast), Module 2 (Parts of a Whole) and Module 3 (Proposal Ponder)
for each group. Their performance was indicated by the scores achieved after their
78
responses were recoded and processed by an analytical rubric that took into account
ideational fluency and ideational flexibility. These sessions were conducted using the
pencil and paper format in which the students indicated their responses on specially
designed forms. Time allocated for these sessions was about 60 minutes and the students
were given six unique scenarios in each module. Each group was only dispensed with
one module only. One group for each module was assigned as the control group.
After a time span of between two to three weeks, the same experimental group
of students was invited to work on the same modules. The set of scenarios posed to them
in this post-test constituted of the other six items in the Analytical Thinking Skills
Inventory for each module which was previously tested for validity and reliability. The
control groups were also administered the same test but still using the pencil and paper
format. The time allocation was also 60 minutes. All the students in the experimental
groups had undergone 30 minutes of training to be familiarized with the package
beforehand. The training session was conducted on a self-paced and self-directed basis
using the package itself with minimal instructions from the author or the teacher who
supervised the session. The ‘Kenal’, ‘Demo’ and ‘Ajar’ segments in the package were
used for training purposes. The ‘Aplikasi’ and ‘Refleksi’ sessions were then conducted
in intranet- linked computer laboratories. All the responses were recorded on text files
resided on the server where all students had free access to them. These responses were
then recoded by the author and ran through the analytical rubric to ascertain their actual
scores. Finally, each student were then administered a ‘Package Evaluation Form’ where
the data from this questionnaire constituted the students’ level of contentment to
different aspects of the design of the package for use in statistical analysis later. They
were given 15 minutes to respond to the close-ended questions posed in the
questionnaire.
On the very next day, the students in the experimental groups were then given
the opportunity to create their own scenarios or try out those that had been created by
79
their peers for the modules that they choose to work on. This session were meant for
them to try out the collaborative segment in the package (Segmen Pembelajaran
Kolaboratif). The students were then asked to evaluate the package online through the
facilities provided, either by responding to questions posed to them or typing in their
views freely into the package. These responses were recorded on the server and could be
accessed freely.
An observational checklist was used to probe students’ behavioral
characteristics during these sessions. The author would like to thank the teachers that
offered their helping hand in recording their observations in the checklist. A one-tomany group interview session was conducted for approximately 20 minutes where the
researcher posed structured but open-ended questions about their perceptions and
experiences in using the package. Their statements were recorded, sorted, recoded and
categorized under the type of module that they were exposed to.
3.2.8 Phase 5 (Evaluation Phase)
Phase five was designed to determine if students’ analytical thinking skills
actually improved as a result of exposure to the package. So, it was important to know
whether the level of performance varied between the pre-test and the post-test sessions.
Baharuddin (1999) stated that it is vital to prove that the use of multimedia would
contribute to learning. Therefore results from the pre-test and post-test sessions were
analyzed to determine if there was any significant improvement in divergent analytical
thinking skills after using the multimedia package.
80
Statistical analysis were used to determine
(1)
Whether there were any significant differences in pre-tests performance
scores based on gender differences.
(2)
Whether there were any significant differences in post-tests performance
scores based on gender differences.
(3)
Whether there were any significant differences in pre-tests and post-tests
performance scores.
(4)
Whether there were any significant differences in gains in performance
scores between males and females.
(5)
Whether there were any significant differences in the degree of contentment
on various aspects of the design of the package between four different groups
of students: Male-High Score Gain; Male-Low Score Gain; Female-High
Score Gain and Female-Low Score Gain
(6)
Whether there were any significant correlation between students’ level of
contentment to the various aspects of the design of the package and their
initial performance score gain.
(7)
Whether there were any significant differences in the enhancement of
students’ performance scores with regard to the three different modules to
ascertain the most effective module.
According to Johnson and Christensen (2000) and Mohd Salleh and Zaidatun
(2001), Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) testing would be the most suitable
statistical analysis to be used in a quasi-experimental nonrandomized control group
pretest-posttest design. This was to eliminate discrepancies due to diverse pre-test
scores. The researcher devised a technique in which score gain is measured as an
indicator of enhancement. Students were segregated into High and Low Gain in terms of
gender based on the mean score gain procured by the students exposed to a particular
module. Thus, the researcher acquired a 2 X 2 factorial sample segregation for in-depth
data comparison purposes. Differences in performance of these four groupings in the
81
first and second post-test were probed using ANOVA testing. This would effectively
be the same as ANCOVA testing as pre-test performance score was annulled; instead
degree of enhancement was used.
Table 3.9: Summary of statistical analysis used in relation to the research questions in
the study
(A)
To test whether male and female students were equally competent in control and
experimental group in the pre-test:
Were there any statistically significant
Independent samples T-Test analysis on
differences in performance in analytical
pre-test means on performance scores of
thinking before exposure to the courseware
control and experimental groups for each
between the control and experimental
module
group for each of the three modules?
Were there any statistically significant Independent samples T-Test analysis on
differences in performance in analytical pre-test means on performance scores of
thinking before exposure to the courseware male and female students in control group
for each of the three modules in the for each module
courseware between male and female
respondents in the control group?
82
Were there any statistically significant Independent samples T-Test analysis on
differences in performance in analytical pre-test means on performance scores of
thinking before exposure to the courseware male and female students in experimental
for each of the three modules in the group for each module
courseware between male and female
respondents in the experimental group?
(B)
To ascertain whether the courseware did significantly affect performance in
analytical thinking skills
Were there any statistically significant Paired sampled T-test analysis of pre-test
differences in performance in analytical and first post-test performance scores for
thinking scores for each of the three experimental and control groups for each
modules in the courseware between the module
pre-test and first post-test scores for the
experimental and control groups?
Were there any statistically significant Independent samples T-test analysis on
differences in performance in analytical first post-test means on performance
thinking for each of the three modules in
scores of male and female students in the
the courseware between male and female
control group for each module
respondents in the first post-test scores for
the control group?
83
Were there any statistically significant Independent samples T-test analysis on
differences in performance in analytical first post-test means on performance
thinking after exposure to the courseware scores of male and female students in the
(first post-test) for each of the three experimental group for each module
modules in the courseware between male
and
female
respondents
in
the
experimental group?
(C)
To investigate whether any of the gender groups showed significant improvement
in performance scores by with pre-test scores as covariate (performance score
gain) in the experimental group:
Were there any statistically significant
Initial performance score gain = First post-
differences in performance gain in
test score minus pre-test score
analytical thinking after exposure to the
(automatically calculated using SPSS
courseware for each of the three modules
software)
in the courseware shown by the male and
Independent samples T-test analysis on
female respondents in the control group?
initial performance score gain of male and
female students in the control group for
each module
84
Were there any statistically significant
Initial performance score gain = First post-
differences in performance gain in
test score minus pre-test score
analytical thinking after exposure to the
(automatically calculated using SPSS
courseware for each of the three modules
software)
in the courseware shown by the male and
Independent samples T-test analysis on
female respondents in the experimental
performance score gain of male and female
group?
students in the experimental group for each
module
(D)
To test whether any significant difference was shown by male and female
students on the second post-test in the experimental group:
Were there any statistically significant
Independent samples T-test analysis on
differences in performance on second post-
means of second post-test performance
test scores (full collaborative mode) with
score of male and female students
respect to gender for experimental group?
For the next batch of research questions, students were categorized into 4 groups
based on gender and level of initial performance score gain
(first post-test minus pre-test scores)
(1) Male-Low Gain
(3) Female-Low Gain
(2) Male-High Gain
(4) Female-High Gain
Low and High Gain were determined by the students’ rank in performance score ga in
with respect to the overall mean in the experimental group only.
85
(E)
To depict the level of contentment shown by different categories of students to
different aspects of the courseware design:
What were the profiles of the level of A graph depicting the means of level of
contentment indicated by the different contentment of different aspects of the
categories of students in the experimental
courseware design according to the four
group after exposure to the courseware in
categories of students
terms of:
f.
Ease of use
g.
Design of thinking activity
h.
Design of motivational elements
i.
Design of user interface
j.
Navigational
design
of
the
interactive multimedia courseware
86
(F) To test whether any statistically significant difference was indicated by different
categories of students on their level of contentment towards different aspects of
design of the courseware:
For each category of students, was there
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) of means
any statistically significant difference in
of level of contentment towards different
the level of contentment indicated for each
aspects of the courseware design between
module in terms of:
the four categories of students
a.
Ease of use
c.
Design of thinking activity
c.
Design of motivational elements
d.
Design of user interface
e.
Navigational
design
of
the
interactive multimedia courseware
(G)
To compare efficiency of the three modules in enhancing performance of
students in analytical thinking capabilities:
Which category of students benefited the
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) of means
least and the most from exposure to the
of difference of second post-test and pre-
interactive multimedia courseware based test performance score between the four
on the second post-test performance score categories of students
for each module?
87
Which one of the three modules was the
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) of means
most effective in terms of enhancing of difference of second post-test and prestudents’ performance scores in analytical
test performance score between the three
thinking based on the second post-test modules
scores?
(H)
Qualitative data to probe performance of different categories of students in
using the courseware:
How did students with different gender and First interview session (one-to-many) was
levels of initial performance gain in done after the second post-test was
divergent analytical thinking scores view conducted to pool as much qualitative
the group brainstorming techniques as well information as possible on students’
as the graphical and verbal organizers experiences in using the courseware.
employed in the interactive multimedia A
second
What were the features of the package that category
divergent
was
conducted
comprising of 4 students from each
package?
contributed
interview
to
the
analytical
enhancement
thinking
of
to
study
in-depth
the
effectiveness of the courseware
skills
amongst its users?
Structured one-to many group interview sessions were conducted after each
multimedia session to identify students’ experiences and approaches to using computer-
88
based-learning material. This was followed by an in-depth interview with a small
group of students representing each category of students with respect to different level of
enhancements levels in analytical thinking skills and gender. Their responses were
cross-checked with previous larger-scale group interviews to investigate whether any
marked contrast in experience and dispositions existed between these categories of
students. Results from the interview would be useful in complementing the results
obtained through observational techniques. The most effective module could also be
determined. Some of the questions asked during the interview with respect to students'
learning process were as follows:
•
What were the features in the package that you like and dislike?
•
What were the difficulties that you faced when using the package?
•
Was the package effective in improving your analytical thinking skills? What
did you learn from the package?
•
Did the diverse responses obtained from your friends help you in any way?
•
Do you think that the strategies and mental structures used in the activities are
applicable in your academic subject-content?
•
How did the package change your outlook or attitude towards thinking?
Answers to these questions were probed further by asking them to elaborate.
3.3
Sampling
How large should a sample be in order to provide a true representation of the
total population? One belief is that a sample must be large or it is not representative.
Baharuddin (1999) suggested that “… the single most important factor in determining
the size of sample needed for estimating the population is the size of the population
89
variance.” The greater the dispersion or variance in the population, the larger is the
sample that must be provided”. The author’s population consisted of 812 Form Four
students in 4 fully residential smart schools under the Smart School Program in Johore,
consisting of Sekolah Menengah Sains Johor, Kluang, Sekolah Menengah Sains Muar,
Muar, Sekolah Menengah Sains Kota Tinggi, Bandar Penawar and Sekolah Tun
Fatimah, Johor Bahru. The Form Four students’ academic performance is fairly high and
homogeneous. The entrance qualification is set at a minimum of 6As with As in
Mathematics and Science subjects from their just concluded Penilaian Menengah
Rendah (PMR) in 2003. Thus the author managed to minimize significant disparity or
variance in the sample used.
The formula used to calculate the sample size where a factorial design was used
is as follows:
Population: 812 Form Four students in 4 fully residential smart schools in Johore (April
2004)
Factorial design (2 X 2) adopted i.e. Gender (2) vs High and Low Initial Score Gain (2)
2
A 4 grouping setup:
z
N =   ( p)(1 − p ) , N =sample size, z = 1.96- std score for 95%
 e
confidence level, p = 0.25- estimated proportion of cases in population; e (sampling
error)=0.10 (Tuckman, 1988)
Size of sample from calculations is 72 for each group (with confidence level of 95% and
sampling error of 0.10)
Therefore total number of samples that should be taken from population is 72 X 4 = 288
This study was targeted at Form Four students of the four residential smart
schools in Johore. This was due to the fact that these schools were equipped with smart
classrooms with networking facilities needed for this study. All the students possessed
90
the minimal standard of IT literacy since they have been exposed to computers at
some stage in their schooling life. They were also high achievers in academic
performance since they need to surpass a minimum requirement of 6A’s in their
previous PMR examination.
The author’s research sample is made up in the following manner. In the needs
analysis phase, a total number of 34 Form Five students (19 males and 15 females) from
a fully residential smart school in the state of Johore were chosen via a cluster sampling
procedure (2 classes). The students were subjected to a pre-test using the Analytical
Thinking Skills Inventory on which the scoring system was based on ideational fluency
and flexibility. Only two modules were used, namely Module 1 (Compare and Contrast)
and Module 2 (Parts of a Whole). Module 3 (Proposal Ponder) was not developed yet at
the time. The same group of 34 Form Four students was given a questionnaire on
‘Students’ Preferences in an Educational Multimedia Package’. The results in the needs
analysis study were used in the development of the prototype.
In the formative evaluation, 12 students (5 males and 7 females) from a
residential smart school were exposed to all three modules developed in an interactive
multimedia package.
Two content and one instructional design experts were also
involved in the formative evaluation stage. In the summative evaluation phase, 233
students (115 males and 118 females) were involved in various sessions using the
different modules in the interactive multimedia package prototype as shown in the Table
3.9. Cluster sampling technique was used by the researcher since the students were
already allocated beforehand by classes. Each student was exposed to only one of the
three modules in the package, based on which module they were assigned to in the pretest session.
91
Table 3.10:
Breakdown of samples in experimental group according to classes
MODULE I:
MODULE2:
MODULE3:
COMPARE AND
PARTS OF A WHOLE
PROPOSAL PONDER
CONTRAST
MALE
SCHOOL1 CLASS 2 (12) SCHOOL1 CLASS 3 (13) SCHOOL1 CLASS 1 (15)
SCHOOL1 CLASS 4
14)
SCHOOL1 CLASS 5 (15) SCHOOL3 CLASS 1 (12)
SCHOOL3 CLASS 2 (12) SCHOOL2 CLASS 1
TOTAL:
38
TOTAL:
(7)
35
SCHOOL2 CLASS 2 (14)
TOTAL:
41
FEMALE
SCHOOL1 CLASS 1 (12) SCHOOL1 CLASS 2
15)
SCHOOL1 CLASS 3 (15)
SCHOOL3 CLASS 2 (12) SCHOOL1 CLASS 4 (12) SCHOOL1 CLASS 5 (14)
SCHOOL2 CLASS 2 (13) SCHOOL3 CLASS 2 (12) SCHOOL2 CLASS1
TOTAL:
37
TOTAL MALE:
114
TOTAL:
39
TOTAL:
(14)
43
TOTAL FEMALE:
119
GRAND TOTAL:
233
Groups consisting of 15 male and 17 female students for Module 1, 8 male and
9 female students for Module 2 and 15 male and 17 female students for Module 3 from
different fully-residential smart schools were used as the control group for the study.
Thus, the experimental group and the control group comprised of 28.7% and 9.98%
respectively of the whole population of Form Four students in fully residential smart
schools under the Telecom Smart School Program in Johore.
92
The selection of experts and teachers was based on purposive sampling
technique. Their views and comments contributed much to the structural design of the
package. Table 3.19 shows the distribution of experts involved in the study.
Table 3.11: Distribution of the number of experts used in the study
Field of expertise
Number of experts
Instructional Design
1
Thinking Skills Expert
3
Resource teachers in ‘Critical and Creative Thinking’
2
Computer and Networking
1
3.4
Research instruments
Data were gathered using different forms of research ins truments.
These
research instruments included a questionnaire on Students’ Preferences in an
Educational Multimedia Package, an Analytical Thinking Skills Inventory for Module 1
(Compare and Contrast), Module 2 (Parts of a Whole) and Module 3 (Proposal Ponder)
used in the analysis phase and formative and summative evaluation, Package Evaluation
Form for students and experts, an observation checklist and an interview schedule. The
inventories and questionnaires that were targeted for students were validated and tested
for their reliability and validity prior to being used as described in the earlier section.
93
3.4.1 The Analytical Thinking Skills Inventory for Module 1, Module 2 and
Module 3 (Pre -test and First post-test)
This questionnaire was administered in Malay, which is the official language in
Malaysia. It comprised of six unique scenarios that were deemed relevant to students’
everyday life for each module (Please refer to Appendices B7, B8 and B9). For the pretest session, students in the control and experimental groups would indicate their
responses in a specially designed answer sheet in very concise and short phrases. They
were even allowed to use SMS-type responses so long as it could be understood. The
time allocated to answer was flexible but not more than 45 minutes. These responses
were then recoded and were processed by an analytical rubric to ascertain their
performance scores. The analytical rubric was an EXCEL-based program design by the
author to eliminate nonsensical or repeating (similar) type responses made by the
students in their quest to achieve high performance scores. Students in the experimental
groups would indicate their responses for the post-test via the interactive multimedia
package, in contrast with the control groups.
3.4.2 The Questionnaire on Students’ Preferences in an Educational Multimedia
Package
The questionnaire was administered during the preliminary study stage to
explore students’ preferences in an educational multimedia package (refer to Appendix
B). The items were adapted and simplified from the questionnaire developed by
Zaidatun (2002) and ‘Multimedia Attitude Scale’ developed by Garcia (2001). The main
objective of administering this questionnaire was to gauge students’ inclinations on
aspects of multimedia design features and to incorporate them into the design of the
package to be developed.
94
3.4.3 The Package Evaluation Form (for students)
The items were categorized into 5 constructs based on students’ contentment
level on ‘Ease of Use’, ‘Design of thinking activity’, ‘Design of motivational elements’,
‘Design of user interface’ and ‘Navigational design’ used in the package (refer to
Appendix B2). These categories and items were constructed with the objective of
exploring any significant correlations between students’ performance scores and their
contentment level towards different aspects of the design of the package.
3.4.4. The Package Evaluation Form (for thinking skills and instructional design
experts)
The evaluation form was administered to three content experts (two Universiti
Teknologi Malaysia’s lecturers and one KBKK resource teacher)
and one ID expert
(Universiti Teknologi Malaysia’s lecturer) during the formative stage to ensure that the
problem scenarios and the strategies used in the package were valid and helpful in
enhancing students’ analytical thinking skills (refer to Appendix B2). The responses
served the researcher as guidelines to the validity, reliability and delivery of the content
of the package. The results are tabulated in Tables D3, D4, D5, D6 and D7 in Appendix
D and are discussed in Chapter 4.
3.4.5 The Observation Checklist
An observation schedule was used to record the overall working approach of
students using the package (refer to Appendix B5). It was also used to test the usability
of the package. Usability involves such as being easy to use, being consistent throughout
in terms of commands and style, involving no crashing or giving error messages, and
being attractive and pleasant to use. In other words, it was used in an effort to describe
95
how students actually learn using computer-based- learning courseware, and whether
they liked or felt comfortable using it.
3.4.6 Interview Questions for Respondents
Two sessions of one-to-many group interviews were conducted for each module,
one done directly after the second post-test to gather as much qualitative information as
possible and the other involving 4 randomly chosen students from each category (MaleLow Gain, Male-High Gain, Female-Low Gain and Female-High Gain) to study indepth any trends that may occur specifically in these categories of students. In the first
interview, predetermined open-ended questions were posed to the respondents that
encourage them to express their feelings, attitudes and perceptions. All their feedbacks
were recoded and grouped based on the types of modules that they were exposed to. The
second session involved a focus- group type of interview where four students
representing each of the four categories of students (Male- Low Gain, Male-High Gain,
Female-Low Gain, Female-High Gain) from each module. Depth interviewing technique
was used where the participants were asked of their perceptions of each assertion that
sprung out from the first group interview. This strategy was adopted to highlight
possible disparities in dispositions of different group of respondents as was
recommended by Crowl (1996). The general questions posed in these interviews are
depicted in Appendix B6 provided while the responses by the interviewees conducted in
specific group interviews are listed in Table F1, F2 and F3 in Appendix F.
96
3.5.
The Analytical Rubric Used to Measure Performance Scores
Module 1 (Compare and Contrast) – Level IV – High Order Divergent
For each question, the statements produced were divided into two sections,
Similarities and Differences. For each question answered, one point was awarded for
each statement in the most occupied section for ideational fluency. Two points were
awarded for each statement in the least occupied section to allow for ideational
flexibility factor. These two aspects would make up for the number of points achieved
for each question attempted. The performance score would be the accumulated sum of
scores procured for each scenario attempted.
Illustration of use of Analytical Scoring Rubric for Module 1 (Compare and Contrast).
Problem Scenario:
Nyatakan sekurang-kurangnya tiga pernyataan bagi ciri
persamaan dan/ atau perbezaan di antara sekolah berasrama penuh
dan sekolah harian.
Table 3.12:
Example of recoded response for Module 1 to illustrate scoring rubric
Persamaan:
Perbezaan
1.
Kurikulum sama
Tekanan ibu bapa, guru,sekolah
2.
Letih, bosan,seronok dll
Mod pengangkutan
3.
Kerja rumah
4.
Ramai kawan
Ideational fluency = 4
Ideational fluency = 2
The package detected that the student first response was for ‘Persamaan’. Thus
each statement for ‘Persamaan’ will be awarded 1 point and each statement for
‘Perbezaan’ 2 points to cater for ideational flexibility.
97
Performance score for this problem scenario = (4 X 1) + (2 X 2) = 8
Overall performance score for the module = Sum of performance scores for all problems
attempted.
Module 2 (Parts of a Whole) – Level IV – High Order Divergent
For each question, the students were allocated six empty spaces to be filled with
a maximum of six parts or components of an entity that was referred to in the question
posed. For each statement that underlines the importance of a particular component,
points were awarded accordingly. The students’ total accumulated score achieved for the
module would be the total number of points from all scenarios attempted.
Illustration of use of Analytical Scoring Rubric for Module 2 (Parts of a Whole)
Problem scenario: Apakah perkara-perkara yang perlu disediakan di sebuah tapak
perkhemahan untuk pelajar sekolah
Table 3.13:
Example of recoded response for Module 2 to illustrate scoring rubric
Ciri-ciri (Ideational
Kepentingan setiap ciri (Ideational fluency)
flexibility)
1.
Khemah
Tempat tidur selesa, tidak kena hujan
Points awarded: 1 X 2 = 2
2.
Pengawal keselamatan
Mengelak kecurian
Points awarded: 2 X 1 = 2
3.
Dapur
Memasak, menyimpan makanan
Points awarded: 3 X 2 = 6
4.
Kolam
Mandi, tangkap ikan
Points awarded: 4 X 2 = 8
98
Performance score for this problem scenario = (1 X 2) + (2 X 1) + (3 X 2) + (4 X 2) =
18
Overall performance score for the module = Sum of performance scores for all problems
attempted.
Module 3 (Proposal Ponder) – Level IV – High Order Divergent
For each problem scenario, the statements produced were divided into two
sections, statements in favour and in opposition to the proposal put forward by the
problem. For each question answered, one point was awarded for each statement in the
most occupied section for ideational fluency. Two points were awarded for each
statement in the least occupied section to allow for ideational flexibility factor. These
two aspects would make up for the number of points achieved for each question
attempted. The performance score would be the accumulated sum of scores procured for
each scenario attempted.
99
Illustration of use of Analytical Scoring Rubric for Module 2 (Parts of a Whole)
Problem Scenario:
Pelajar-pelajar sekolah tidak diwajibkan memakai uniform
sekolah.
Table 3.14:
Example of recoded response for Module 3 to illustrate scoring rubric
Pernyataan Menyokong Usul
Pernyataan Menolak Usul
Kebebasan
Tidak seragam
Seperti di IPT
Pakaian yang tidak senonoh
Selesa
Pelajar memakai pakaian mahal
Cantik, ceria
Ideational fluency = 4
Ideational fluency = 3
The package detected that the student first response was for Pernyataan Menyokong
Usul.
Thus each statement for ‘Pernyataan Menyokong Usul’ will be awarded 1 point and
each statement for ‘Pernyataan Menolak Usul’ 2 points to cater for ideational flexibility.
Performance score for this problem scenario = (4 X 1) + (3 X 2) = 10
Overall performance score for the module = Sum of performance scores for all problems
attempted.
100
3.6
Summary
The research study was based on the combination of quantitative and qualitative
methods of data collection. This triangulation method would enable in-depth study of
students’ competencies in analytical thinking based on the different categories of
students and their respective experiences in using the interactive multimedia package.
The prototype was upgraded through the responses given by the students and experts in
formative evaluation process. It was then put to the test in the summative evaluation to
evaluate its effectiveness in enhancing students analytical thinking capabilities based on
the three separate modules that represented three facets of analytical thinking.
The design features of the package that included students’ and experts’
recommendations are detailed out in Chapter 4. The data from the preliminary study and
summative evaluation is meticulously presented in appendices provided at the end of
this report.
CHAPTER 4
DESIGN FEATURES OF THE PACKAGE
4.1
Introduction
This chapter outlines the design of the interactive multimedia package that was
developed with interactivity and constructivist learning environment in mind. Graphic
and verbal organisers that were recommended by Poh (2000) and Som and Dahlan
(1998) were used for Module 1 (Compare and Contrast) and Module 2 (Parts of a
Whole). For Module 3 (Proposal Ponder), the graphic and verbal organisers were
constructed by the author. Collaborative features are also highlighted diagrammatically.
Aspects of meta-cognitive strategies and decision- making based on reflective thinking
are also discussed. Aspects of coaching and scaffolding in all the three modules which
form the pillars for cognitive apprenticeship and the events of instruction used in the
package as recommended by Phillips (1997) are elaborated. Some of the views pooled
from students, teachers and experts from the preliminary study and the formative
evaluation were also integrated into the package. The inception of an interactive quiz
and online evaluation mechanism at the end of each module are also delved into.
Elements of CoRT1 and the usage of Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development in the
package is thoroughly explained.
102
4.2
The Authoring Software Used for the Development of the Package
The main software used to develop the package was Macromedia Authorware
6.0. It was chosen primarily due to its capability to handle text files from any drives
indicated by the package, calculate mathematical formulas and provide for interactivity
through internalised functions (Jamalludin and Zaidatun, 2000).
The provision for
running automatically when booted from a CD-ROM made it user- friendly. It also easily
facilitated animations that were used to provide ‘Performance Meters’ used to illustrate
performance by users. Authorware packages can be compiled into executable .exe files.
This particular system was chosen because it was user- friendly, and provided all the
basic facilities that the developer required. Zaidatun (2002) deliberated on its popularity
and capability for developing educational package.
4.3
The Purpose and Content of Package
The main aims of the package were as follows:
i.
To provide an algorithm of divergent analytical thinking based on
collaborative learning approach using graphic and verbal organizers as
well as divergent thinking tools
ii.
To provide Computer- mediated Communication (CMC) facility in Local
Area Network (LAN) to promote collaborative learning environment
iii.
To enable students to create their own problem scenarios to be tackled by
other users
iv.
To provide an intrinsic and extrinsic motivation for students to think
analytically based on divergent thinking
v.
To facilitate students in evaluating and sharing their views on each
problem as well as on the package as a whole.
103
The product, Collaborative Approach Divergent Analytical Thinking Simulator
(CADATS) comprised of three separate modules that constitute a major sector of
divergent analytical thinking, namely Module 1 (Compare and Contrast), Module 2
(Parts of a Whole) and Module 3 (Proposal Ponder). Six real life problem-based
scenarios in each module were presented for the user to choose and complete through a
series of inquiry-based tasks. All workstations in the computer laboratory would need to
be set up first to map network drive at a special directory (E:\hms) by the network
administrator before the package could be used. The package was delivered on CDROMS in networked linked workstations using diskettes on each workstation as
temporary storage facility where responses were temporarily recorded before being
delivered to the directory created on the server when it could then be accessed by all
users of the package. Students would be motivated to generate as much points as
possible to compete with other users by producing as many diverse statements about the
scenarios at hand through the graphic and verbal organisers presented in the modules.
These responses would then be recoded and evaluated using an analytical rubric
designed by the author to probe the actual resulting performance in divergent analytical
thinking shown by the user after exposure to the package.
4.4
The General Structure of the Design of the Package
The flow chart for the general structure of the package design is graphically
represented in Appendix H1. The package began with an introductory interface outlining
the general overview of the package. The screen interface provided the user with an
overview of the interface layout of each module and the kind of task involved as shown
in Figure 4.1.
104
Figure 4.1:
User interface previewing the screen layout for Module 3
The user would then have a choice to either enjoy the opening montage or access
any modules of their choice via bypassing the montage as depicted in Figure 4.2. The
pull down menu provides access to a presentation on the significance of divergent
analytical thinking.
Figure 4.2:
User interface to viewing montage or direct access to modules
Upon accessing one of the chosen modules, the user would then register their
initials and password in the ‘Registration Segment’ as shown in Figure 4.3.
105
Figure 4.3:
The ‘User Registration’ interface
Thereafter, the package would adopt the KADAR events of instruction as
recommended by Phillips (1997) but with a slight modification. The acronym
appropriately stands for KENAL (Introduce), AJAR (Explain), DEMONSTRASI
(Demonstrate), APLIKASI (Apply) and REFLEKSI (Reflect). In the package a slight
modification was made in that the sequence of instruction is KDAAR based on the
researcher’s own findings of the effectiveness in its implementation. When a particular
problem scenario was accessed by the student, the package would display other students’
responses on the same problem before the user himself embark upon the problem. This
was to provide a ‘knowledge database’ for the user as shown in Figure J5 in Appendix J.
Students’ responses would be stored on the local A drive first before being transferred to
a special directory on the server (E:\hms) created with the permission from the network
administrator. The output from each problem scenario would then be scrutinized by the
respondents in the ‘decision- making’ stage (REFLEKSI). This is part of Level IV (highorder divergent) in which the respondents judge and pose solutions to problems. Refer to
Appendix J for user interfaces used in these segments.
106
At the end of each problem scenario, all his/her responses and scores would be
recorded on a text file on the server which could be accessed by any user. The user
would be able to either repeat the same scenario whereby all his/her previous responses
and scores on the local drive would be initialized, move on to a new scenario to tackle or
create their own scenario to be posted to the database on the server. If the user chose to
quit the module, he/she would then be offered to evaluate the module. If he chose move
on to a new scenario, his previous scores would be carried forward and added to future
scores. The respondents would then be assessed by the scores they accumulate after
deliberating on as many scenarios that they chose during the session.
These scores would constitute the post test scores and be compared with their pre
test scores to determine any statistically significant difference. The users could also
proceed to the ‘Collaborative Learning Segment’ whereby he/she would construct their own
scenarios and post them to the database on the network server to be tried by other users. The overall score
would then be calculated by an analytical rubric, taking into account scores resulting from prepared and
created scenarios and recorded into the server’s database.
4.5
Accommodating Students’ Preferences into the Design of the Package
In the preliminary study conducted earlier, one of the aspects surveyed was
students’ preferences in a multimedia package (Refer to Appendix B1). Results of the
survey conducted are tabulated in Table 5.2. Since the schools’ backgrounds were
different to that of Zaidatun’s research work done in 2002, the researcher decided to
duplicate the study using an instrument that was adapted from Zaidatun’s. Efforts were
carried out to accommodate these preferences into the development of the package. The
following section deliberates on the features that took into account these preferences.
107
Item 1:
I prefer to here a human voice as guide rather than just plain text
(Mean score = 4.12)
Video and audio elements were used in the presentation of
scenarios to the users. This aspect was introduced to spruce up the
problem task and reduced boredom.
Item 2:
I like soft-colored backgrounds like white, grey or light blue
(Mean score = 3.93)
White background was used for the main menu and most other
interfaces for all the three modules. The backdrop for the general
guidelines screen was light blue to distinguish it from other
displays. Soft colored background helps in the learning process of
its users. Oborne (1995) deliberated on the time escalation for
information searching process for complex background screen
color scheme.
Item 3:
I want to be able to go freely to any screen that I like
(Mean score = 4.25)
Pull down menus and back buttons were available to facilitate this
feature. Nevertheless, absolute freedom to move around was
restricted since the package was algorithmic-based.
Item 4:
I prefer a lot of animations on the screen
(Mean score = 3.75)
Limited number of flash animations was implanted into the
package for cosmetic purposes only.
Item 5:
I prefer straight, plain type face as compared to cursive text
(Mean score = 4.65)
Cursive texts were totally avoided in thinking activity segments.
Item 6:
I do not want to answer all the questions posed to me
(Mean score = 4.54)
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Students were given the option to browse all the problem
scenarios offered before deciding on which one to deal with. This
is a major feature of the package.
Item 7:
The package must provide challenging questions
(Mean score = 4.75)
The scenarios provided were based on real life situations and thus
no right or wrong answers existed. This could serve as a challenge
to the users in providing the best response banking on their own
expertise and experience relating to the problem posed.
Item 8:
Background music is a must
(Mean score = 4.45)
Students were given a choice of two different instrumental
background music for the sessions in which they can interchange
at their own will. Headphones would have to be used for this
purpose. Option for a silent session was also offered.
Item 9:
I can exit an activity any time I want
(Mean score = 4.54)
Exit buttons were visibly placed for most interfaces. Students who
chose to exit would be taken to the ‘Evaluation’ interface in which
their peers’ performance scores would be displayed. They could
then be able to completely exit the package.
Item 10:
Scores are provided for my responses
(Mean score = 4.60)
Scores were calculated using an analytical rubric specially
designed for this package. These scores were recorded and shown
on user interfaces with ‘stars’ awarded for certain levels of
achievement. A ‘performance metre’ was also provided that
reflect on individual scores for each scenario attempted and for
users’ overall performance using the module.
Item 11:
Video presentations are appealing
(Mean score = 3.78)
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Video elements were used sparingly to limit the size of the
package.
Item 12:
Time for accessing information and answering questions is
unlimited
(Mean score = 4.54)
No time limit were imposed or recorded for any of the segments
in the modules, including the quiz section. Nevertheless, due to
time constraints, the users were only allocated a 90 minute period
each day for two consecutive days for exposure to the package.
Item 13:
Ability to browse responses from other users is helpful
(Mean score = 4.20)
Users were able to browse and copy or modify responses from
other users as they saw fit.
Item 14:
Help facilities are provided on all activities
(Mean score = 4.32)
Online help was featured on all interfaces that required students’
input. The questions posed were rephrased or possible responses
displayed to stimulate analytical thinking of students.
Item 15:
The main menu is accessible from all screens
(Mean score = 4.40)
The main menu could be reached through visibly placed button
and pull down menu. Some interfaces did not furnish this facility
due to design constraints.
Item 16:
Awards or prizes for good marks are useful motivators
(Mean score = 4.50)
Awards were given in terms of ‘stars’ for certain levels of
performance with a maximum of 5 stars conferred. The
‘Performance Metre’ would also indicate accordingly the level of
individual performance for each problem scenario attempted as
‘Good’, ‘Very Good’ and ‘Excellent’.
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Item 17:
Freedom to choose background music appeals to me
(Mean score = 4.20)
This aspect was dominantly featured in the package where
students could choose between two digitally captured audio
recordings. To increase the choices would enlarge the size of the
package which could slow it significantly.
Item 18:
I like to be able to choose any activity that appeals to me
(Mean score = 4.50)
Students could choose any problem scenario that appealed to the ir
interest or knowledgeable in. They could also opt for any module
that they prefer from the information given to them on the
‘Opening sequence’.
Item 19:
Games are a must
(Mean score = 4.65)
A quiz- like game was used in Module 1 and Module 3 where the
participants were pitted against the computer using F1 racing cars
as icons. The answers for each question posed were actual
responses obtained from a group of 26 Form Four students. If the
user indicated a response that resembled the actual response
recorded, his/her F1 racing car would move forward, else the
computer’s F1 car would do so. The car that crossed the finishing
line first would be declared the winner.
Item 20:
I like to see beautiful pictures or abstract designs on screen
(Mean score = 4.34)
Abstract designs were used as screen frames in the user interfaces.
Graphics were not suitable since it would camouflage on-screen
texts.
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Item 21:
The software allows me to give my comments on it directly
(Mean score = 4.65)
Students were able to add their comments in textual format as
well as questionnaire-type responses. Facility to browse or
compare their feedbacks to that of their peers was also provided.
4.6
Results of Experts’ Formative Evaluation on the Design of the Package
Table D3 and D4 in Appendix D outlined in tabular form the perception of an
Instructional Design expert (Dr. Zadatun bt Tasir), on the prototype. Overall her
evaluation was favourable and modifications were made to the design based on her
recommendations (refer to Table D3 and D4). Nevertheless, the facility of pull-down
menus in the package was not removed since it would significantly obstruct the spatial
design of the user interface. The use of ‘moving arrow’ was used instead to alert the user
of the presence of pull down menus. The design of the ‘Ajar’ segment was revamped
since it was seen as not user-friendly. The ‘Demo’ segment was placed before the ‘Ajar’
segment which was contradictory to the flow of instruction for teaching of thinking
skills proposed by Phillips (1997) which was ‘Kenal’, ‘Ajar’, ‘Demo’, ‘Aplikasi’ and
‘Refleksi’ (KADAR). The ‘Demo’ segment was seen to be more effective in guiding the
user on using the package.
Table D5, D6 and D7 in Appendix D tabulated the views of content experts on
the prototype. They gave their views on the design of the prototype as well as validated
the problems posed to the students. The suitability of the prototype was confirmed
though some modifications were made to several segments in the package. One of them
queried of the possibility of using the package in a non-smart school setup. The concept
of the package is collaborative learning in a computer-based environment, thus the need
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for work stations with intranetworking facilities is fundamental. The term analytical
thinking was adopted as it was more relevant to the functional concepts of the package.
The term ‘divergent’ was included to emphasize the multi-perspective views used by the
users as a direct result of collaborative learning techniques used by the package.
Nevertheless, a problem-solving section (‘Refleksi’), which constitutes critical thinking
semblance, was kept. This was to enable the users to reflect upon the ideas that they
procured earlier and to put it into use so as to underline the advantages of divergent
analytical thinking skills.
4.7
Incorporating the Principles of Cognitive Apprenticeship Model into the
Design
The interactive multimedia package advocated a cognitive apprenticeship
approach in a constructivist learning environment derived from the instructional design
used for problem-based learning courseware constructed by Albion and Gibson (1998).
Principle 1: Begin with an authentic problem
As situated learning theory was chosen as part of the theoretical framework for
the development of this package, the importance was depicted at the beginning stage.
Genuinely problematic real life scenarios that the student could relate to and
representative of problems found in everyday situations were posed for the user to
choose and work on. Situated learning in the context of experience should increase the
retention of that learning in future problem solving episodes and hence reduce the
incidence of inert knowledge (Brown, Collins and Duguid, 1989).
Implementation
Each of the six scenarios posed to the users in each of the three modules was
either related to student life or simple situational problems that would interest them
particularly. Care was taken to ensure task to be undertaken had relevance in the real
world and a logical purpose attached to them. These scenarios were reviewed and
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validated by a qualified and experienced resource teacher in ‘Critical and Creative
Thinking’ (KBKK). It was then checked for indices of difficulty and discrimination
using students’ responses (refer to Tables C4, C5 and C6 in Appendix C). The scenarios
were then embedded into the package by means of video and audio representations to
entice the users as shown in Figure 4.4 and Figure 4.5.
Figure 4.4:
An example of a video representation of a problem scenario
Figure 4.5:
An example of an audio representation of a problem scenario
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Principle 2: Representation of multiple view points
Group brainstorming done on individual basis on network- linked workstations
was a prominent feature of the package. It is a characteristic of ill-structured real life
problems that there is no single correct solution exist. Users’ responses on a specific
problem scenario were displayed to the user before they delved into the problem and
they could browse through the responses later to gain further insight into the problem.
Capacity to view situations from different perspectives is important for productive
thinking (Jonassen, 1996).
Implementation:
The users would state the perspective that they would use to view the problem
that they chose to work on before they commence. This would be reflected on the
screen. They could then name a new perspective to use and continue on the task. This is
in line with the usage of OPV (Other People’s View), CAF (Consider All Factors) and
PMI (Plus, Minus, Interesting), components of CoRT1 technique introduced by DeBono.
The package would reflect on the number of view points used and enables the user to
accumulate awards in terms of ‘stars’ more easily in the process. Facility of browsing
responses from other users was also available for the users to copy or ponder upon.
Figures 4.6a, 4.6b and 4.7 illustrate the user interface to encourage students to reflect on
multiple view points in CADATS.
Figure 4.6a: Verbal organizer requiring students to state their perspective in advance
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Figure 4.6b: CADATS acknowledging students’ declared perspective
Figure 4.7:
Browsing other students’ responses for a particular problem scenario
Principle 3: Scaffold user performance
Incorporating scaffolding into package design is an approach used in
constructivist learning (Albion and Gibson, 1998). The inclusion of graphic and verbal
organisers as heuristic aids forms the mental structure to activate users in constructing
statements in dealing with the tasks at hand. Another approach to scaffolding used in the
package was the decomposition of the main task into smaller categories as was
recommended by Savery and Duffy (1995).
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Implementation
Graphic and verbal organisers as depicted by Poh (2000) and Som and Dahlan
(1999) were used extensively in Module 1 (Compare and Contrast) and Module 2 (Parts
of a Whole). Module 3 (Proposal Ponder) made use of graphic and verbal organiser
constructed by the author. Examples of graphic and verbal orga nizer used are depicted in
Figures 4.8 and 4.9.
Figure 4.8:
Figure 4.9:
An example of a graphic organizer in Module 2 (Parts of a Whole)
An example of verbal organizer used in Module 3 (Proposal Ponder)
Their main purpose was to construct a mental structure for decomposing and
organising minor episodes of the task into the major overall picture. Additional
scaffolding was provided in the form of interactive contextual help, which described the
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task about to be undertaken by the user at each step, reflecting back on the user’s own
responses in its feedback. Participants in the final evaluation commented favourably on
the help system used in the package.
Principle 4: Provide access to relevant information
In constructivist approach, students analyse the problem, determine what
information is needed and then seek it out. Jonassen (1996) has argued for the inclusion
of information resources and links to relevant materials in constructivist learning
environments.
Implementation
The workstations used in the exercise were all linked to each other which the
users could use to access valuable information and feedbacks from their peers. This
provision offered a level of convenience for collaborative work. Thus this facility was
significantly productive as the users spent substantial time on browsing and judging on
the responses given by their peers on the topic at hand. Figure 4.7 illustrates an example
of a user interface encountered by the students when browsing their peers’ responses.
Principle 5: Support individual and collaborative learning
Group brainstorming was found to generate fewer ideas than comparable number
of individuals brainstorming in isolation (Paulus et al. 1996). Individuals in groups were
found to have difficulty in generating and presenting ideas when others were presenting
theirs and also due to social interaction anxiety of concerns about the evaluation of one’s
performance. This package provides the opportunity for participants to engage in a
group brainstorming session on an ind ividual, asynchronous basis. Students would then
be able to browse through all the available response at that particular time to assist them
in formulating their own response. Newby et al. (2000) that learning through
information searching stimulates high-order thinking since it involves analyzing and
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synthesizing information. Furthermore, Zaidatun (2002) underlined the intrinsic
motivation it oozes when one notices his/her feedback is displayed and ponder upon by
others.
Implementation
Individual responses were initially recorded in the local disk drive before they
were transferred to the free-access database on the server with the users’ permission.
Thus the server provided a pooling facility for all responses from the users. New users
could the access this information and decide on using or modifying them according to
their discretion towards the problem at hand. They can also send comments and
feedbacks on responses given by other users which could be accessed by all.
A ‘Collaborative Learning’ segment is incorporated into CADATS which
facilitates creation of one’s own problem scenario that could be accessed and attempted
by students on the network. Provision for browsing students’ responses on specific
problem scenarios and giving feedbacks on them are also on the menu. Figure J11 in
Appendix J illustrates this provision in the package.
4.8
Elements of Instruction Used in the Design
The approach used was recommended by Phillips (1997) who introduced a
strategy for teaching thinking skills referred to as KADAR. The acronym appropriately
stands for KENAL (Introduce), AJAR (Explain), DEMONSTRASI (Demonstrate),
APLIKASI (Apply) and REFLEKSI (Reflect). A slight modification was made in the
developed interactive multimedia package in that the sequence of instruction is KDAAR
based on the researcher’s own findings conducted in the formative evaluation stage of
the effectiveness in its implementation. The output from the exercise would then be
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scrutinized by the respondents in the ‘decision- making’ stage (REFLEKSI). The
respondents would then be assessed by the scores they accumulate during the session.
An interactive quiz segment is an optional segment incorporated into the
package, designed to pit the user against the computer based on popular responses
acquired from a group of students in the pilot study. If the user’s response matches or
similar to one of the popular responses of the respondents for a particular problem
scenario in the pilot study, the user’s F1 racing car icon would move closer to the
finishing line, else the computer’s F1 car icon would do the same. The first icon to cross
the finishing line would be declared the winner.
Online evaluation of CADATS was also featured in the package toward the end
of each module. This facility enabled the user to either assess the package through a
questionnaire-type document or provide free text-based feedback. Users’ own scores
from questionnaire type document would be compared to the average scores procured
from all the respondents via animated graphics whilst users’ comments from text-based
feedbacks could be read by all the users in the network. This was to facilitate
collaborative aura amongst the users of CADATS. The user interfaces used in these
segments are depicted in figures in Appendix J.
4.8.1
Computer Text
Courseware designers should try not to place too much emphasis on the media
and too little emphasis on the content (Baharuddin, 1999). It is necessary to provide
useful, engaging and well-presented written content to educate computer users about the
content being presented. The writing or text in the courseware must be readable. It can
be simple text or three-dimensional text. In CADATS, simple Arial size 12 typefaces
were used for students’ input and displays. Help facilities were also displayed using
Arial typeface. Zaidatun (2002) used the same typeface for her multimedia software.
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Only one student in the experimental group did complaint about the readability of the
typeface.
4.8.2 Computer Graphics
Graphics should be used to help convey the message. A wide array of graphics is
used in multimedia projects, including scanned artwork, three-dimensional design
artwork, photography, and digital clip art. Screen designs in CADATS utilized clip arts
as background borders only to avoid congesting the user interface which was made up
almost entirely of graphic organizers in the form of text boxes (An example is depicted
in Figure 4.8). These simple text boxes would categorize and display students’ responses
for each problem scenario attempted. It also helped in organizing students’ thoughts and
sketching a simplified mental strategy for divergent analytical thinking.
4.8.3 Computer Animation
Much of the computer animation used in CADATS was created in flash movies.
Digital still images were incorporated into the animations for certain problem scenarios
to entice the students to try them. The ‘Meter Prestasi’ facility in the package provided
students with an animated display of their current performance derived from interactive
scripting using Authorware 6 as shown in Figure 4.10.
Figure 4.10
‘Meter prestasi’ (Performance meter) to indicate students’ performance
based on current score for the module in progress
The section on quiz game also utilized interactive scripting to indicate students’
performance depicted by an F1 racing car against the computer as shown in Figure J9 in
Appendix J. For Module 2, a Flash movie downloaded from the Internet was used in the
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game section of the module. These animations did provide students with much
entertainment but most of them criticized the time constraints to explore these games
section.
4.8.4
Digital Audio
Digital audio can be incorporated in a multimedia presentation to provide
information and enhance the other media being presented. The format that was used in
CADATS was wave (.WAV) files. The file format was used to record voice, sound
effects and digital music background. The quality of digitized sound is determined by
the sampling frequency and the number of bits allocated per sample. The higher the
sampling frequency the less is lost from the original sound, and thus the better the
quality. Sampling frequencies usually range from 8kHz (voice quality) to 44kHz (CD
quality). Similarly, the more bits per sample the more accurate that sample will be, and
also less will be lost from the original sound. Audio sampled at 11 kHz and 8-bit
resolution is similar to mono sound, while audio sampled at 22 kHz and 16-bit resolution
(which requires double the storage capacity for the audio clip) is similar to stereo or CD
sound (Baharuddin, 1999).
The researcher recognized the importance of music in establishing a mood or a
soothing atmosphere for a multimedia package. It can, however, also take up a lot of
hard- disk space in the final product. CADATS provided the user with the option of
‘turning off’ the music if so required, since some people find background music
distracting or annoying. Two contrasting instrumental background music were used in
CADATS and they were originally downloaded from digitally remastered source. User
control on the choice of musical or silent interface is deemed vitally important by
Zaidatun (2002) and elements of user control are exercised in this package.
Voice recordings for narration purposes can be very useful in highlighting
important points but again require substantial amounts of disk storage space. Voice-
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quality software and equipment is now becoming very reasonable in price. Most IBMcompatible sound cards come with this capability. One may only need to purchase an
inexpensive microphone to take advantage of voice recordings. CADATS made use of
voice recording in deliberating on problem scenarios in which students could play and
rewind the recordings in order to fully understand the task at hand (refer to Figure 4.5)
4.8.5 Digital Video
Digital video in multimedia applications is a powerful way to convey
information but requires considerably larger amounts of hard-disk storage space than
any other forms of media used in the package. To cut down on the minimum
configuration necessary to run the video, one can trade some resolution, size, or overall
quality through various compression techniques. According to Baharuddin (1999) a
digital video clip that runs for 2 seconds on the AVI (Video for Windows) format takes
up to 1.03 MB of disk space. This means that a 1.44 MB diskette can only store about 3
sec of digital video clips. However, if the digital video clip in the .AVI format is
changed to .MOV file, it will require much less disk space, but there are some unwanted
effects that have to be taken into consideration, since the quality of the digital video clip
will be downgraded.
In CADATS, the researcher used ULead VideoStudio7 to extract video clips
from a digital video recorder and incorporated textual information to describe the
problem scenario on its display. These video elements were only used on the main menu
of each module where the students would browse through each problem scenario before
choosing on the ones that would interest them personally. The function of the video
clippings was mainly to provide intrinsic motivation in enticing the students to choose
the problem (refer to Figure 4.4).
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4.9
Summary
On the whole, this chapter outlines the structural design of the interactive
multimedia package. The use of thinking tools such as graphic and verbal organisers for
meta-cognitive purposes and deBono CoRT1 techniques to facilitate divergent thinking
are also discussed. Collaborative features which form the backbone of CADATS are also
highlighted diagrammatically. Aspects of coaching and scaffolding in all the three
modules which form the pillars for cognitive apprenticeship and the events of instruction
used in the package as recommended by Phillips (1997) are elaborated. Views pooled
from students, teachers and experts from the preliminary study and the formative
evaluation were also integrated into the package. The flow charts of the structure of
CADATS and its user interfaces for each segment are depicted diagrammatically in
Appendix H and J.
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CHAPTER 5
RESULTS AND DATA ANALYSIS
5.1
Introduction
This chapter discussed the data collected and the analysis in accordance with the
research questions stated in Chapter 1. Results acquired in the preliminary study and
pertaining to students’ preferences in an educational multimedia package would be
discussed. This would be followed by the quantitative impact of the package on
students’ divergent analytical thinking performance. The patterns of students’
performance with respect to the influence of their degree of contentment pertaining to
the design of the package and their initial level of gain in performance score after the
first exposure to the package would also be highlighted. Lastly, students’ behavioral
pattern and responses given by different categories of students based on each module
would be discussed. The end of this chapter summarized the results of quantitative and
qualitative analyses with accordance to the research questions stated in Chapter 1.
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5.2
Students’ Performances in Divergent Analytical Thinking in Preliminary
Study
The list of problem scenarios posed to the participants was as depicted in Table
A1 in Appendix A.
The exercise revealed that:
a. Twenty one out of 34 students (62%) gave ‘single viewpoint’ responses for all
the problem scenarios attempted in Set 1 (Compare and Contrast). They provided
responses for either the ‘Similarities’ or Differences’ section only. From the
interview session, it was found that these students did not see the need for
providing responses for both sections. A group of 15 students said that they
could only contemplate on ‘differences’ only because it came naturally to them.
b. Twenty eight out of 34 students (82%) managed to provide a maximum of three
responses for each problem scenario attempted in Set 2 (Parts of a Whole). From
the interview session, it was found that this number was seen as sufficient by the
students in analyzing the scenario posed to them. They could think of more but
decided that those responses would be trivial. When the researcher read out some
of the responses that were put to writing, some of them confessed that some of
the responses did not come across their minds.
c. Six out of 34 students (18%) attempted all six scenarios posed in Set 1 and Set 2.
From the interview session, it was found that they either felt that some of the
problem scenarios did not appeal to them or too trivial. The irrelevancy to
academic problems caused them to take up a more laisser-faire approach.
d. From the interview session, it was found that thirty out of 34 students (88%)
described the exercise as dull, boring and meaningless. They could not perceive
126
how it could upgrade their thinking skills. They would rather rely on spontaneous
decisions because analytical thinking would take up valuable time.
e. From the interview session, it was found that 28 out of 34 students (82%)
confessed that they only view the problem scenarios posed from one perspective
or one point-of- view only. They regard the responses given by them as ones that
would cater to their own needs, thus taking up different points-of-view would be
unnecessary. They said that would readily make decisions based on them alone.
f. From the interview session, it was found that all the students (100%) claimed
that they did not know of any cognitive strategy or mind models to tackle the
problem scenarios posed. Nevertheless they agreed that strategies or mind
models could help them to be more focused and productive.
5.3
Students’ Preferences in an Educational Multimedia Package
A number of 32 students comprising of 2 classes of Form Four students from a
fully residential smart school was administered a questionnaire to study their inclinations
on various features that they would like in a multimedia package. Students’ responses
were procured in the form of a 5 scale Likert system. Table 5.1 outlined the group
distribution.
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Table 5.1:
Participants in study of students’ preferences in an educational
multimedia package according to gender
Number of
Gender
Respondents
Number of respondents who indicated
never have experienced using any
educational multimedia package
Male
18
3 (16.67% of gender group)
Female
14
5 (35.71% of gender group)
Total
32
8 (25.00% of total)
As a whole 25% of the participants indicated that they have never experienced
exploring any educational multimedia package before. The high percentage might be a
reflection of the hierarchy in that the classes involved in the preliminary study were
ranked quite low with respect to the rest of the Form Four classes in the particular
school.
Students’ responses for their preferences are tabulated in Table 5.2 according to
the mean score for each item in the questionnaire.
Table 5.2:
Mean scores recorded for items in study of students’ preferences in an
educational multimedia package
Items
Mean
Std
deviation
1.
I prefer to listen to a human voice as guide rather than just
4.12
1.01
3.93
1.06
4.25
1.18
3.75
1.11
plain text
2.
I like soft-colored backgrounds like white, grey or light
blue
3.
I want to be able to go freely to any screen that I like
4.
I prefer a lot of animations on the screen
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5.
I prefer straight, plain typeface as compared to cursive
4.65
1.14
text
6.
I do not want to answer all the questions posed to me
4.54
1.08
7.
The package must provide challenging questions
4.75
1.20
8.
Background music is a must
4.45
1.16
9.
I can exit an activity any time I want
4.54
1.05
10.
Scores are provided for my responses
4.60
1.21
11.
Video presentations are appealing
3.78
1.05
12.
Time for accessing information and answering questions
4.54
1.14
is unlimited
13.
Ability to browse responses from other users is helpful
4.20
1.20
14.
Help facilities are provided on all activities
4.32
1.18
15.
The main menu is accessible from all screens
4.40
1.05
16.
Awards or prizes for good marks are useful motivators
4.50
1.08
17.
Freedom to choose background music appeals to me
4.20
1.11
18.
I like to be able to choose any activity that appeals to me
4.50
1.14
19.
Games are a must
4.65
1.06
20.
I like to see beautiful pictures or abstract designs on
4.34
1.07
4.65
1.05
screen
21.
The software allows me to give my comments on it
directly
The results showed that only item 4 (I prefer a lot of animations on the screen)
and item 11 (Video presentations are appealing) procured a mean score between 3 and 4
(Neutral-Agree). This indicated that students were not as much impressed by the
animation effects on an educational multimedia package as the activities and the
interactivity that it has to offer. Interestingly, the highest mean score came from the item
which indicated that students preferred to be posed challenging questions by the
package. Also students would prefer provision for adding comments and criticisms
though they indicated their preference for anonymity.
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Some of the additional comments that the students attached to their questionnaire
is depicted in Table 5.3:
Table 5.3:
Students’ comments attached to the questionnaire in the study of
students’ preferences in an educational multimedia package
1.
Include computer games that user can compete with the computer
2.
Can be readily run on any PC with ease
3.
Capable of increasing users’ knowledge and skills
4.
Relevant with academic subjects
5.
Screen can be minimized
6.
All users’ score can be tabulated and publicly accessed
7.
Interaction must be fast
8.
Background music preferably fast and contemporary to avoid boredom
9.
Need to proven useful for students, not just a past-time activity
10.
Can be copied for personal use anywhere
Only 12 of the participants attached comments in their questionnaire forms.
These comments stated above were previously condensed and recoded by the researcher.
The significance of the package was emphasized by the students by underlining the need
for knowledge and skills’ enhancement and academic subject relevance.
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5.4
Quantitative Analysis of the Impact of CADATS on Students’ Divergent
Analytical Thinking Performance In Accordance With Modules
(α = 0.05 for all analysis)
5.4.1
MODULE 1 (COMPARE AND CONTRAST)
5.4.1.1
Distribution curve of performance scores for Module 1
Please refer to Table E1and E2 in Appendix E for data collected on the
performance score procured by the control and experimental groups exposed to Module
1. The distribution of the performance scores was found to be normal when plotted
graphically. The normal distribution curve obtained from the data enabled inferential
statistics to be performed.
For distribution curve of pre-test performance scores for control group of
Module 1:
_
(X− Md )
Index of Skewness = 3
s
_
X = Mean; M d = Median; s = Std deviation
Index of Skewness = -0.2 which was within the range of -0.5 and +0.5, thus considered
symmetrical (Nowaczyk, 1988)
For distribution curve of pre-test performance scores for experimental group of
Module 1:
Index of Skewness = -0.006
which was within the range of -0.5 and +0.5, thus considered symmetrical.
131
For distribution curve of post-test performance scores for control group of
Module 1:
Index of Skewness = 0 which was wit hin the range of -0.5 and +0.5, thus considered.
For distribution curve of first post-test performance scores for experimental group of
Module 1:
Index of Skewness = 0.09 which was within the range of -0.5 and +0.5, thus considered
symmetrical.
For distribution curve of second post-test performance scores for experimental group of
Module 1:
Index of Skewness = -0.5 which was within the range of -0.5 and +0.5, thus considered
symmetrical.
5.4.1.2
Statistical Analysis for Module 1 (Compare and Contrast)
Research Question 1
Table 5.4:
Independent samples T- Test analysis on pre-test means of experimental
and control group for Module 1
Dependent variable: Pre-test performance score
Independent variable: Group
N
Std.
Mean
Sig.
Deviation
Experimental group
75
25.99
4.81
Control group
32
24.59
5.84
0.202
Both experimental and control groups showed no statistically significant
difference in mean of pre-test performance scores (Table 5.4).
Research Question 2 and 3
132
Table 5.5:
Independent samples T-test analysis on pre-test means of experimental
and control groups with respect to gender for Module 1
Dependent variable: Pre-test performance score
Independent variable: Group
Gender
Moderator variable: Gender
N
Mean
Std.
Sig.
Deviation
Experimental group
Control group
Male
38
26.34
4.73
Female
37
25.62
4.92
Male
15
23.93
5.43
Female
17
25.18
6.29
0.520
0.557
Male and female students in the experimental and control groups showed no
statistically significant difference in mean of pre-test performance scores (Table 5.5).
Research Question 4
Table 5.6:
Paired sample T-Test analysis on pre-test and first post-test means of
experimental and control group for Module 1
Dependent variable: Pre-test
performance
score,
first
post-test
performance score (paired)
Independent variable: Group
Experimental Pretest scores –
group
N
Sig.
75
.000
32
.002
Posttest scores
Control group Pretest scores –
Posttest scores
Both experimental and control groups showed increase in performance after pretest session (Table 5.6). The factor of testing anxiety might be the basis for this result. It
is imperative to analyze whether the extent of improvement was the same.
133
Table 5.7:
Independent samples T- Test analysis on first post-test means of
experimental and control group for Module 1
Dependent variable: First post-test performance score
Independent variable: Group
N
Std.
Mean
Sig.
Deviation
Experimental group
75
42.15
5.22
Control group
32
26.59
5.27
0.000
Both experimental and control groups showed statistically significant difference
in mean of post-test performance scores (Table 5.7). The analysis annulled the factor of
testing anxiety. Therefore, the experimental group has showed significant improvement
in performance score in analytical thinking after exposure to the package. Thus, the
interactive multimedia package (CADATS) has had a significant impact on the students
exposed to it.
Research Question 5 and 6
Table 5.8:
Independent samples T-test analysis on first post-test means of
experimental and control groups with respect to gender for Module 1
Dependent variable: First post-test performance score
Independent variable: Group
Gender
Moderator variable: Gender
N
Mean
Std.
Sig.
Deviation
Experimental group
Male
38
42.26
5.02
Female
37
42.03
5.49
Male
15
25.60
5.05
Female
17
27.47
5.46
Control group
0.846
0.325
134
Both male and female students in the experimental and control groups showed no
statistically significant difference in mean of first post-test performance scores (Table
5.8). Thus, the impact of the interactive multimedia package (CADATS) was
indistinguishable with respect to gender groups.
Research Question 7 and 8
Table 5.9:
Independent samples T-test analysis on initial gain in performance score
of experimental and control groups with respect to gender (pre-test scores as covariate)
for Module 1
Dependent variable: Initial gain in performance score (First post-test
minus pre-test scores)
Independent variable: Group
Gender
N
Moderator variable: Gender
Mean
Std.
Sig.
score gain Deviation
Experimental
Male
38
15.92
6.57
group
Female
37
16.59
4.62
Male
15
2.13
3.54
Female
17
2.41
2.85
Control group
0.610
0.807
Both male and female students in the experimental and control groups showed no
statistically significant difference in mean of initial gain in performance score (Table
5.9). This analysis confirmed that exposure to the package has a similar positive effect
on male and female students in terms of initial gain in performance score.
135
Research Question 9
Table 5.10:
Independent samples T-test analysis on second post-test means of
experimental group with respect to gender for Module 1
Dependent variable: Second
post-test
performance
score
(fully
collaborative mode)
Independent variable: Gender in experimental group
Gender
N
Mean
Std.
Sig.
Deviation
Male
38
55.26
6.57
Female
37
58.59
5.84
Experimental group
0.023
Both male and female students showed statistically significant difference in
mean of second post-test performance scores (Table 5.10). Since the mean score for
female students were higher than their male counterparts, it can be concluded that the
female students performed better in fully collaborative mode (after a lapse of one day).
From thorough analysis of students’ responses, it was found that male students answered
more questions (quantity) but female students gave more diverse responses for the
problems they attempted (quality).
136
5.4.2
MODULE 2
5.4.2.1
(PARTS OF A WHOLE)
Distribution curve of performa nce scores for Module 2
Please refer to Tables E3 and E4 in Appendix E for data collected for the
performance score procured by the control and experimental groups exposed to Module
2. The distribution curves of the performance scores when plotted were found to be
normal. The normal distribution curve obtained from the data enabled inferential
statistics to be performed.
For distribution curve of pre-test performance scores for control group of
Module 2:
Index of Skewness = -0.1 which was within the range of -0.5 and +0.5, thus considered
symmetrical.
For distribution curve of pre-test performance scores for experimental group of
Module 2:
Index of Skewness = -0.5 which was within the range of -0.5 and +0.5, thus considered
symmetrical.
For distribution curve of post-test performance scores for control group of
Module 2:
Index of Skewness = -0.3 which was within the range of -0.5 and +0.5, thus considered
symmetrical.
For distribution curve of first post-test performance scores for experimental group of
Module 2:
Index of Skewness = -0.5
which was within the range of -0.5 and +0.5, thus considered symmetrical.
137
For distribution curve of second post-test performance scores for experimental group of
Module 2:
Index of Skewness = -0.1
which was within the range of -0.5 and +0.5, thus considered symmetrical.
5.4.2.2
Statistical Analysis for Module 2 (Parts of a Whole)
Research Question 1
Table 5.11:
Independent samples T- Test analysis on pre-test means of experimental
and control group for Module 2
Dependent variable: Pre-test performance score
Independent variable: Group
N
Std.
Mean
Sig.
Deviation
Experimental group
74
11.66
1.98
Control group
31
10.90
1.76
0.067
F = 1.050, df = 103
Both experimental and control groups showed no statistically significant
difference in mean of pre-test performance scores (Table 5.11).
138
Research Question 2 and 3
Table 5.12:
Independent samples T-test analysis on pre-test means of experimental
and control groups with respect to gender for Module 2
Dependent variable: Pre-test performance score
Independent variable: Group
Gender
Moderator variable: Gender
N
Mean
Std.
Sig.
Deviation
Experimental group
Control group
Male
35
10.86
1.67
Female
39
12.38
1.98
Male
15
11.00
1.89
Female
16
10.81
1.68
0.000
0.772
For the experimental group, female students showed a significantly higher pretest performance score compared to male students (Table 5.12). But both male and
female students in the control group were equally competent in the control group. The
researcher failed to find an explanation for this anomaly.
Research Question 4
Table 5.13:
Paired sample T-Test analysis on pre-test and post-test means for
experimental and control group for Module 2
Dependent variable: Pre-test
performance
score,
performance score (paired)
Independent variable: Group
Experimental
Pretest scores -
group
Posttest scores
Control group Pretest scores Posttest scores
N
Sig.
74
0.000
31
0.836
First
post-test
139
Only the experimental group showed significant increase in performance after
pre-test session as a result of exposure to the package (Table 5.13). Thus, it can be
concluded that the interactive multimedia package (CADATS) has had a significant
positive impact on the students that were exposed to it.
Research Question 5 and 6
Table 5.14:
Independent samples T-test analysis on first post-test means of
experimental and control groups with respect to gender for Module 2
Dependent variable: First post-test performance score
Independent variable: Group
Gender
Moderator variable: Gender
N
Mean
Std.
Sig.
Deviation
Experimental group
Male
35
13.51
1.82
Female
39
15.49
1.62
Male
15
10.80
1.61
Female
16
10.81
1.56
Control group
0.000
0.983
Male and female students in the experimental group showed statistically
significant difference in mean of first post-test performance scores (Table 5.14). Female
students in the experimental group were more competent in analytical thinking skills as
shown in the pre-test results to start with. This phenomenon was replicated in the posttest.
140
Research Question 7 and 8
Table 5.15:
Independent samples T-test analysis on initial gain in performance score
of experimental and control groups with respect to gender (pre-test scores as covariate)
for Module 2
Dependent variable: Initial gain in performance score (First post-test
minus pre-test performance scores)
Independent variable: Group
Gender
N
Moderator variable: Gender
Mean
Std.
Sig.
score gain Deviation
Experimental
Male
35
2.66
1.73
group
Female
39
3.10
2.17
Male
15
-0.20
2.86
Female
16
0.00
2.39
Control group
0.337
0.834
Both male and female students in the experimental and control groups showed no
statistically significant difference in mean of initial gain in performance score (Table
5.15). It can be concluded that exposure to the package have similar positive effect on
male and female students in terms of initial gain in performance score.
141
Research Question 9
Table 5.16:
Independent samples T-test analysis on second post-test means of
experimental group with respect to gender for Module 2
Dependent variable: Second post-test performance score
Independent variable: Gender in experimental group
Gender
N
Mean
Std.
Sig.
Deviation
Experimental group
Male
38
18.77
1.73
Female
37
20.03
1.98
0.05
Both male and female students showed no statistically significant difference in mean of
second post-test performance scores (Table 5.16). It can be concluded that the male and
female students performed equally well in fully collaborative mode (after a lapse of one
day).
5.4.3
MODULE 3 (PROPOSAL PONDER)
5.4.3.1
Distribution curve of performance scores for Module 3
Please refer to Tables E5 and E6 in Appendix E for data collected for the
performance score procured by the control and experimental groups exposed to Module
3. The distribution curves of the performance scores were found to be normal when
poltted graphically. The normal distribution curve obtained from the data enabled
inferential statistics to be performed.
For distribution curve of pre-test performance scores for control group of
Module 3:
Index of Skewness = 0.2
which was within the range of -0.5 and +0.5, thus considered symmetrical.
142
For distribution curve of pre-test performance scores for experimental group of
Module 3:
Index of Skewness = 0.2
which was within the range of -0.5 and +0.5, thus considered symmetrical.
For distribution curve of post-test performance scores for control group of
Module 3:
Index of Skewness = 0.2 which was within the range of -0.5 and +0.5, thus considered
symmetrical.
For distribution curve of first post-test performance scores for experimental group of
Module 3:
Index of Skewness = 0.1 which was within the range of -0.5 and +0.5, thus considered
symmetrical.
For distribution curve of second post-test performance scores for experimental group of
Module 3:
Index of Skewness = -0.1
which was within the range of -0.5 and +0.5, thus considered symmetrical.
143
5.4.3.2
Statistical Analysis for Module 3 (Proposal Ponder)
Research Question 1
Table 5.17:
Independent samples T- Test analysis on pre-test means of experimental
and control groups for Module 3
Dependent variable: Pre-test performance score
Independent variable: Group
N
Std.
Mean
Sig.
Deviation
Experimental group
84
46.70
10.00
Control group
32
46.66
8.88
0.982
Both experimental and control groups showed no statistically significant
difference in mean of pre-test performance scores (Table 5.17).
Research Question 2 and 3
Table 5.18:
Independent samples T-test analysis on pre-test means of control and
experimental groups with respect to gender for Module 3
Dependent variable: Pre-test performance score
Independent variable: Group
Gender
Moderator variable: Gender
N
Mean
Std.
Sig.
Deviation
Experimental group
Control group
Male
41
46.17
10.24
Female
43
47.21
9.86
Male
15
42.27
7.34
Female
17
50.53
8.47
0.637
0.005
144
For the experimental group, both male and female students were equally
competent (Table 5.18). This was not reflected in the control group where female
students outdid the male students although marginally.
Research Question 4
Table 5.19:
Paired sample T-Test analysis on pre-test and post-test means of
experimental and control groups for Module 3
Dependent variable: Pre-test performance score, Post-test performance
score (paired)
Independent variable: Group
Experimental
Pretest scores -
group
Posttest scores
Control group Pretest scores -
N
Sig.
84
0.000
32
0.000
Posttest scores
Both the experimental and control groups showed significant increase in
performance after pre-test session as a result of exposure to the package (Table 5.19).
Thus the factor of testing anxiety might have been manifested.
Table 5.20:
Independent samples T- Test analysis on post-test means of experimental
and control group for Module 3
Dependent variable: Post-test performance score
Independent variable: Group
N
Mean
Std.
Sig.
Deviation
Experimental group
84
69.85
5.22
Control group
32
50.78
5.27
0.000
145
Both experimental and control groups showed statistically significant difference
in mean of post-test performance scores (Table 5.20). Therefore, the experimental group
has showed significant higher performance score in analytical thinking after exposure to
the package. Since these groups were on equal footing in the pre-test session, it can be
concluded that the interactive multimedia package (CADATS) package did have a
significant impact on students’ analytical thinking performance.
Research Question 5 and 6
Table 5.21:
Independent samples T-test analysis on post-test means of experimental
and control groups with respect to gender for Module 3
Gender
N
Mean
Std.
Sig.
Deviation
Experimantal group
Male
41
70.73
8.85
Female
43
69.00
8.52
Male
15
47.47
6.42
Female
17
53.71
8.56
Control group
0.363
0.028
Male and female students in the experimental group showed no statistically
significant difference in mean of post-test performance scores whereas in the control
group, performance scores by female students were significantly higher than their male
counterparts (Table 5.21). They also outperformed the male students in the pre-test
(Table 5.18)
146
Research Question 7 and 8
Table 5.22:
Independent samples T-test analysis on initial gain in performance score
of experimental and control groups with respect to gender (pre-test scores as covariate)
for Module 3
Dependent variable: Initial gain in performance score (First post-test
performance score minus pre-test performance score)
Independent va riable: Group
Gender
N
Moderator variable: Gender
Mean
Std.
Sig.
score gain Deviation
Experimental
Male
41
24.56
5.30
group
Female
43
21.79
6.48
Male
15
5.20
4.62
Female
17
3.18
4.98
Control group
0.035
0.245
Male students in the experimental group showed a significantly higher initial
gain in performance score than the female group (Table 5.22). Both male and female
students in the control group showed no statistically significant difference in mean of
initial gain in performance score. It can be concluded that exposure to the package have
higher positive effect on male than female students in terms of initial gain in
performance score.
147
Research Question 9
Table 5.23:
Independent samples T-test analysis on second post-test means of
Experimental group with respect to gender for Module 3
Dependent variable: Second post-test performance score
Independent variable: Gender in experimental group
Gender
N
Mean
Std.
Sig.
Deviation
Experimental group
Male
41
83.05
1.73
Female
43
82.28
1.98
0.629
Both male and female students showed no statistically significant difference in
mean of second post-test performance scores (Table 5.23). It can be concluded that male
and female students performed equally in fully collaborative mode (after a lapse of one
day)
5.5
Quantitative Analysis of Gender and Initial Gain in Performance Score on
Students’ Level of Contentment towards Different Aspects of the Design of
the Package
Research Question 10
Students in the experimental group were statistically categorized into 4 groups
based on gender and level of initial gain in performance score which constituted Low
Gain for students exhibiting lower than average difference in first post-test and pre-test
score and High Gain for the contrary. Thus four groups of students coexisted for each
module, namely Male-Low Gain, Male-High Gain, Female-Low Gain and Female-High
Gain.
148
5
4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
Male-Low Gain
Male-High Gain
Female-Low Gain
Figure 5.1
Navigational
Design
Design of
Motivational
Elements
Design of
User
Interface
Design of
Activity
Ease of use
Female-High Gain
Profile of students’ level of contentment towards different aspects of the
design of the package
The graph in Figure 5.1 revealed a marked tendency for the Low Gain groups to
be clustered together and separated from the High Gain groups. This indicated the
significant positive correlation of initial gain in performance score and students’ level of
contentment to the design of the package, irrespective of gender. It is evidently clear that
students with low initial gain in performance score exhibit low level of satisfaction on
aspects of the design of the package, regardless of gender.
149
Research Question 11
Table 5.24:
Analysis of variance of students’ level of contentment towards different
aspects of the design of the package between categories of students
Dependent variables:
Students’ level of contentment on ‘Ease of
use’, ‘Design of thinking activity’, ‘Design
of motivational elements’, ‘Design of user
interface’ and ‘Navigational design’
Independent variables:
Categories of students
Category of students
Mean
Std. Deviation
N
Male-Low Gain
3.7731
.3043
54
Male-High Gain
4.2458
.3238
60
Female-Low Gain
3.7589
.3267
56
Female-High Gain
4.1865
.3329
63
Male-Low Gain
3.7917
.4364
54
Male-High Gain
4.2375
.3863
60
Female-Low Gain
3.7589
.4100
56
Female-High Gain
4.0873
.4380
63
Male-Low Gain
3.8426
.5670
54
Male-High Gain
4.4083
.4602
60
Female-Low Gain
3.8839
.4790
56
Female-High Gain
4.2817
.4990
63
Male-Low Gain
3.9907
.3467
54
Design of user
Male-High Gain
4.3125
.3584
60
interface
Female-Low Gain
3.9286
.2849
56
Female-High Gain
4.3175
.2847
63
Navigational
Male-Low Gain
3.5787
.3358
54
design
Male-High Gain
4.1208
.3946
60
Female-Low Gain
3.7357
.3744
56
Ease of use
Sig.
0.000
Design of
thinking
activity
0.000
Design of
motivational
elements
0.000
0.000
0.000
150
Female-High Gain
4.1984
.3734
63
PostHoc Test Result Using Tukey HSD and LSD Statistical Analyses
Ease of use
Design of
thinking activity
Design in
motivational
elements
Design of user
interface
Navigational
design
(µ Male- Low Gain = µ Female-Low Gain) < (µ Male-High Gain =
µ Female High Gain)
(µ Male- Low Gain = µ Female-Low Gain) < (µ Male-High Gain=
µ Female High Gain)
(µ Male- Low Gain < µ Female-Low Gain) < (µ Male-High Gain =
µ Female High Gain)
(µ Male- Low Gain= µ Female-Low Gain) < (µ Male-High Gain =
µ Female High Gain)
(µ Male- Low Gain = µ Female-Low Gain) < (µ Male-High Gain =
µ Female High Gain)
The Post-Hoc analysis in Table 5.24 confirmed that gender did not influence
students’ level of contentment towards different aspects of the design of the package.
Nevertheless students’ initia l level of gain in performance score did show positive
correlation towards their level of contentment on the design features of the package.
151
5.6
Quantitative Analysis of the Effects of Gender and Initial Gain in
Performance Score on the Enhancements of Divergent Analytical Thinking
Research Question 12
Table 5.25:
To probe the effectiveness of each module by comparing means of
difference between second post-test and pre-test performance scores between categories
of students using analysis of variance
Dependent variable: Difference between second post-test and pre-test scores
Independent variable: Module
Moderator variable: Categories of Students
Catego ries of
Module
Compare and
Contrast
Parts of a Whole
Proposal Ponder
N
Sig.
students
Male-Low Gain
21
Male High Gain
18
Female-Low Gain
17
Female-High Gain
20
Male-Low Gain
12
Male High Gain
22
Female-Low Gain
11
Female-High Gain
28
Male-Low Gain
21
Male High Gain
20
Female-Low Gain
28
Female-High Gain
15
0.000
0.000
0.000
PostHoc Test Result Using Tukey HSD and LSD Statistical Analyses
Compare and
Contrast
Parts of a Whole
Proposal Ponder
(µ Male- Low Gain ) < (µ Female-Low Gain = µ Male-High Gain =
µ Female High Gain )
(µ Female-Low Gain) < ( µ Male-Low Gain =µ Male-High Gain =
µ Female High Gain)
(µ Male- Low Gain = µ Female-Low Gain) < (µ Male-High Gain =
µ Female High Gain)
152
The results from Table 5.25 indicated that for Module 1 (Compare and Contrast)
the group that least benefited from the exposure to the package after the second post-test
was the Male-Low Gain. For Module 2 (Parts of a Whole), it was the Female-Low Gain
and for Module 3 (Proposal Ponder), both the Male-Low Gain and Female-Low Gain
least benefited from exposure to the package after second post-test.
The data analysis provides overwhelming evidence that students in the HighGain category showed significant enhancement in performance from their pre-test score
for all modules. Since students in the High Gain category revealed a higher level of
contentment towards the design features of the package than the Low-Gain category, it
can be concluded that intrinsic motivation and positive attitude towards the package had
a profound positive impact on the enhancement of analytical thinking performance.
The results above also suggested that the impact of students’ level of initial gain
performance score began to be have less influence after the second exposure to the
package for Module 1 (Compare and Contrast) and Module 2 (Parts of a Whole). This
would suggest that the students’ level of expertise and comfortability in using the
package has improved slightly in the course of time, thus destabilizing the parity
between the levels of initial gain in performance score. Nevertheless, this phenomenon
did not manifest itself in Module 3. Both Male-Low Gain and Female-Low Gain
categories still performed below par when compared to their counterparts after the
second post-test, thus highlighting the correlation of initial gain in performance score to
the enhancement of thinking skills, independent of gender factor.
153
5.7
Patterns of Students’ Performance for Each Module Based on Categories of
Students
Research Question 13
70
60
50
Male-Low Gain
40
Male-High Gain
30
Female-Low Gain
Female-High Gain
20
10
0
Pre-test
Figure 5.2
Post-test
Second
post-test
Trends of performance scores for Module 1 according to categories of
students
The pattern of performance scores of the four categories of students exposed to
Module 1 (Compare and Contrast) are pictorially depicted in Figure 5.2. It can be seen
that significant differences is exhibited by the different categories of students at the pretest, post-test and the second post-test. Multivariate Analysis of Variance test indicated
that in the pretest, significant difference was found between Low Gain and High Gain
students irrespective of gender. Surprisingly, the Male-High Gain and Female-High
Gain scored less than their counterparts in the pre-test. This proved that students who
exhibited a high gain in performance score after exposure to the package were less
competent to start with than their counterparts.
The post-test results analysis also
showed that significant difference was found between Low Gain and High Gain students
irrespective of gender. But, the trend was reversed, in which the High Gain students
performed better than the Low Gain category. The second post-test revealed a
statistically significant difference between the Female-High Gain and the other three
categories. Thus, the Female-High Gain students performed the best after exposure to
154
Module 1 (Compare and Contrast). Nevertheless, when difference between performance
scores in the second post-test and pre-test was used as the dependent variable, ANOVA
testing showed that all the categories were on par with each other except for the MaleLow Gain students who were lagging behind. This illustrated that gender and initial
performance gain after exposure to the package are non- issues in influencing students’
capabilities in divergent analytical thinking in a computer-based environment. No
significant interaction between gender and initial gain in performance score were
detected in the post-test (sig. value = 0.790) and the second post-test (sig. value = 0.642)
from MANOVA testing.
25
20
Male-Low Gain
15
Male-High Gain
Female-Low Gain
10
Female-High Gain
5
0
Pre-test
Figure 5.3
Post-test
Second
post-test
Trends of performance scores for Module 2 according to categories of
students
The pattern of performance scores of the four categories of students exposed to
Module 2 (Parts of a Whole) are pictorially depicted in Figure 5.3. It can be seen that
significant differences is exhibited by the different categories of students at the pre-test,
post-test and the second post-test. Multivariate Analysis of Variance test indicated that
in the pretest, significant difference was found between Female-Low Gain and the other
three categories. Surpris ingly, the Female- Low Gain scored the highest in the pre-test.
The performance scores between genders were also statistically significant. The post-test
155
results analysis also showed that significant difference was found between genders. The
Male-Low Gain students performed the worst of the four categories of students. There
was no statistically significant difference found in the other three categories. The trend
persisted in the second post-test, although ANOVA testing showed that the Male and
Female groups performed on the same level. Thus, the Female-High Gain students
performed the best after exposure to Module 2 (Parts of a Whole). Nevertheless, when
difference between performance scores in the second post-test and pre-test was used as
the dependent variable, ANOVA testing showed that all the categories were on par with
each other except for the Female-Low Gain students who were lagging behind. This
illustrated that gender and initial performance gain after exposure to the package are
non- issues in influencing students’ capabilities in divergent analytical thinking in a
computer-based environment. No significant interaction between gender and initial gain
in performance score were detected in the post-test (sig. value = 0.186) and the second
post-test (sig. value = 0.195) from MANOVA testing.
90
80
70
60
Male-Low Gain
50
Male-High Gain
40
Female-Low Gain
30
Female-High Gain
20
10
0
Pre-test
Figure 5.4
Post-test
Second
post-test
Trends of performance scores for Module 3 according to categories of
students
The pattern of performance scores of the four categories of students exposed to
Module 3 (Proposal Ponder) are pictorially depicted in Figure 5.4. ANOVA testing
showed significant differences in performance scores exhibited by the different
categories of students at the pre-test only. The Male-High Gain students performed the
significantly worst in the pre-test compared to the other three categories. Male-Low
156
Gain and Female-low Gain actually scored higher than their counterparts in the pre-test.
Nevertheless, there was no significant difference in performance scores between
genders. Multivariate Analysis of Variance test ind icated that in the post-test and the
second post-test, all the four categories performed on par with each other. This again
illustrated that gender and initial performance gain after exposure to the package are
non- issues in influencing students’ capabilities in divergent analytical thinking in a
computer-based environment. No statistically significant interaction between gender and
initial gain in performance score were detected in the post-test (sig. value = 0.137) and
the second post-test (sig. value = 0.083) from MANOVA testing.
5.8
The Extent of Success of the Modules in the Package in Enhancing Students’
Divergent Analytical Thinking Skills
Research Question 13
Table 5.26:
Analysis of variance of mean difference of second post-test scores and
pre-test scores of students to reveal the most effective module in the package
Dependent variable: Difference in second post-test and pre-test
performance scores
Independent variable: Module
Mean difference of
Module
Std deviation
N
30.605
8.38
76
7.781
2.55
73
35.952
8.37
84
second post-test and
Sig.
pre-test scores
Module 1
(Compare and Contrast)
Module 2
(Parts of a Whole)
Module 3
(Proposal Ponder)
0.000
157
The results from Table 5.26 revealed that Module 3 (Proposal Ponder) was the
most effective module in enhancing students’ divergent analytical thinking skills
performance score based on the difference between second post-test and pre-test
performance scores.
5.9
Results from Qualitative Analysis
Research Question 14
Table 5.27:
General students’ responses from group interviews related to the use of
collaborative learning techniques in the package
No of groups that agree (out of 4)
Module 1
Module 2
Module 3
2
2
3
3
4
4
3
4
3
Users are challenged to think harder because
other users can check on each others’
performance
Segment on collaborative learning facilitate
students to contribute and accumulate their
thoughts on questions posed by fellow
students –student-oriented rather than teacheroriented, a change from the usual classroom
scenario
Ideas that are not readily thought of are
exposed, thus improving one’s analytical
capability
158
Students posed questions that are interesting
and relevant to students life, thus need for
good analytical mind seem to be important, as
3
2
3
4
3
3
4
2
2
4
2
2
4
2
3
2
4
4
3
2
2
3
4
4
4
4
4
compared to questions based on academic
content
I got more diverse and surprising thoughts that
I used in my exercises.
Some of them are the same as mine but put in
a different manner
It helped me to get ideas for my own problem
that I posed to the data bank thus relieving me
of doing the thinking
I realize that there so many different view
points
Need for collaboration with others on a
subject to acquire maximum number of view
points
Need for wide ranging information to make
right decisions
Need to be open minded
Need to be critical on all issues before
decision is made
Table 5.27 summarizes the responses indicated by the students in the
experimental groups pertaining to the employment of collaborative learning techniques
in the package. Some of the individual comments recorded by the researcher in the
research log book are as follows:
•
‘The ability to confer with friends online about their responses and feedbacks
given is a great feature of this package, like the Internet!’
159
•
‘Some of my friends did not respond back to my comments. Maybe they did not
open the file on responses’
•
‘Time is very limited and too many responses to read. Most of us were just trying
to outdo our friends in terms of points scored. The feature is great if we were
allocated a lot of time.’
•
‘No need to adhere to rigid grammatical rules. Freedom of expression is
wonderful.’
•
‘Chance to defend our points of view. Feedbacks enrich our outlook.’
•
‘Respondents can only give feedback after the person has sent his responses to
the network, not during the actual key-in process. The respondent is not able to
rectify his responses without doing it all over again.’
Table 5.28:
Quantity of collaborative participation amongst student respondents
Number of participants in each
module
Number
of
problem
scenarios
posted for each module
Number of message postings put up
to
seek
elaboration
for
Module 1
Module 2
Module 3
Male
Female
Male
Female
Male
Female
38
37
35
39
41
43
15
22
18
30
21
27
(39%)
(59%)
(51%)
(77%)
(51%)
(63%)
8
10
10
19
11
20
(27%)
(29%)
(49%)
(27%)
(47%)
3
5
4
7
5
9
(8%)
(14%)
(11%)
(18%)
(12%)
(21%)
peer (21%)
response
Number of message postings read
and responded by students
160
Table 5.28 indicated that the number of message postings actually read and responded
was quite low. This could actually be due to time constraints during the sessions
allocated for exposure to the package. Nevertheless, the lack of importance placed by the
students on collaborative participation could not be refuted.
Table 5.29:
General students’ responses from group interviews related to the
effectiveness of thinking tools used in the package
No of groups that agree (out of 4)
Facility to check on other users’ responses
Facility for posing one’s own problem for
Module 1
Module 2
Module 3
4
4
4
4
4
4
3
1
2
3
2
2
4
3
4
4
4
4
other users to attempt
Step-by-step on how to justify statements
Chance to get extra points for changing pointof- view
Use of everyday life problems in the package
that users can identify with made the session
absorbing, relevant and beneficial and not
limited to academic field only
The need to look at things from different
angles
Table 5.29 summarizes the responses indicated by the students in the
experimental groups concerning the adoption of the various thinking tools and strategies
used in the package. Some of the individual comments recorded by the researcher in the
research log book are as follows:
•
‘The diagrams and dialogues as well as online help buttons on every screen act
as strategy to attack the problem.’
161
•
‘Repetitive dialogues make the package monotonous. Students should be able to
skip these dialogues and advance directly to keying in responses.’
•
‘These template-like structures train us to organize our thoughts.’
•
‘Every response was justified. Students can delete these responses if they think
that they are not strong. It trains us to be responsible for our responses. ’
•
‘These strategies are not available when we respond to these problems on pencil
and paper method. But it will be too time-consuming and boring; computer
displays add fun to the exercise.’
•
‘Our teachers did mention to us once about these methods, but we only do them
as a mental exercise.’
•
These diagrams provide logical sequence to our thought s, but they are too dull.
Can the diagrams be presented in a more interesting way?’
•
‘We can see that we do not repeat the same response.’
162
Research Question 15
Table 5.30:
General students’ responses from group interviews related to the
instructional design of the package
No of groups that agree (out of 4)
Module 1
Module 2
Module 3
Background music can be selected by the user
3
2
2
Quiz/ game segment is interesting
2
2
2
Back button to undo statements
2
2
2
3
2
2
4
2
4
2
4
4
3
4
4
The package challenges users to give more
than three statements initially required
The package literally challenges users to give
more from their thoughts after the minimum
number of statements are obtained
The steps shown and the way to justify
opinions teach students to be critical and
responsible
This medium of instruction is far better than
pencil and paper method
Table 5.30 summarizes the responses indicated by the students in the
experimental groups on the instructional design adopted by the package. Below are some
of the individual comments from students that were recorded in researcher’s log book:
When asked how they had found the package, one student who was exposed to
Module 1 gave a negative response--'the text was difficult to read with my poor
eyesight'. Four students from Module 2 remarked that the screen design was too
overcrowded. Another two students from Module 3 complaint about the poor quality and
relevance of some of the videos used to depict the problem scenarios. Many students
163
from Module 1,2 and 3 made positive comments on the use of interactive multimedia
package as the medium of learning. The words/phrases most commonly used were:
interesting, enjoyable, informative and more effective than a classroom instruction. The
major reasons for these comments being varied—diagrams as templates, texts, colorful
background and interactivity.
When asked what they had liked most about the package, most students said that
the diagrams were the best feature using words such as: ‘I could imagine more ideas’; ‘I
could see things in my mind’; ‘My thoughts were more organized’. Some students added
that it was simple to use and they liked the ability to work at their own pace.
Most of them found the sequences of video good, using words like: ‘the y conjure
interest in me to try out the problem scenario’; gave the problems a real life meaning to
it’; ‘some were better than others’; ‘informative but not as good visually’.
All the students found the problem scenarios’ textual and audio presentation
good, using words like: ‘easy to understand’ and ‘straightforward and understandable’.
When asked if they had any general comments they would like to make all responded
positively with comments such as:
•
‘'I think I would prefer to have this sort of thing to classroom instruction. You
are not sitting there trying to cram notes down in a legible form, you are
actually doing something.’
•
‘I think that this hands-on technique with a computer would be a good way of
teaching especially to young people who have been brought up with computers
and so it is more of a novelty to them than a book or a lecture.’
•
‘It was really good and a very good idea because different people can learn on
different levels. Some people already know all this and others do not. It was
good to see things from many different view points.
164
•
‘I think that it is a good way to learn mainly because you can stop and start when
you want to. Online help provide a lot of guidance. You can work at your own
pace.’
Table 5.31:
General students’ responses from group interviews related to the elements
of motivational aspects incorporated into the package
No of groups that agree (out of 4)
Users rewarded with ‘stars’ according to
Module 1
Module 2
Module 3
3
4
4
3
2
2
3
2
2
3
2
3
3
4
4
scores gained.
The package challenges users to give more
than three statements initially required.
The package literally challenges users to give
more from their thoughts after the minimum
number of statements is obtained.
Students posed questions that are interesting
and relevant to students life, thus need for
good analytical mind seem to be important, as
compared to questions based on academic
content.
Performance meter gauge individual scores
according to ‘Good’ ‘Very Good’ and
‘Excellent’.
Table 5.31 summarizes the responses indicated by the students in the
experimental groups towards the motivational aspects infused in the package design.
Some of the individual comments recorded by the researcher in the research log book
are as follows:
165
•
‘The five-star system of awards is very motivating, but so difficult to get.’
•
‘The animated feature of ‘Performance meter’ is always available to respondents
to check on their performance.’
•
‘The overall scoring system is confusing.’
•
‘Video presentations of problem scenarios on the main menu screen are
captivating, but only audio mode is available when students actually jumped into
the individual problem.’
•
‘Problems are relevant to students’ life, students like to know what their friends’
think about them.’
•
‘Quizzes provide motivational drive for students. The F1 race against the
computer is very interesting, but I always lost’
•
‘Exciting on-screen animations and graphics serve as motivational drive for
students to continue the session as compared to the pencil and paper method.’
166
5.10
Summary of Analyses of Results
Research Q1
(Pre-test performance score in experimental and control groups)
Module 1
Experimental and control groups performance score were statistically
Module 2
equal
Module 3
Research Q2 and Q3
(Pre-test performance score in experimental and control groups with respect to gender)
Expt group
Male and female students were equally competent
Control group
Male and female students were equally competent
Expt group
Female students were significantly better
Control group
Male and female students were equally competent
Expt group
Male and female students were equally competent
Control group
Male and female students were equally competent
Module 1
Module 2
Module 3
Research Q4
(Paired pre-test and post-test performance scores)
Module 1
Expt group
Paired samples were significantly different
Control group
Paired samples were significantly different
T-Test showed that post-test performance scores for experimental and control group
were significantly different, thus experimental group has benefited from exposure to the
package
Module 2
Expt group
Paired samples were significantly different
Control group
Paired samples were not significantly different
Thus, experimental group has benefited from exposure to the package
167
Module 3
Expt group
Paired samples were significantly different
Control group
Paired samples were significantly different
T-Test showed that post-test scores for experimental and control group were
significantly different, thus experimental group has benefited from exposure to the
package
Research Q5 and Q6
(First post-test performance scores of experimental group with respect to gender)
Module 1
Male and Female were equally competent
Module 2
Female students did significantly better
Module 3
Male and Female students were equally competent
Research Q7 and Q8
(Initial gain in performance score from exposure to the package with respect to gender)
Module 1
Male and Female gain to the same degree
Module 2
Male and Female gain to the same degree
Module 3
Male students showed a significantly higher gain than the female students
Research Q9
(Second post-test scores with respect to gender)
Module 1
Female students showed a significantly higher score
Module 2
Male and female students were equally competent
Module 3
Male and female students were equally competent
168
Research Q10
(Profile of level of contentment towards the overall design features of the package)
Male-Low Gain and Female-Low Gain groups indicated similar trends; MaleHigh Gain and Female –High Gain also showed similarities towards each other. All the
categories of students showed a high degree of contentment, averaging 4 on a 5-point
scale. This seemed to indicate that initial gain in performance score and level of
contentment towards the design features of the package was correlated and irrespective
of gender.
Research Q11
(Analysis of variance on level of contentment towards the overall design features of the
package with respect to different categories of students)
On all five aspects of the design featuresin the package, the analysis consistently
showed the correlation between initial level of gain in performance score and their level
of contentment towards the design features of the package.
Research Q12
(Degree of effectiveness of each module on different categories of students after second
post-test)
Least benefited from
Most benefited from
exposure
exposure
Male-High Gain
Module 1
Male-Low Gain
Female-Low Gain
Female-High Gain
Male-Low Gain
Module 2
Female-Low Gain
Male-High Gain
Female-High Gain
Module 3
Male-Low Gain
Male-High Gain
Female-Low Gain
Female-High Gain
169
Thus, students with high initial gain in performance score after the first post-test
continued to perform better tha n most of their counterparts in the second post-test.
Nevertheless, students with a low initial gain in performance score after the first posttest began to show marked improvements in the second post-test.
Research Q13
Degree of effectiveness of modules in enhancing students’ analytical thinking skills
performance score (by comparing second post-test and pre-test scores)
Most effective modules
Module 3 (Proposal Ponder)
Module 1 (Compare and Contrast)
Least effective module
Module 2 (Parts of a Whole)
Research Q14
How did students with different gender and levels of initial performance gain in
divergent analytical thinking scores view the group brainstorming techniques as well as
the graphical and verbal organizers employed in the interactive multimedia package?
It was found that the students regardless of gender and different levels of initial
performance gain viewed the approaches employed by the package positively.
Research Q15
What were the features of the package that contributed to the enhancement of divergent
analytical thinking skills amongst its users?
From interview results, it was found that most students found that the courseware taught
them the rubrics of divergent analytical thinking and the importance of collaborative
learning to gain a balance view of a situation or problem.
170
CHAPTER 6
DISCUSSION OF THE FINDINGS
6.1
Introduction
This chapter presents a discussion of the key findings of the author’s research,
based on the summative evaluation inline with the set objectives in Chapter 1. It starts by
looking at the impact of the interactive multimedia package on the students’ divergent
analytical thinking performance and ends by looking at how they view the various
approaches incorporated into the package with respect to their personal achievement and
outlook on strategic thinking. Parallels with prior studies are also outlined.
6.2
OBJECTIVE 1:
The Impact of CADATS on Students’ Performance in
Divergent Analytical Thinking Skills
The findings in this study is parallel with past findings on the assessment of
divergent thinking ability using the Wallach–Kogan tests with Chinese primary students
in Hong Kong done by Chan et al. (2001) where the number of statements or ideas
combined with the different view points used by the student and not its quality was the
indicator of thinking ability. The results indicated that on the average, students in the
171
experimental group exposed to Module 1 (Compare and Contrast) could generate 2.9, 5.1
and 6.2 statements for the Similarities and Differences sections for each problem scenario
in the pre-test, post-test and the second post-test respectively (Table E2 in Appendix E).
Students in the experimental group exposed to Module 2 (Parts of a Whole) indicated that
they could generate on the average as much as 1.8, 2.5 and 2.7 statements for the
Components sections for each problem scenario in the pre-test, post-test and the second
post-test respectively (Table E4 in Appendix E). Meanwhile students in the experimental
group exposed to Module 3 (Proposal Ponder) were capable on the average to provide
6.0, 8.0 and 9.0 statements in the ‘For and Against’ sections for each problem scenario in
the pre-test, post-test and second post-test respectively (Table E6 in Appendix E).
These results compared favorably with those reported by Wallach and Kogan
(1965) reported by Chan et al. (2001) in their original study of 151 fifth- graders, who
could generate between 5 and 11 distinct ideas in response to verbal tasks. Chan et al.
(2001) reported that his samples could generate 9 to 20 distinct ideas for verbal tasks.
The differences may arise from a host of reasons. The Wallach–Kogan study had many
more items for each type of divergent thinking test, and no time constraint, and therefore
no pressure to produce many ideas in a short span of time. The researcher’s study was
similar to Chan et al. (2001) in which the administration was verbal with explicit
instructions to produce as many ideas as possible but within different time limit (10 items
in 70 minutes used by Chan et al.). Students’ responses were recoded in the researcher’s
study to eliminate similar and nonsensical responses, thus reducing the number of
responses recorded by students. Alternatively, the differences may arise from reasons that
may not be culturally specific, and studies intended to uncover cultural differences
deserve due attention in future investigations.
Statistical analyses conducted on summative evaluation results indicated that both
the experimental and control groups were initially equally competent in their divergent
analytical skills capabilities (Table 5.4 for Module 1; Table 5.11 for Module 2; Table
5.19 for Module 3) . Within these groups, there was no evidence of dominance shown by
either gender (Table 5.5 for Module 1; Table 5.18 for Module 3) except for the
172
experimental group in Module 2 (Table 5.12) for unknown reasons. In exploring gender
differences in ideational fluency after exposure to the package, findings from this study
indicated that gender factor did not contribute significantly in almost all the three
modules attempted by the students (Tables 5.8 and 5.9 for Module 1; Tables 5.14, 5.15
and 5.16 for Module 2; Tables 5.22 and 5.23 for Module 3). Nevertheless, the study
found several exceptions. In Module 1, female students in the experimental group fared
significantly better than their male counterparts in the second post-test where the students
formed their own problem scenarios (Table 5.10). In Module 3, male students in the
experimental group showed a significantly higher initial gain in performance score after
the first post-test (Table 5.21). This phenomenon did not resurface in the second post-test.
On the whole, these findings contrasted significantly from Chan et al. (2001) findings
that female students scored less than their male counterparts in verbal tasks. The elements
of maturity amongst female students or the cautiousness of female students as compared
to the ‘competitive nature’ of male students in completing tasks were not evident. The
observations in this study were in parallel with Chan et al. (2001) findings in relation to
figural tasks in which gender differences did not emerge.
Statistical analyses conducted on summative evaluation results indicated that both
the experimental and cont rol groups were initially equally competent in their divergent
analytical skills capabilities. Within these groups, there was no evidence of dominance
shown by either gender.
Overall, the students in the experimental groups scored on par with each other in
the pre-tests conducted before exposure to the package. Their performance scores
increased significantly for all three modules after using the CADATS package with
different levels of improvements. This indicated that the extent of success was not
uniform throughout the respondents. Nevertheless, the second post-tests registered an
even higher performance score for all three modules.
After conducting a statistical analysis on the performance scores, it was found that
students who were exposed to the package had a significantly higher initial gain in
173
performance score when pre-test and post-test scores were compared than students in the
control group (Tables 5.6 and 5.7 for Module1; Table 5.13 for Module 2; and Tables 5.19
and 5.20 for Module 3). It was also found that male and female students in both groups
were on par with each other in the pre-test. Gender independence shown by the results in
the experimental group who were exposed to CADATS in a multimedia environment did
not reflect results of the stud y done by Barrett and Lally (1999). They reported different
performance behavior by male and female respondents in on-line learning environment in
terms of the frequency, length and style of their contributions to group discussions.
Qualitative analyses based on interview transcripts and researcher’s observations
clearly indicated that students tried to outdo their peers in accumulating scores which was
portrayed on their screens. They would browse through responses from the other students
and gave their own feedbacks on the problem they chose. They were anxious to know
whether their peers responded to their points of view and seen reviewing their
experiences with their friends on the way out of the computer laboratories at the end of
their sessions.
Figure 6.1
Facility for full collaborative mode used in second posttests
The researcher could safely conclude that the interactive multimedia package,
CADATS, did successfully stimulate their divergent analytical thinking skills by
adopting the specifically designed instructional activities on problem scenarios that were
relevant to their everyday lives.
174
6.3
OBJECTIVE 2:
Factors and Features of the Design That Contributed to
the Enhancement of Divergent Analytical Thinking Performance Scores
The main question was: Did the CADATS package based on specifically
designed instructional activities in a collaborative learning environment enhanced
students’ capabilities in analytical thinking based on divergent thinking paradigm?
The result from this study supported findings from Reimann and Bosnjak (1998)
that provided empirical data about the efficiency of computer tools for developing
thinking skills via carefully designed instructional activities. It also confirmed the study
by Glebas (1997) and Scarce (1997) in which computer tools such as spreadsheet and
email were found to be ineffective for critical thinking when it is not integrated within a
carefully designed instructional context.
Interactive multimedia provides a promising area for exploring the development
of the integrated, applied knowledge base that is so difficult to achieve through traditional
instruction.
(Delcloss and Hartman, 1993: 83)
At the time of this investigation there was very little empirical evidence regarding
the use of interactive multimedia instructional technologies for direct teaching of thinking
skills in Malaysia. The problem stems from the lack of research regarding the effects of a
self-paced interactive multimedia computer simulation on students' divergent analytical
thinking skills. Students' responses to the multimedia environment gathered through
group interviews point out to the positive acceptance for the design of the package by the
students (Appendix F). This study provides evidence of the potential for using interactive
multimedia environments to develop analytic problem-solving ability in a non-academic
content domain.
175
The results from the study were consistent with the results obtained from other
research, such as Zaidatun (2002), Cairncross and Mannion (2001), Baharuddin (1998)
and Delcloss and Hartman (1993). They confirmed that the use of computer-based
learning materials was effective in improving students’ knowledge and skills. Delcloss
and Hartman (1993) provided evidence of the potential for using interactive multimedia
environments to develop analytic problem-solving ability. The study supported
experimental evidence provided by Piers and Morgan (1973) that ideational fluency can
be developed.
The study supported findings from De Jong and van Joolingen (1998) that
deliberated on the importance of user guidance and the realization of certain personal and
situational conditions (in this case the design of the package) in order to be successful in
promoting higher order thinking skills. It also reflected on study done by Gokhale (1995)
on the significance of a well-structured computer simulation to enhanced students’
thinking skills.
This study reaffirm the conclusion drawn from thinking skills research which
states that program elements, like drills or tutorials, should be combined with elements of
open learning environments (Astleitner, 2002). Linear program elements would train
specific basic skills in thinking with a step-by-step procedure enriched by tasks and
feedback. During critical and analytical thinking, content-relevant contexts have to be
examined and information resources from peers have to be analyzed. Such tasks can be
accomplished within open learning environments conceptualized by Hannafin, Land, and
Oliver (1999). Such open-learning environments offer students tasks in given contexts in
a self-paced mode, self-access additional resources and independent learning to cater for
meta-cognitive, procedural and strategic steps. The necessity of open learning elements
for teaching thinking skills is confirmed by the study conducted which was based on
collaborative learning environments because collaborative learning activities open up a
learning situation. The call for using open learning environments for teaching thinking
skills within computer-based learning environment has been made as early as 1986
(Mancall, Aaron and Walker, 1986).
176
Research done by Arburn and Bethel (1999) indicated that features of open
learning environments can successfully influence thinking skills. The authors identified
increased scores within the California Critical Thinking Test after applying a teaching
method which stimulated students to ask questions on the subject matter. Such an
effective teaching method was used as part of the learning support component of an openlearning environment in the courseware. CADATS effectively replicated this result.
The researcher’s study has found that Form Four students in fully residential
smart schools in Johore, have not only enhanced their divergent analytical thinking skills,
but have also changed their outlook on the importance of collaboration for divergent
analytical thinking. The interactive multimedia package developed had incorporated the
facility for students to openly judge and response to feedbacks of all the users on the
network. The second posttest which made full use of this facility recorded a higher
number of responses than the first posttest or the pretest. This is evident from their
responses in group interviews as tabulated in Table 5.28 and Table 5.30. In the second
posttest, students were able to construct their own problem scenarios and post them to the
server to be accessed by their peers. The resultant scores were much higher for all the
three modules attempted. The students found the problems posed to them by their peers
were more relevant and interesting, thus they responded better to them than in the first
posttest where the problem scenarios were constructed by the researcher and a group of
expert teachers in the field. Sample problem scenarios created by the students themselves
can be viewed from Table G7, G8 and G9 in the Appendix G.
The package provided ample opportunity for independent practice to develop
unification of the strategy that is the blending of elements of the strategy into a single,
unified whole. The extensive practice with a variety of problem scenarios also
decontextualized the learning, in which the strategies were applied easily and
unconsciously to various situations. This feature of the package highlighted the very
essence of Cognitive Apprenticeship Model suggested by Collins, Brown and Holum
177
(1991). Scaffolds and the procedures for using them provided the students with expert
models to simulate divergent analytical thinking. Some instructional processes, such as
providing guided practice and onscreen help buttons were critical in providing ‘userfriendliness’ factor for the students. Students chose their own problem scenarios and were
encouraged by their peers’ contribution on the problem at hand. This helped to shift the
responsibility of learning to the students as they attempt to augment on the ideas and
responses already posted by their peers. This aspect of the package is not available in
pencil and paper methodology used in the pre-tests sessions.
A majority of students in the experimental groups had no previous experience of
using graphic and verbal organizers for organizing their ideas. Results from interviews
showed that some students were not able to transfer thinking skills from academic-based
subjects to problems outside its perimeters. This was further amplified by the fact that
most of the students vaguely recalled that they were ever exposed to such strategies in the
classroom instructions before. The CADATS package emphasized the importance of
embedding the activities for analytical and divergent thinking in meaningful and
authentic problem scenarios relevant to the students’ everyday situation. The use of real
situations presented in audio visual format is a practical means of embedding learning in
authentic situations. A critical thinking approach was used for the students to scrutinize
and then utilize their accumulated ideas, thus highlighting the use for analytical and
divergent thinking skills that they had practiced.
Although the technique of collaborative learning in a group brainstorming
approach was not totally new to them, they were not totally free to express their views or
conclusions which were forced upon them in traditional classroom instruction, thus
curtailing their efforts for active divergent thinking. Cognitive and humanistic views of
learning emphasize the need to develop learner autonomy, with the aim of helping
students to process information in meaningful ways and become independent learners.
Uniformity of classroom instruction does little in this respect. Thus, the development of
new interactive courseware provide the practical means whereby students can take a more
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active part in developing their skills and understanding as well as taking more
responsibility in their learning at their own pace.
Students in the experimental group who exhibited high initial gain in performance
score after the pre-test continued to perform better than students in the Low-Gain group
in terms of enhancement in performance score for all modules. This phenomenon can be
traced to their high level of contentment towards the design features of the package.
Intrinsic motivation, positive attitude and computer literacy could be the decisive factors
for their apparent high achievement. The study did not attempt to deal into this aspect,
perhaps further research can be undertaken to unravel this phenomenon.
6.3.1 Features of Design Used in the Package that Stimulated Enhancements in
Students’ Performance
1.
Relevancy of the material to the students’ knowledge and experience.
One of multimedia greatest assets is its ability to engage learners. Engagement
serves as the "bridge" to learners and is built best by ensuring that students can relate to
the problems posed. In general, the students would be motivated to use the package and
generate ideas in the collaborative environment when they could relate with the
information and challenge that the package provides. Design aspects of CADATS include
learning embedded in a social context to enhance intrinsic motivation whilst taking
advantage of opportunities for collaborative learning as suggested by Brown, Collins and
Duguid (1989) in constructing a Cognitive Apprenticeship Model were shown to be
successful in upgrading students’ performance.
The assessment task was aimed at real- life situational problems and was not
aimed at subject-oriented matter, so in this instance it was suitable to include open-ended
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types of questions. The package did provoke much enthusiasm and support from the
students due to its innovativeness and student-centered learning that it promotes. The
findings points out to the fact that students developed a sense of competence in the
subject area of thinking skills, and became mo re comfortable using technology indicating
that interactive multimedia is an effective means of providing training in skills necessary
for cognitive development. This study demonstrates the possibility and potential of crossdisciplinary collaborative efforts to produce a multimedia program of individual modules
that can be used individually or together to supplement mainstream curricula.
All the problem scenarios chosen for the package were developed after extensive
discussion by the expert teachers as well as the researcher himself. They were selected
from a pool of problems which resembled as close as possible to the everyday situation
faced by students in a fully residential smart school in Johore. These problem scenarios
were then analyzed in the preliminary stages as depicted in Chapter 3 before they were
divided into the pretests and posttests groups. The reason for choosing such ‘unacademic’
problems was minimize biases which might have resulted from students’ academic
background.
2.
Complementing multimedia elements to enrich package.
The decision to use pictures, text, audio, narration, video and animation
strengthened the presentation or user interface of a courseware. Students with diverse
learning preferences were catered for by CADATS. It encouraged the students to actively
use the package and inevitably transformed their disposition towards divergent analytical
thinking. This substantiated findings by Frear and Hirschbuhl (1999) in developing an
interactive multimedia module which promo ted participation and interaction. Variables of
achievement and problem solving skills in environmental science were significantly
upgraded. This study validated the effectiveness of an interactive multimedia package in
increasing students’ achievement. The use of video and audio elements in the courseware
provided the students with more excitement and motivation to take on a problem scenario
compared to the dry pencil and paper method. This was expressed by the students during
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the interview sessions. The use of soothing background music which can be turned off or
changed to suit the individual was also highlighted by the students during the interview
sessions. Hardly any student was seen not putting on their headphones during their
sessions.
3.
Methodical training sessions before using the package.
Active engagement does not come instantaneously. A learner can be bombarded
by too much new information and skills too fast. Many packages bombard learners with
more information than is digestible at one time, which, consequently, defeats the learning
process. To give them "absorption" time, passive presentation of review material or
supporting visuals will provide learners with a bit of comfort for newly acquired
knowledge. The earlier segments of ‘Kenal’, ‘Demo and ‘Ajar’ gave the students much
need acclimatization to the package. (Refer to Figure J1, J2, J3 and J4 in Appendix J).
Events of instruction for teaching thinking skills proposed by Phillips (1997) was put to
the test in a computer-based environment and was successful in enhancing divergent
analytical thinking capabilities of the students. To prevent learner frustration, the quantity
of information and interactivity presented is limited to a few items per screen so that the
students would be at ease.
Students appreciated the training sessions and they could be seen to be more
proficient in using the courseware as the session continued. Some of the steps were a bit
cumbersome at first, especially the graphical and verbal organizers used for Module 2
(Parts of a Whole) since the students were not exposed to the line of thinking before. As
the session continued, the students began to understand the steps and this was manifested
in the second posttests when the students just breeze through the process. In the interview
session, most of the students appreciated the graphical and verbal organizers used as a
means to organize, clarify and justify their points and ideas.
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4.
Background color to enhance communication.
Color supports communication when it is correctly used. Inappropriately used, it
will tend to baffle or offend. The package used a soft, non- intrusive background color for
the multimedia desktop. White provided the best backdrop. Eyes become fatigued when
exposed to highly saturated colors for an extended period of time. A consistent color
scheme was used for the entire interface in the package. This is consistent with the
findings by Zaidatun (2002) who also used white background in her courseware package.
CADATS used white background with blue typeface when prompting for users’ response
to select or typing feedbacks. Multi-colored backgrounds and animations were used only
at the early and last screens for each problem scenario
The strength of the package was the visual impact it had on students through the
graphic organizers, and challenges to outdo their peers, as seen in their comments (Table
5.27) which make it obvious that the design of CADATS did significantly enhance their
divergent analytical thinking capabilities.
Figure 6.2:
5.
An example of a graphic organizer used in Module 3
The usability of navigational icons in screen designs.
An icon, by definition, is a small graphical representation for a programmedprocess that is activated by clicking the mouse. Icons are useful, but they must be chosen
with care. Icon usability was tested by presenting the icons to pre-defined test groups for
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interpretation. Should the vast majority correctly define the intended process that goes
with the icon, the icon's design is appropriate. However, if a significant number of the
test group is confused about its intended meaning, the icon will need to be redesigned or
replaced by a textual item like a menu selection list or a pull-down menu. CADATS
implemented a large number of pull-down menus with an animated ‘arrow’ to indicate its
existence for immediate use. This effectively eased the user interface in terms of
navigational icons since the screen was heavily loaded with graphic organizers.
Nevertheless, some icons such as ‘List of students’ responses’, ‘background music’ and
‘Exit’ were kept available on screen for easy access by students.
Figure 6.3:
6.4
Set of icons and pull-down menu for modules in CADATS
OBJECTIVE 3:
Correlation between Students’ Levels of Contentment
on the Design of CADATS and the Enhancements of Their Performance Scores
This study was based on the premise that to extract the maximum educational
potential of computers in education, the courseware design must create a positive
emotional reaction amongst the users (Crook, 1991). The presence of gender differences
in the level of satisfaction to varying designs of multimedia interfaces were reported by
Passig and Levin (2000) which would affect the user in terms of performance and their
desire to use the courseware.
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Statistical analysis of the study has highlighted that students’ level of contentment
of the design of the package in terms of ease of use, design of activity, motivational
elements in the design, user interface design and the navigational design were
consistently significantly positively correlated with initial enhancements of performance
scores irrespective of gender. This would be seen as contradictory to the study done by
Passig and Levin (2000) in which they reported gender differences in the level of
contentment to varying designs of multimedia interfaces. Students in the Low Gain
recorded a lower level of contentment than their counterparts in all aspects of design of
the package. This finding seems to imply that students’ confidence played a major role in
the initial gain in performance score after the first exposure to the package. Students with
low appreciation for aspects of the package design were evidently clustered into the Low
Gain group, independent of gender (Table 5.24). This effect was only a short term effect.
The second post-test performance scores indicated that performance scores of the groups
of students began to converge (Figures 5.2, 5.3 and 5.4), thus students’ acceptance to the
design features of the package were elevated due to increase in confidence and familiarity
with the design. Students’ level of tolerance towards the different aspects of the design of
the package has significantly improved over the course of 24 hours. This could be due
constant consultations with their peers which were observed by the researcher and his
team during sessions. Problematic experiences in the first session such as hardware and
networking failure as well as students’ being unaccustomed to the complex processes
involved were gradually lifted. These results may be seen as in line with those of
Fullerton (2000) and Ford and Chen (2001), which showed that users performed better in
a learning environment matching their preferences; conversely, their performance might
be reduced in a mismatched condition. The researcher found this to be true in the initial
stages only when the students were not familiar or comfortable with the package. Thus,
this study partially verified the work done by Masetti (1996) who reported that students’
satisfaction level would not have an influencing effect on their performance level. This
was evidently true after the students were subjected to a second post-test for Module 1
and Module 2. The results of this study only partially verified with the findings of Ghinea
and Chen (2003) that indicated that multimedia content and design significantly impacted
students’ understanding and enjoyment, thus their performance. This would imply that in
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order to deliver an enhanced multimedia-based experience, software developers should
focus on the appropriateness of the design of the courseware as well as its long term
intrinsic motivational impact on the students for the purposes of the specific objectives to
be achieved.
6.5
OBJECTIVE 4:
Attitudinal Transformation in Students’ Outlook on
Thinking
Results from the study indicated that there was a positive change in students’
attitudes toward the analytical and divergent thinking skills. This was reflected in their
higher performance scores garnered in the second post-tests for every module. Tables F1,
F2 and F3 in Appendix F outlined the attitudinal transformation that transpired after
exposure to CADATS as compared to reports from preliminary study done by the
researcher (refer to section 5.2.1). For example, most students in the interview sessions
regarded that the process of thinking was made to be more fun and exciting using the
interactive multimedia package than using the pencil and paper method. The layout of the
graphical and verbal organizers in formulating their ideas had helped them mentally in
contributing more ideas and they maintained that this systematic methodology of thinking
was not exposed to them in any of their classroom activities. They believed that the
package was effective in upgrading their skills as well as being able to look into the
diverse views from their peers. A sense of accountability was inculcated as the number of
nonsensical responses diminished significantly and the students expressed their views
more responsibly. The fact that their statements were recorded with their usernames
attached did help towards that cause. Students began to appreciate their peers’ point of
views and were themselves opened to queries and criticisms. This study thus supported
findings of Donnelly and Patterson (1997) and Baron and Buambach (1990) who reported
improvements in students’ attitude towards the content of materials in computer-based
learning packages after being exposed to them.
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From the interview sessions, it can be concluded that students began to realize the
need to view problems from a number of angles. Collaborative technique also provided
them with a wider range of information and view points and thus a more balanced
outlook on situations. Means of justifying ideas and view points was seen as a tool for
strengthening an argument. The students had realized to a certain extent the importance
for divergent analytical thinking and the way to use it when confronted with a problem.
The higher scores accumulated by the students in the posttests as compared to the pretests
done using the pencil and paper method was a testimony to this fact. Social interaction
provided by the courseware in which responses could be easily accessed by all although
their identities were not revealed proved to be a stimulating factor in encouraging
students to participate. Collaborative learning and participating in pooling of ideas on
analyzing a problem were more facilitated by using the courseware. Students were not
inhibited to speak their mind and individual scores provide the int rinsic motivation.
6.5.1
Students’ Perception on the Effectiveness of Meta-cognitive
Instruction Used in CADATS via Graphic and Verbal Organizers
The present study confirmed that meta-cognitive instruction through the use of
graphic and verbal organizers incorporated in the design of CADATS enhanced divergent
analytical thinking skills by upgrading the ability to verbalize reasoning. The control
groups were not exposed to meta-cognitive instruction, thus no significant improvement
in performance scores were exhibited in the post-tests. This finding supports assertions
made by Kramarski and Ritkof (2002) on mathematical reasoning. The emphasis on this
type of instruction is vital since many students tend to conceive problem solving exercise
as a one-correct-answer-only that can be explained by one-correct argument-only. The
package succeeded in building a mental framework where students strategically
expressed their ideas fluently on ill-defined real- life problems that have multitude of
answers and diverse points of view. Their explanations and justifications were backed by
rationales that were debatable by interactions with their peers. The students were exposed
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to meta-cognitive strategies that enhanced their awareness, self- control and selfmonitoring of the analytical thinking process, thus providing them with deeper
understanding of problem solving.
To illustrate this point, let us trace the meta-cognitive approach used in the
courseware to extricate and justify points of view by each user. In Module 1(Compare
and Contrast), each user would be required to briefly justify their ideas by clarifying
aspects that were different between the two groups being compared. For example, when a
student was comparing between a well-developed nation and an under-developed one and
chose ‘cost of living’ as a differentiating factor, he/ she would have to denote how this
factor was different between the two groups; one would be high and the other would be
low. Only then would the factor be registered, be posted on the server to be read by he
other online users and awarded points.
Figure 6.4:
Meta-cognitive instructions used in Module 1
In Module 2 (Parts of a Whole), each user would denote briefly the functions of each
component to justify their importance before it is posted to the server. For example, the
user had to outline the functions of ‘a study room’ in an ideal house to justify his/her
selection.
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Figure 6.5:
Meta-cognitive instructions used in Module 2
In Module 3 (Proposal Ponder), each user would be required to provide
justifications for each point-of-view before being accepted and posted to the server. For
example, to oppose the proposal for allowing students to use hand phones during school
hours, the user would need to provide justification to garner points before being posted to
the server. These justifications could be read and judged by all user of the package, thus
the student would be compelled to provide rational justifications.
Figure 6.6:
Meta-cognitive instructions used in Module 3
Although these meta-cognitive strategies can be catered for in pencil and paper
tests as in the pre-tests, their justifications were not easily accessed by other students,
thus not read and judged by others.
Overall, graphic and verbal organizers proved to be an effective strategy for
identifying, organizing and proliferating ideas. Students said that they liked using the
organizers as it helped them effectively organize and revise ideas put forward using the
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interactive tools provided by the package (Refer to Appendix F: Table F1, F2 and F3
Question 2). The tools were deemed flexible and supported generation and visualization
of ideas. The tools also facilitated the sharing of ideas electronically although some
students using Module 2 complained of delays in exchanging information due to the
tediousness of the process that one had to go through before posting their responses on
the network. This might have inhibited some of the collaborative interchanges that might
have taken place between the students. The practice session conducted beforehand
familiarized the students to the graphic and verbal organizers to be used and prepared
them mentally, thus the students became comfortable with the tools. This strategy was
adopted by De Simone, Scmid and McEwen (2001) who suggested that the students be
trained with the use of mapping strategy and scaffolds to be used by them to reduce
cognitive load that comes along with it.
The graphic and verbal organizers facilitated the fundamental constructivist
requirement that learners be allowed to manage, construct and share their own
understanding of an ill-structured problem scenario. No two persons were alike where
ideas and concepts were concerned, most of the time contributed to unexpected ideas and
perceptions of the problem at hand. Nevertheless, this study did not in any way attempt
to compare face-to- face collaboration with computer- mediated communication.
6.5.2
Students’ Perception on the Effectiveness of Group Brainstorming
Approach Used in CADATS
Qualitative analyses through interviews of large and targeted groups showed that
students appreciated the provision of mass collaboration for idea generation as provided
by CADATS (Appendix F: Table F1, F2 and F3 Question 2, 3 and 5). The results were in
agreement with the learning theories proposed by proponents of collaborative learning.
According to Gokhale (1995), students are capable of performing at higher intellectual
levels when asked to work in collaborative situations than when asked to work
individually. Group diversity in terms of knowledge and experience contributes
positively to the learning process. Gokhale (1995) contends that in cooperative and
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collaborative learning methods, students are confronted with different interpretations of
the given situation contributing to group diversity.
The low number of message postings that were actually opened, read and
responded amplified the passivity of students to participate in a discussion (refer to Table
5.29). Majority of the students were more engaged in earning score points than to respond
to message postings. The lack of participation could be attributed to the respondents’
inability to sustain prolonged asynchronous discussions. Myint (2003) believed that
students would participate in computer- mediated communicatio n (CMC) if they value the
reasons for doing so. Students need to be stimulated first into discussing online. They
would be engaged in the activity when they want to share knowledge on problem solving
tasks, compare perspectives and justify alternatives to problems that are deemed relevant
and important to them. However Sutton (2000) found that low interaction learners could
also learn from comments and messages even though they did not post messages. This
would be very possible for students who could not express themselves well in writing but
were able to reflect on the messages posted.
This study provided additional evidence for the role of social interaction in group
brainstorming. Consistent with predictions of the social influence model of
brainstorming, the provision of social interaction increased performance of individuals
generating ideas on computers. This finding is consistent with prior results demonstrating
that information about performance of others can increase individual or group
performance (Paulus et al., 1993). This study also managed to elude the phenomena of
production blocking. In the findings of Paulus et al. (1996), he stated that production
blocking, which occurs when individuals in a group share ideas, plays a significant role in
the production loss in brainstorming activities conducted. He affirmed that verbalization
of ideas may increase social anxiety and production blocking, thus counteracting any
potential benefit of the brainstorming activity through verbalization procedure. This was
due to the positive motivating impact of the information of performance of others. One
advantage of computer-based interaction is that it limits the amount of time individuals
engage in off-task social conversation. Individuals in this paradigm were less likely to
give elaborate explanations associated with their ideas. They were less likely to be idle
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because the package emphasized individual accountability. Verbalization of ideas also
leads to more positive feelings about performance and may allow for cognitive
stimulation by others’ ideas.
Figure 6.7:
Example of list of students’ responses which were accessible to all
users
In the present study, the collaborative learning medium provided students with
opportunities to analyze and evaluate diverse ideas. The setting facilitated open access to
students’ responses and feedback. This group interaction helped students to learn from
each other's views and experiences. The students had to go beyond mere statements of
opinion by giving reasons to justify their judgments and then reflecting upon them
critically to come up with the best idea. Thus, each response was subject to careful
scrutiny by the individual and later by their peers. The ability to admit that one's initial
opinion may have been incorrect or partially flawed was a common occurrence as was
manifested in students’ feedback to queries by their peers.
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6.5
Conclusion
Developing higher level cognitive skills is a challenge to everyone, especially in
an environment where performance in examination is highly emphasized as the criteria
for success. The results from this study suggests that: (1) interactive multimedia learning
environment can have a positive impact on enhancing divergent analytical thinking
capabilities of the students (2) such an environment can encourage students’ creativity
and motivation towards thinking. The heuristics in divergent analytical thinking as
revealed by the various design activities used in the modules of the package were
transferable to different situations, thus helping them to become better problem solvers.
The ability to reflect and evaluate, both individually and collaboratively, encouraged
students to be better thinkers as they became aware of their own thinking and monitor
their own thinking process. The authentic and relevant problem scenarios posed to the
students provided a meaningful and motivating context for students to develop their
thinking skills. The provision of graphic and verbal organizers as scaffolding has proven
to help the students to think effectively and more productively. The study also indicated
that students’ first impressions expressed by their level of contentment on aspects of the
design of the package can have an effect of curtailing their performance in a multimedia
environment. Nevertheless, this effect would be neutralized for some as confidence and
familiarity grew. Gender factor remain sidelined in most occasions.
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CHAPTER 7
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
7.1
Introduction
This chapter starts with the author’s conclusions, followed by the expected
outcomes of the research study. Next, it lists the main contributions of the study to the
advancement and application of knowledge. This is followed by a review of the
limitations of the study, and recommendations for future research. The chapter ends with
the author’s final remarks.
7.2
General Conclusions
An interactive ‘Collaborative Approach Divergent Analytical Thinking
Simulator’ (CADATS) package was developed, based on the KADAR (Kenal, Ajar,
Demonstrasi, Aplikasi, Refleksi) methodology of direct teaching of thinking skills and
the Cognitive Apprenticeship Model using ill-structured real- life problems in an openlearning, collaborative environment, to enhanced students’ divergent analytical thinking
skills. The design and development of CADATS package utilized thinking tools such as
graphic and verbal organizers to cater for strategic thinking as well as several CoRT1
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techniques to promote divergent outlook on problem scenarios, collaborative learning
approach in a computer- mediated-communication (CMC) environment and an authoring
software that supported audio-visuals and interactivity. It was then evaluated to
determine its effectiveness in enhancing students’ proficiency in divergent analytical
thinking, focussing on real- life, relevant, non-academic materials. The interactive
package was subjected to both formative and summative evaluation phases in both
qualitative and quantitative analysis. This researcher has described in detail the
preliminary analysis, the design, the development, the implementation and the
evaluation of the CADATS.
The research work was concentrated on using this multimedia package to
enhance students’ divergent analytical thinking capabilities by using the cognitive
apprent iceship model in a collaborative brainstorming approach. Data from the research
study showed that all the three modules in the CADATS package succeeded in
enhancing the students’ divergent analytical thinking skills in terms of ideational fluency
and flexibility, besides being fun and stimulating to use, regardless of their initial level
of performance. All of them admitted that the package was better than the ‘pencil and
paper’ method.
The dynamism of the interactive multimedia package has given students the
opportunity to express their thoughts, share them and invoke feedbacks from their peers
through open learning concept. It enables students to value information and diverse
views from multiple viewpoints at their own pace.
The study ascertains the capability of interactive multimedia in a collaborative
environment to enhance students’ performance and strengthen their outlook on strategic
thinking through enjoyable experience. However, no interactive multimedia package
should be seen as a replacement for conventional teaching methods. He proposed that
electronic self-study materials should be
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…used as a supplement to rather than as a substitute for traditional face-to-face
teaching.
(Ellington ,1997: 6)
Even though the speed of acquisition knowledge is tailored to the learning styles,
ability and previous experience of individual students, they still need to be supported by
teachers. The human element is crucial in educational process. A computer can never
replicate their education, experience and expertise. Therefore, it is felt that the computer
can never replace the teacher. Until now, guidance and warm encouragement can only
be given by a human being (Baharuddin, 1999).
7.2.1 Students’ Divergent Analytical Thinking Performance in Computersupported Environment
The results showed a positive development of students’ divergent analytical
thinking skills performance over the two post-tests. Students’ confidence in the need of
analytical thinking significantly increased as their mastery over the procedures installed
in each of the modules improved. The results confirmed many of the findings of earlier
studies that show that the experience with computers improve the individuals’ selfefficacy and computer confidence (Rozell and Gardner, 1999; Torkzadeh and Van
Dyke, 2002). The results from this study support the argument for investment in direct
teaching of thinking skills via a new media to augment current methods.
The results showed clearly the absence of interaction with gender. The pre-test,
first post-test and second post-test revealed a non-significant interaction of gender with
respect to enhancement of performance scores. Thus, in the heterogeneous population
that was sampled in the study, gender is evidently not an important determinant of
divergent thinking as reported by earlier studies done by Reese et al. (2001) and Chan et
al. (2001). The mixed-gender computer environment could have provided an appropriate
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context in which any gender stereotypes are eliminated. Nevertheless, gender
stereotypes were not studied in this work.
Intrinsic motivation concerning the use of the package was expected to decline
significantly over time. The results showed otherwise. Students showed an increased in
the level of intrinsic motivation when confronted with problems of direct relevance to
their own experience which were created by their peers. Some of them tried to outdo
their peers in term of performance score by garnering diverse responses from their peers.
This effectively means that students used the interactive multimedia package more
vehemently based on their interests, curiosity and a sense of challenge.
7.2.2 Implications of an Asynchronous Computer Mediated Communication
(CMC) Environment on Students’ Disposition
The findings in this study were encouraging. The learning environment in
thinking skills has been altered from the traditional face-to face-classroom environment
to an asynchronous CMC environment. Although a minority of students continued to
retain the habits of not actively participating and interacting, the majority showed much
enthusiasm to the provision of interactivity in the package. They were questioning and
evaluating their peers’ responses but only a minority gave their feedbacks due to time
constraints. They were gathe ring and judging diverse responses from their peers to
generate personal interpretations and decisions. Nevertheless, interaction could not be
sustained for a minority group of students. These students posted independent statements
of content unrelated to the prior messages posted.
They were processing information not only limited at the surface level but more
thoroughly with a sense of responsibility. This could be due to the fact that their user
names were attached to every response they made, thus personal accountability was
induced. CADATS has successfully instigated a reform in the habits of the mind.
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CMC is a change of learning experiences in an IT era. Learning and instructional
choices can go beyond the traditional classrooms where teachers are dispenser of facts
and students are passive learner. This package showed that teachers could act as coaches
and facilitator, who nudge the students to construct their own knowledge, think critically
and creatively, develop an inquiring mind, ask, interact and empower them to learn
independently.
The findings from this study generate one very important implication. How can
an asynchronous CMC environment be maximized as a potential learning and
instructional option for fostering thinking skills? Lee (2000) found that students suffered
‘cognitive overload ’when they have to grabble with the technical know how. This
element manifested itself for some students at the beginning of the exposure to the
package. Nevertheless, it was soon dissipated as the students began to familiarize
themselves with the procedures and they began to view it positively. Below are some
practical strategies for asynchronous discussion in a CMC environment that the study
has reemphasized:
Students’ impression on the value of collaboration
Myint, Lay and Tan (2003) believed that students would participate in CMC if
they value the reasons for doing so. Learning is goal-and need driven. CMC does lend
itself well to certain activities that require social collaboration, co-construction of
knowledge as it allows for interaction from anywhere and at any time. This factor was
abundantly evident in the study. Students were more eager to provide responses for
problem scenarios that were created by their peers and seen to be more relevant to their
personal interests.
The driving force for student participation
No student must be seen to dominate the interaction. They should value the ideas
from their peers and at the same time make their own judgment on them. The package
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facilitated open discussion through group brainstorming as well as respecting personal
deliberations on problems at hand. It was left to the students to inject new leads to
sustain the interaction, to refocus the context of the issue under discussion or to redirect
the thread of discussion. They were in complete control of their discretion and judgment
to appreciate and assess the credibility of views expressed by their peers. An
asynchronous CMC lacks cues like eye contact, body language, face encounter, instant
clarification, voice intonation, spontaneity and immediate feedback. Communication is
text-based. Some conflicts through misinterpretation or misunderstanding may arise.
Constant clarification should be encouraged to reduce ambiguity so as to avoid
inhibiting the construction of shared understanding if time factor is not a constraint.
Becoming an independent learner
The key advantage of CMC is its’ potential to assist students to be independent
learners as the students ware absorbed in the activities that the package provides. While
an asynchronous CMC environment does favor the shy, quiet, tongue tied, less vocal,
low achieving and those who are not verbally proficient, their personal outlook and level
of satisfaction towards different aspects of the design of the package can be a deciding
factor in embracing the new media as this study has highlighted. Students’ demeanor in
being proactive with their knowledge and experience sharing rather than be reactive only
to peers’ messages was also critical to the success of CMC. After all, successful
implementation of CMC requires an environment of community spirit that is vibrant
with enthusiasm and sustained energy to initiate a discursive interaction.
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7.3
Outcomes of the Research Project
One of the intended outcomes of the author’s research project was to produce:
A fully-tested, user-friendly, interactive multimedia package on divergent analytical
thinking to supplement current methods of fostering thinking skills in the Malaysian
educational system.
As a result of the researcher’s work, an interactive multimedia package namely
‘Collaborative Approach Divergent Analytical Thinking Simulator (CADATS),
designed for Malaysian Form Four students to be used in smart schools’ classrooms
networking infrastructure, has finally been developed. The methodology proposed by
experts in the field of thinking skills in Malaysia were adopted and incorporated into the
activities of three different modules. The package used non-academic domain problems
that were designed to be closely relevant to students’ everyday lives and were validated
by thinking skills experts. Students’ preferences in a multimedia package were surveyed
and implemented in the process of designing the package. This user- friendly, interactive,
self-paced, collaborative learning package has undergone both formative and summative
evaluation during its design and development stages. Positive results have been
highlighted with respect to the use of the CADATS package. Therefore, it can be said
that this particular package has successfully enhanced students’ capability in divergent
analytical thinking. Nevertheless, the effects were limited to being short term as the
extent of exposure to the package was restricted by time constraints.
Another of the intended outcomes of the research project was to provide:
Indications as to how personal variables such as gender and level of contentment on
various aspects of the design of the package can affect students’ gain in performance
score for divergent analytical thinking skills
The study evidently showed that gender factor did not arise when pre-test results
were analysed for the experimental and control groups. This cannot be said for their
level of satisfaction on the different aspects of the design of the package. Students’ with
199
lower appreciation towards the various aspects of the designs such as ‘Ease of Use’,
‘Design of Activity’, ‘Design of Motivational Elements’, ‘User Interface Design’ and
‘Navigational Design’ consistently showed lower initial gains in performance scores
compared to their counterparts for all three modules. Thus, it can be concluded that after
the first exposure to the package, students’ enhancements in performance scores were
positively correlated to the level of satisfaction towards the design of the package.
The second post-tests proved that some of the mental barriers were compromised.
The results showed that their initial gains in performance score were not a significant
predictor for the performance scores after the second exposure to the package conducted
for all the three modules. This effectively pointed to the dilution of the mental barriers
presiding in the students’ mind with respect to the design features of the package.
The last intended outcome of the research project was to:
Report qualitatively the experiences of the students exposed to the approaches used in
the package and the extent of impact in had on their outlook on thinking.
The preliminary study conducted by the researcher pointed out that the majority of
students lacked the strategic knowledge and skills of effective thinking. Although these
aspects were dealt with in classroom instructions, skills transfer was not effective. Many
expressed their lack of motivational drive to use their thinking caps due to the
tediousness and boredom. Some of them were of the understanding that answers to
problems were forthcoming and rigid in its nature.
The experimental groups in this study have expressed significant turn around to
their outlook on thinking. They showed appreciation and amazement towards different
views and ideas unthought-of by them that were provided by their peers through the
collaborative approach adopted by the package. They showed accountability towards the
ideas and began to value criticisms by their peers. The graphic and verbal organizers
used served as guidelines for them to procure and justify ideas so as to keep them
focused on the problem at hand. They value the need to be open-minded and look at
200
problems from wide ranging perspectives. Most of the m showed enjoyment in using the
package and complained of the time limitation. All the students in the experimental
groups indicated their preference for the interactive multimedia package to the ‘pencil
and paper’ method that was used in the pre-test sessions.
7.4
Contributions of the Research Study to the Advancement and Application of
Knowledge
The main contributions of the study have been as follows:
•
Identifying the effective approach to be used for the direct teaching of divergent
analytical thinking skills in an interactive multimedia package.
•
Incorporating design principles suitable for students to enhance their analytical
thinking capabilities.
•
Producing a computer-based-learning package that is interactive, user- friendly and
effective for Form Four Malaysian students with smart school’s intranetworking
infrastructure having different skills levels in divergent analytical thinking.
•
Proving that the interactive multimedia package brings about significant
enhancements in divergent analytical thinking skills.
•
Establishing the potential of attitudinal transformation that the package could have
on students.
7.5
Recommendations for Future Research
The research study showed that the CADATS package has successfully enhanced
students’ divergent analytical thinking skills within a short exposure time. It is therefore
201
suggested that other interactive multimedia packages be developed in other subject areas
and courses, and that research be conducted to determine whether this paradigm shift in
learning method might prove as rewarding as in the case of the CADATS model.
The research study could be expanded to include samples from non-residential
schools that form the bulk of the educational institution. Students from these schools are
more exposed to the real world situations and generally less capable academically. Their
dispositions towards divergent analytical thinking skills would uncover a more
generalized outcome.
The factor of exposure time needs to be extended to allow for more creative
interactions and ideas amongst the students. This could be followed by increasing the
number of problem scenarios posed to the students to cater for the diverse experience of
the students that would be involved.
7.6
Final Remarks
Results of the present research study lend support to previous research efforts,
which have determined that computer-based materials could significantly enhanced
knowledge and skills procurement and positive attitudinal transformation. The design
and development of the CADATS package has taken into consideration the methodology
of direct teaching of thinking skills, the tools of thinking and the principles of
instructional design. Based on the researcher’s findings, it can be concluded that an
interactive multimedia package that incorporates these aspects in its design and
development is much more likely to be user-friendly, and is more likely to be beneficial
to the students’ learning outcomes regardless of their initial skill levels. Therefore, it is
hoped that more interactive multimedia packages would be developed by educationist to
be used in the Malaysian education system in the smart school era to fully utilize the
infrastructure already in placed for the benefits of our students.
202
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221
APPENDIX A1
DIVERGENT ANALYTICAL THINKING INVENTORY USED IN
PRELIMINARY STUDY
(Adapted from examples in Som and Mohd Dahalan(1998) and Poh (2000) and modified
to correspond Level IV High Order Divergent Analytical Thinking – respond creatively
and originally, value, judge and speculate)
Table A1:
List of problem scenarios posed to the participants of the preliminary
study
Module 1 (Compare and Contrast):
Nyatakan persamaan dan perbezaan secara ringkas di antara
1.
Belajar matematik dan bahasa Inggeris untuk kelas anda pada tahun ini
2.
Cara berpakaian di rumah dan di asrama
3.
Keadaan di kelas persediaan (prep) petang dan malam
4.
Makanan malam di kantin dan di Dewan Makan
5.
Perwatakan guru tingkatan anda tahun ini dan tahun lepas
6.
Keadaan dorm anda dengan dorm bersebelahan
Module 2 (Parts of a Whole):
Nyatakan ciri atau komponen-komponen penting beserta kepentingan setiap satu perkara secara
ringkas dalam
1.
Menjadi seorang pelajar yang berjaya daripada segi akademik
2.
Mencipta sebuah basikal yang popular di kalangan pela jar
3.
Mencipta sebuah komputer peribadi yang menguntungkan jika dijual
4.
Mereka model telefon bimbit yang tercanggih
5.
Menjadi pelakon paling popular di Malaysia
6.
Menjadi pelajar paling disukai di kalangan warga sekolah anda
Table A2:
Students’ answer sheet for Module 1 (Compare and Contrast)
222
Nama ringkas:
No persoalan
Senarai Ciri-ciri Persamaan
Table A3:
Nama ringkas:
No persoalan
Jantina:
Senarai Ciri-ciri Perbezaan
Students’ answer sheet for Module 2 (Parts of a Whole)
Senarai Ciri-Ciri Penting
Jantina:
Pernyataan-pernyataan
Menerangkan Kepentingan Setiap
Ciri Yang Dinyatakan
223
APPENDIX A2
A RECODED REPRESENTATION OF
STUDENTS’ RESPONSES FROM
DIVERGENT ANALYTICAL THINKING INVENTORY USED IN
PRELIMINARY STUDY
(SET 1)
Table A4:
Students’ responses to inventory used in the preliminary study for
Module 1 (Compare and Contrast)
3
×
∗
(Gave single viewpoint only for all problems attempted)
(Indicated in the interview session that the exercise is boring)
(Answered all questions)
STUDENT
PROBLEM
SCENARIO
1
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
3
×
2
3
×
3
∗
4
3
3
4
5
6
1
2
3
4
5
SIMILARITIES
DIFFERENCES
Guru berlainan
Kemas di asrama
Bergaya
Penghuninya
Tahap kesukaran
Bising sebelah ptg
Bayaran
Subjek exam
Jenis sama
Masa tetap
Mengenyangkan
Keceriaan
Tahap kebersihan
Keceriaan
Kaedah belajar
Peraturan ketat di
asrama
Tahap kebisingan
Kena bayar- free
Jantina
Bilangan ahli
Keseronokan
Kekemasan
Malam senyap
Garang
224
×
6
5
1
2
3
×
6
3
×
7
3
×
8
3
×
9
×
10
3
×
11
Guru beza
Boleh pinjam di
asrama
Panas
3
4
5
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
Bilangan ahli
Jumlah kerja
rumah
Kebersihan
Ptg bebas
Jantina
Sama boring
Pakaian sama
Tak berkualiti
Guru BI guna
internet
Di rumah selekeh
Kelas kotor masa
ptg
Masa
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
Perlu lulus
Kekemasan
Jenis makanan
Keramahan
Seluar jeans di
rumah
Ptg boleh bincang
Jenis makanan
Lembut, garang
3
4
5
6
1
Banyak kerja
225
3
×
12
3
13
×
14
×
15
×
16
3
×
17
3
×
18
rumah
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
Guna untuk buat k
rumah
Keprihatinan
Cara belajar
Di asrama kemas
Malam selesa
Ceria
Ada ujian
Baik budi
Disiplin ahli
Susah
Tahap kesukaran
Jenis pakaian
Aktiviti
Masa makan
Cara bercakap
Kebebasan
Mengantuk
Jenis makanan
Keramahan
Ada exam
Baju yang sama
Ada aktiviti
Keramahan
Jantina
Seronok-boring
Simple-kemeja
Ptg ada kelas
Rajin
Hiasan
Tak menarik
Bising
Kurang sedap
Banyak karenah
Perlu lulus
Kekemasan
226
19
3
3
4
5
6
1
2
Jenis makanan
Pemalu
Tahap pemahaman
Kekemasan di
asrama
3
4
20
×
∗
21
×
22
3
×
23
×
24
3
×
25
3
5
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
3
Kesedapan
makanan
Keceriaan
Susah faham
Jenis sama
Masa ditetapkan
Mengenyangkan
Cara belajar
Peraturan
Kena bayar- free
Jantina
Bilangan ahli
Perlu lulus
Kekemasan
Jenis makanan
Keramahan
Rumah casual
Tahap kebisingan
Jenis makanan
Perangai
Cara belajar
Kebebasan
Selalu tidur
Tahap kesedapan
Sifat diri
Menjemukan
Baju yang sama
Mengantuk
Dua-dua OK
Perangai ahli sama
Gaya guru
227
×
26
×
27
×
∗
28
3
×
29
×
30
3
×
31
3
×
32
3
4
5
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
3
4
Jenis makanan
Kesopanan
Kebersihan
Perlu lulus
Kekemasan
Jenis makanan
Gaya diri
Susah faham
Jenis sama
Peruntukan masa
Boleh dimakan
Berbudi bahasa
Cara belajar
Peraturan
Bayaran
Ahli
Masa
Jenis pakaian
Teratur waktu
malam
Rajin
Tahap kesusahan
Peraturan
Jenis makanan
Pakaian
Ada exam
Ada peraturan
Keselesaan
Murah hati
Keseronokan
Seksi di rumah
Jenis makanan
Perangai penghuni
Susah faham
Jenis sama
Panjang masa
Boleh dimakan
228
×
∗
5
6
Prihatin
Kebersihan
33
1
2
Susah faham
3
4
5
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
Masa makan
Mengenyangkan
Prihatin
∗
34
3
×
Peraturan di
asrama
Sifat kerjasama
Gaya belajar
Peraturan
Keselesaan
Jumlah katil
229
APPENDIX A3
A RECODED REPRESENTATION OF
STUDENTS’ RESPONSES FROM
DIVERGENT ANALYTICAL THINKING INVENTORY USED IN
PRELIMINARY STUDY
(SET 2)
Table A5:
Students’ responses from inventory used in the preliminary study using
Module 2 (Parts of a Whole)
3
×
(Gave a maximum of 3 statements to each problem attempted)
(Answered all questions)
STUDENT
PROBLEM
SCENARIO
1
1
1. Tabah
2. Bijak
3. Ramai
Kawan
2
1. Sistem
gear
canggih
2. Infrared
sensing
3. Pemain
DVD
1. Mesin
faks
sekali
2. Simpan
diari auto
3. Sebagai
perakam
video
3
3
LIST OF IMPORTANT
POINTS
STATEMENTS
JUSTIFYING THE
POINTS
1. Tak mudah putus
asa
2. Mudah terima
input
3. Bertukar-tukar
idea
1. Macam motor
2. Untuk malam
3. Bila lepak
1. Jimat masa
2. Sebagai
pensejarahan
3. Banyak kegunaan
230
4
5
6
2
1
2
3
4
5
6
3
1
3
×
2
1. Hubungan
video
2. Download
game
3. Bentuk
Menarik
1. Hemsem
lawa
2. Personaliti
3. Banyak
wang
1. Suka
senyum
2. Baik hati
3. Suka
tolong
1. Ada
strategi
2. Guna
masa
1. Kelajuan
2. Ada
payung
1. Sistem terbaru
2. Mengisi masa
lapang
3. Bergaya
1. Murah
2. Ada
kamera
3. Ada game
best
1. Peramah
2. Kelakar
1. Pandai
2. Banyak
duit
3. Kemas
1. Tak mudah
putus asa
2. Pandai
3. Pengurusan
masa
1. Ada
hiburan
2. Tayar besar
3. Sistem
GPRS
1. Semua mampu beli
2. Hantar gambar
3. Untuk hobi
1. Ramai peminat
2. Peramah
3. Belanja peminat
1. Ceria
2. Disukai orang
3. Banyak berjasa
1. Ikut pela n
2. Tak buang masa
1. Ada power
2. Berguna kalau
hujan
1.
2.
1.
2.
3.
Tak sombong
Tak boring
Dihormati
Belanja kawan
Orang suka
1. Semangat penting
2. Memang dah bijak
3. Pandai membahagi
masa
1. Macam kereta
2. Senang kayuh
3. Tak kena curi
231
3
4
5
6
4
1
3
2
3
4
5
5
3
6
1
2
1. Memori
banyak
2. Internet
percuma
3. Printout
sekaligus
1. Comel
2. Macam
jam tangan
3. Boleh cam
suara
1. Bergaya
2. Stail
tersendiri
3. Banyak
bakat
1. Suka
senyum
2. Baik budi
3. Bijak
1. Buat jadual
2. Tanya guru
3. Rajin
1. Pantas
2. Untuk pelajar
3. Tak perlu beli
printer
1. Boleh buat
kopi
2. Laju
3. Murah
1. Game
canggih
2. Boleh
rakam
suara
3. Kamera
1. Hemsem
lawa
2. Gaya
3. Suara
1. Jimat kos
pengguna
2. Jimat masa
3. Senang dimiliki
1. Menarik minat
2. Guna untuk diari
3. Simpan foto
1. Laju
2. Tahan
lasak
3. Boleh
main game
1. Senang naik bukit
2. Bawa masuk hutan
3. Ada hiburan
1. Bergaya
2. Senang tengok
3. Ciri keselamatan
1. Jadi ikutan
2. Identiti
3. Ramai peminat
1. Ceria
2. Disukai orang
3. Orang respect
1. Ada perancangan
2. Dapatkan
maklumat
3. Ada wawasan
1. Ramai peminat
2. Ada identiti
3. Idola
232
3
4
5
6
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
1. Kecil
macam
wallet
2. Muat
filem free
3. Banyak
gigabit
1. Bayaran
percuma
2. Muat
game
3. Design
unik
1. Muka
lawa
2. Sopan
3. Bakat
natural
1. Murah
hati
2. Kuat
studi
3. Tampan
1. Ulangkaji
2. Desakan
ibu bapa
1. Ada
password
diri
2. Payung
auto
1. Boleh
jadi
telefon
2. Perakam
video
1. Akses
internet
cepat
2. Kecil
1. Senang dibawa
2. Hiburan
3. Banyak program
diisi
1. Ceria
selalu
2. Suka
tolong
1. Tidak
membosankan
2. Baik budi
1. Menjimatkan
2. Mengisi masa
lapang
3. Ada gaya tersendiri
1. Ramai peminat
2. Dipuja-puja
3. Dapat bertahan
1. Jasa diingat
2. Penasihat
akademik
3. Menarik
1. Ulang balik
2. Terpaksa
1. Susah dicuri
2. Selamat dr hujan
1. Banyak kegunaan
2. Jimat kos
1. Tiada gangguan
2. Mudah dibawa
233
7
1
3
2
3
4
5
6
8
1
3
2
3
4
5
1. Ulangkaji
2. Sungguhsungguh
3. Kesihatan
1. Banyak
gear
2. Ada
motor
3. Sensor auto
1. Ulang balik
2. Cita-cita tinggi
3. Senang belajar
1. Comel
2. Macam
jam
4. Boleh
rakam
suara
1. Bergaya
2. Stail
tersendiri
3. Bakat
1. Mudah
ketawa
2. Konfiden
3. Sabar
1. Ulangkaji
2. Usaha
3. Tabah
1. Muatan
banyak
2. Lampu
auto
3. Kelajuan
1. Lengkap
2. Perakam
video
3. Sistem
GPRS
1. Panggilan
video
2. Bergaya
3. Bentuk
menarik
1. Wajah
menarik
2. Gaya
3. Sopan
1. Bergaya
2. Senang tengok
3. Rekod perbualan
1. Laju
2. Perlu untuk naik
bukit
3. Elak lubang
1. Jadi ikutan
2. Identiti
3. Idola
1. Ceria
2. Mudah popular
3. Tak mudah marah
1.
2.
3.
1.
Ingat balik
Gigih
Susah terpengaruh
Pelajar banyak
barang
2. Ciri keselamatan
3. Tak guna petrol
1. Printer, scanner,
fon
2. Sebagai
pensejarahan
3. Ciri keselamatan
1. Sistem terbaru
2. Ikut trend
3. Unik
1. Ramai peminat
2. Jadi pujaan
3. Tidak biadap
234
6
9
1
3
2
3
4
5
6
10
1
2
1. Mudah
ketawa
2. Konfiden
3. Sabar
1. Rakan
sebaya
2. Azam
3. Banyak
bukukerja
1. Ceria
2. Mudah popular
3. Tak mudah marah
1. Tenaga
solar
2. Guna
suara
untuk
start
3. Perakam
video
1. Ingat
solat
2. Bentuk
unik
3. Murah
1. Jimat tenaga
2. Elak kecurian
3. Banyak fungsi
1. Suka bagi
salam
2. Handal
bersukan
3. Rajin
1. Banyak
latihan
2. Cepat
ingat
1. Alat
ukur
laju
2. Lindung
matahari
1. Tak sombong
2. Cepat terkenal
1. Comel
2. Macam
jam
3. Boleh
cam
suara
1. Bergaya
2. Senang tengok
3. Ciri keselamatan
1. Pengaruh
2. Semangat
3. Banyak latihan
1. Sistem Islam
2. Ikut design semasa
3. Mudah dibeli
3. Suka tolong
1. Kerja kuat
2. Memang genius
1. Spt kereta
2. Bagi keselesaan
3
4
235
5
6
11
1
3
2
3
4
5
6
12
3
1
2
3
1. Ceria
selalu
2. Ada
gaya
3. Boleh
kawan
semua
1. Rakan
sebaya
2. Dorongan
guru
3. Faktor rakan
1. Senang dapat
kawan
2. Dipandang tinggi
3. Tak memilih
kawan
1. Rekod
aktiviti
2. Sistem
hubungan
3. Kecil
macam
pen
1. Simpan data
peribadi
2. Hantar gambar
3. Mudah dibawa
1. Bergaya
2. Stail
tersendiri
3. Banyak
bakat
1. Gaya
menawan
2. Tidak
sombong
3. Ceria
1. Jadi ikutan
2. Identiti
3. Ramai peminat
1. Bentuk
menarik
2. Laju
3. Penutup
muka
Auto
1. Ada keunikan
2. Baru ada tarikan
3. Jika banyak habuk
1. Boleh
kenal
pemilik
2. Boleh
lipat- lipat
3. Simpan diari
1. Sistem
keselamatan
2. Mudah disimpan
3. Rekod digital
1. Teman belajar
2. Bermotivasi
3. Belajar dlm
kumpulan
1. Tersendiri
2. Mudah dapat
kawan
3. Periang
236
4
5
6
13
1
3
×
2
3
4
5
6
1. Berciri
Malaysia
2. Bahasa
Melayu
3. Design unik
1. Muka
cantik
2. Bebas
jenayah
3. Berbakat
besar
1. Suka
senyum
2. Baik budi
3. Pandai
1. Semangat
tinggi
2. Rajin
baca
3. Kuat
hafal
1. Canggih
komunikasi
2. Gear
banyak
3. Tahan
Lasak
1. Saiz kecil
2. Info
terkini
3. Tahan
lasak
1. Lebih
kecil
2. Tak boleh
hilang
3. Sebagai
Komputer
1. Ikut kesenian
tempatan
2. Menaikkan imej
negara
3. Gaya tersendiri
1. Sedap dipandang
2. Bukan penagih
3. Dipandang tinggi
1. Ada kelas
2. Berbudi
bahasa
3. Lawa
1. Baik hati
2. Bijak
3. Peramah
1. Jadi idola
2. Tak biadap
3. Ramai peminat
1. Ceria
2. Disukai orang
3. Selesai masalah
1. Cekal
2. Banyak
pengetahuan
3. Ingat semua yang
dibaca
1. Mudah dihubungi
2. Tak memenatkan
3. Tahan lama
1. Mudah dibawa
2. Mudahkan
pengguna
3. Jatuh tak kisah
1. Mudah dibawa
2. Senang dikesan
3. Banyak kegunaan
1. Disukai
2. Pakar rujuk
3 Senang
237
14
1
3
2
3
4
15
1. Ulangkaji
2. Banyak
latihan
3. Insentif
1. Ciri
keselamatan
2. Boleh
kecilkan
saiz
3. Pemain
VCD
1. Pelbagai
guna
2. Simpan
data
manusia
3. Selesai
masalah
1. Comel
2. Macam
jam
3. Boleh
cam
suara
5
1. Gaya
2. Usaha
3. Cantik
6
1. Mudah
ketawa
2. Konfiden
3. Sabar
1. Ulangkaji
2. Guna
masa
1
2
3
4
1. Boleh
jadi
hanfon
2. Perakam
video
3. Bodi
solid
berbual
1. Ulang balik
2. Usaha sendiri
3. Wang
1. Elak kecurian
2. Senang disimpan
3. Tenangkan fikiran
1. Meramalkan
peristiwa
2. Kenal sesama
sendiri
3. Manusia tak perlu
fikir
1. Berga ya
2. Senang tengok
3. Ciri keselamatan
1. Boleh diterima
masy
2. Perbaiki
persembahan
3. Jadi idola
1. Ceria
2. Mudah popular
3. Tak mudah marah
1. Ulang balik
2. Ada jadual
1. Banyak kegunaan
2. Banyak kegunaan
3. Khas untuk pelajar
238
5
6
16
1
3
2
3
4
5
6
1. Sabar
2. Kelakuan
baik
1. Suka
senyum
2. Ringan
tulang
3. Ketua
pengawas
1. Rancang
masa
2. Usaha
3. Rajin
1. Muatan
besar
2. Laju
3. Bunyi nyaring
1. Peminat banyak
ragam
2. Tidak dibenci
1. Semua suka
2. Tolong semua
orang
3. Dihormati
1. Boleh
dapat TV
2. komunikasi
3. Simpan
data harian
1. Rakam
suara
2. Peramal
cuaca
3. Selesai
masalah
1. Bergaya
2. Stail
tersendiri
3. Banyak
bakat
1. Fungsi sebagai TV
2. Hubungi kawan
3. Boleh dirujuk
balik
1. Suka
tolong
kawan
2. Baik budi
3. Bijak
1. Ramai kawan
2. Disukai orang
3. Orang respect
1. Ikut jadual
2. Gigih
3. Cita-cita tinggi
1. Senang bawa buku
2. Jimat masa
3. Sedap didengar
1. Ciri keselamatan
2. Bagi data berguna
3. Ringankan beban
1. Jadi ikutan
2. Identiti
3. Ramai peminat
239
17
1
3
2
3
4
5
6
18
3
1
2
3
1. Tiada
aktiviti
lain
2. Daya
ingatan
3. Rajin
1. Banyak membaca
2. Kuat hafal
1. Beri
maklumat
auto
2. Doktor
peribadi
3. Beri
motivasi
1. Comel
2. Macam
jam
3. Kenal
suara
1. Bermoral
2. Ada
wawasan
3. Kenal
orang
Kaya
1. Budi
bahasa
2. Sabar
3. Bijak
1. Menyelesaikan
masalah
2. Diagnos penyakit
3. Kata-kata
semangat
1. Telefon
2. Perakam
video
3. Tahan
lasak
1. Banyak kegunaan
2. Bermanfaat
3. Selalu jatuh
3. Daya usaha
1. Bergaya
2. Senang tengok
3. Ciri keselamatan
1. Tidak menjadi
gejala
2. Cepat berjaya
3. Dapat sponsor
1. Disukai
2. Tak marah- marah
3. Penyelesai
masalah
240
4
5
6
19
1
3
2
3
4
5
6
1. Bagi
semangat
2. Jadi set
karaoke
3. Tahu
semua
Data
1. Ada etika
2. Cita-cita
tinggi
3. Kenal
orang
kaya
1. Suka
senyum
2. Baik hati
3. Suka
tolong
1. Ulangkaji
2. Usaha
3. Tak aktif
1. Auto
pilot
2. Tahan
lasak
3. Ada
pelampung
1. Alat
telekomunikasi
2. Mudah
dimodify
3. Saiz
poket
1. ubungan
video
2. Murah
3. Sistem
suara
1. Pandai
ambil hati
2. Bermoral
3. Muda
1. Pandai
2. Aktif
bersukan
3. Bijak
1. Ikut mood pemilik
2. Hiburan
3. Maklumat terkini
1. Model yang baik
2. Sentiasa upgrade
3. Dapat sponsor
1. Ceria
2. Disukai orang
3. Banyak berjasa
1.
2.
3.
1.
2.
3.
Ulang balik
Gigih
Banyak membaca
Sistem canggih
Susah rosak
Boleh redah air
1. Jimat kos
2. Senang upgrade
3. Mudah dibawa
1. Sistem terbaru
2. Senang dimiliki
3. Jamin keselamatan
1. Ramai peminat
2. Tidak merosakkan
3. Cantik
1. Banyak bidang
2. Jadi ikutan
3. Pakar rujuk
241
20
1
3
×
2
3
4
5
6
21
1
3
2
3
4
1. Selalu
ulangkaji
2. Selalu
bertanya
3. Kuat
usaha
1. Ada
engin
2. Tayar
besar
3. Tempat
angkat
Barang
1. Kecil
2. Ada
printer
3. Video
Call
1. Perakam
video
2. Internet
3. Senang
ubahsuai
1. Perwatakan
2. Suka
senyum
3. Berbakat
1. Muka
2. Sopan
santun
3. Tolong
Kawan
1. Ulangkaji
2. Fikiran
tenang
3. Tidak
bersukan
1. Comel
2. Macam
pen
3. Cegah
kecurian
1. Senang nak ingat
2. Cepat faham
3. Bersungguhsungguh
1. Berguna bila letih
2. Bergaya
3. Boleh bawa beg
besar
1. Boleh masuk poket
2. Jimat tempat
3. Alat
telekomunikasi
1. Bagi merekod aksi
2. Main game
3. Ikut citarasa
1. Tak boring
2. Tak jemu
dipandang
3. Dihormati
1. Ramai peminat
2. Ramai kawan
3. Orang ingat
1. Ulang balik
2. Tiada masalah
3. Banyak masa
belajar
1. Bergaya
2. Senang tengok
3. Ciri keselamatan
242
5
6
22
1
2
3
4
5
6
1. Hemah
tinggi
2. Kuat
studi
3. Banyak
wang
1. Suka
senyum
2. Baik budi
3. Bijak
1. Nilai murni
2. Bijak dlm
pelajaran
3. Boleh belanja
selalu
1. Galakan
ibu bapa
2. Rakan
belajar
3. Banyak
latihan
1. Suspensi
kereta
2. Tempat
barang
luas
3. Brek auto
1. Ada
printer
2. Simpan
maklumat
diri
1. Skrin
warna
2. Suara
sebagai
pin
1. Bergaya
2. Stail
tersendiri
3. Banyak
bakat
1. Banyak
duit
2. Pandai
3. Suka
tolong
1. Motivasi
2. Bantuan rakan
sebaya
3. Latihan sendiri
1. Ceria
2. Disukai orang
3. Orang respect
1. Selesa
2. Banyak muatan
3. Elak kemalangan
1. Boleh terus print
2. Hilang boleh kesan
1. Mengkagumkan
2. Ciri keselamatan
1. Ikut perkembangan
2. Dikenali ramai
3. Ramai peminat
1. Tak lokek
2. Rakan belajar
3. Dipuji orang
243
23
1
3
2
3
4
5
6
24
1
3
2
3
4
5
6
1. Ulangkaji
2. Azam
3. Cepat
hafal
1. Ulang balik
2. Semangat tinggi
3. Boleh ingat
banyak
1. Talian
video
2. Muat
game
3. Bentuk
menarik
1. Bergaya
2. Stail
tersendiri
3. Banyak
bakat
1. Pandai
2. Kelakuan
baik
3. Bergaya
1. Banyak
membaca
2. Kurang
tidur
3. Tabah
1. Kalis
calar
2. Bergaya
3. Buatan
kukuh
1. Alat telekomunikasi
2. Mudah
dimodify
3. Design unik
1. Sistem terbaru
2. Mengisi masa
lapang
3. Bergaya
1. Muka
2. Watak
3. Budi
pekerti
1. Periang
2. Yakin
diri
3. Suaikan
diri
1. Ramai peminat
2. Berhemah
3. Dipandang tinggi
1. Jadi ikutan
2. Identiti
3. Ramai peminat
1. Ada kepandaian
2. Mudah jadi kawan
3. Jadi ikutan
1. Rajin
2. Guna untuk belajar
3. Perbaiki diri
sendiri
1. Sentiasa cantik
2. Design terkini
3. Tahan lasak
1. Jimat kos
2. Senang upgrade
3. Identiti
1. Menggembirakan
2. Terima cabaran
3. Ramai kawan
244
25
1
2
3
4
5
26
6
1
3
1. Sentiasa
berusaha
2. Cita-cita
3. Bantuan
rakan
1. Semangat tinggi
2. Ada motivasi
3. Belajar sama-sama
1. Kamera
2. Perakam
video
1. Comel
2. Pada baju
1. Banyak kegunaan
2. Bermanfaat
1. Bergaya
2. Stail
tersendiri
3. Banyak
bakat
1. Jadi ikutan
2. Identiti
3. Ramai peminat
1. Bincang
1. Belajar dlm
kumpulan
2. Guna masa
sepenuhnya
3. Rancang
2. Rajin
3. Jadual
2
3
4
5
6
1. Alat telekomunikasi
2. Mudah
dimodify
3. Saiz
poket
1 Panggilan
video
2. Muat
game
3. Gaya
unik
1. Ada gaya
2. Jaga
amalan
3. Berilmu
1. Muka
manis
2. Sopan
3. Beretika
1. Bergaya
2. Senang tengok
1. Banyak manfaat
2. Senang upgrade
3. Mudah dibawa
1. Sistem terbaru
2. Berhibur
3. Nampak ada kelas
1. Tersendiri
2. Disukai peminat
3. Bukannya bodoh
1. Periang
2. Disukai orang
3. Jaga adat
245
27
1
3
×
2
3
4
5
6
28
1
3
2
3
4
5
1. Banyak
sumber
2. Memang
bijak
3. Usaha
banyak
1. Ciri
selamat
2. Sistem
hubungan
3. Main
Muzik
1. Alat telekomunikasi
2. Mudah
dimodify
3. Saiz poket
1. Internet
2. Sebagai
komputer
3. Murah
1. Bergaya
2. Cantik
3. Versatile
1. Manis
muka
2. Bodek
guru
3. Kaya
1. Tidak
bersukan
2. Usaha
3. Sihat
1. Buku kerja, nota
2. Otak dah baik
3. Tak buang masa
1. Tidak bahaya
2. Guna satelit
3. Penghibur
1. Jimat kos
2. Senang upgrade
3. Mudah dibawa
1. Tak perlu ke
cybercafe
2. Jimat kos
3. Semua mampu beli
1. Sedap dilihat
2. Ada class
3. Banyak bakat
1. Ramai tergila
2. Disukai guru
3. Boleh belanja
1. Banyak masa studi
2. Gigih
3. Mudah belajar
1. Ada nota
pelajaran
2. SMS
percuma
3. Bateri
power
1. Mudahkan pelajar
2. Menggalakkan
sosial
3. Boleh guna manamana
1. Skrin
warna
2. Ciri
internet
3. Panggilan
video
1. Menarik
2. Senang dpt
maklumat
3. Boleh belajar dr
rumah
246
6
29
1
3
2
3
4
5
6
30
1
3
2
3
4
5
1. Muka
ceria
2. Baik budi
3. Pandai
1. Ulangkaji
2. Dorongan
guru
3. Insentif
1. Senang dapat
kawan
2. Suka tolong
3. Guru suka
1. Ulang balik
2. Motivasi untuk
belajar
3. Galakan kewangan
1. Memori
besar
2. Pencatat
rekod
harian
3. Perakam
suara
1. Simpan program
2. Diari elektronik
3. Set karaoke
1. Hemsem
lawa
2. Wataki
3. Banyak
wang
1. Suka
senyum
2. Baik hati
3. Suka tolong
1. Ulangkaji
2. Yakin diri
1. Laju
2. Ciri
aircon
3. Pengelak
asap
1. Murah
2. Berkualiti
3. Kecil
1. Paparan
video
2. Banyak
game
3. Bentuk
menarik
1. Ramai peminat
2. Peramah
3. Belanja peminat
1. Ceria
2. Disukai orang
3. Banyak berjasa
1.
2.
1.
2.
3.
1.
2.
3.
1.
Ulang balik
Azam yang kuat
Kena jaga imej
Bila cuaca panas
Jika ikut lori
Jimat kos
Tahan
Bergaya
Nampak
pemanggil
2. Hobi
3. Bergaya
247
6
31
1
2
3
4
5
6
32
1
3
×
2
3
4
1. Suka
senyum
2. Baik hati
3. Suka
tolong
1. Belajar
sendiri
2. Usaha
1. Ceria
2. Disukai orang
3. Banyak berjasa
1. Videocam
2. Perakam
video
3. Tahan
lasak
1. Jimat kos
2. Banyak kegunaan
3. Jatuh pun ok
1. Lawa
2. Bergaya
3. Banyak
kualiti
1. Bergaya
2. Stail
tersendiri
3. Banyak
bakat
1. Lekas
faham
2. Selalu
tanya
3. Tak lokek
Ilmu
1. Guna
tenaga
letrik
2. Tahan
lasak
3. Sistem
hiburan
1. Boleh
faks
dokumen
2. Sistem
GPRS
3. Sistem
jalan raya
1. Ramai peminat
2. Dikenali ramai
3. Disanjung
1. Ringtone
1. Guna suara sendiri
1. Tidak harap pada
guru
2. Sentiasa baiki
prestasi
1. Jadi ikutan
2. Identiti
3. Ramai peminat
1. Otak bijak
2. Cepat ingat
3. Menggunakan
kepakaran
1. Jimat tenaga
2. Permukaan
berlainan
3. Berehat bila penat
1. Mudah
menghantar data
2. Kesan pelajar
hilang
3. Guna dalam kereta
248
5
6
33
1
3
×
2
3
4
5
6
menarik
2. Mudah
diakses
3. Video
1. Berbakat
2. Banyak
wang
3. Kawal
emosi
1. Sabar
2. Budi
bahasa
3. Pandai
1. Tabah
2. Pandai
3. Tak buang
masa
1. Sistem
selamat
2. Bumper
besar
3. Bunyi
Hon
1. Ada
scanner
2. Bateri
kuat
3. Internet
1. Bentuk
canggih
2. Murah
3. Sistem
komputer
1. Watak
menarik
2. Cantik
3. Berbakat
1. Mudah
ketawa
2. Konfiden
3. Sabar
2. Boleh guna merata
3. Nampak
pemanggil
1. DIpandang tinggi
2. Senang beli
peminat
3. Mudah didekati
1. Ramai kawan
2. Jadi model pelajar
3. Pakar rujuk
1. Semangat penting
2. Memang dah bijak
3. Manfaatkan masa
1. Elakkan kecurian
2. Bergaya
3. Elakkan
perlanggaran
1. 2 dalam 1
2. Berguna bila letrik
tiada
3. Wayarles
1. Kecil dan bergaya
2. Boleh tukar-tukar
3. Boleh bua t kerja
1. Tak boring
2. Tak jemu
dipandang
3. Tak harap pada
muka saja
1. Ceria
2. Mudah
popular
3. Tak
mudah
marah
249
34
1
3
2
3
4
5
6
1. Ulangkaji
2. Usaha
3. Cepat
faham
1. Ada
hiburan
2. Tayar
besar
3. Sistem
canggih
1. Ulang
balik
2. Gigih
3. Memang pandai
1. Macam kereta
2. Senang kayuh
3. Tak kena curi
1. Bergaya
2. Stail
tersendiri
3. Banyak
bakat
1. Suka
senyum
2. Baik hati
3. Suka
tolong
1. Jadi ikutan
2. Identiti
3. Ramai peminat
1. Ceria
2. Disukai orang
3. Banyak budi
250
APPENDIX B1
STUDENTS’ PREFERENCES IN MULTIMEDIA PACKAGE
Name:_____________________
Gender:_______
School:____________________
Date: _________
Have experienced using a multimedia software before: Yes/No (delete as
applicable)
Instructions: Tick in the appropriate columns for each question
‘1’ is Extremely Disagree; ‘2’ is Disagree;
‘3’ is Neutral; ‘4’ is Agree; ‘5’ is Extremely Agree.
Items
1.
I prefer to listen to a human voice as guide rather than just
plain text
2.
I like soft-colored backgrounds like white, grey or light
blue
3.
I want to be able to go freely to any screen that I like
4.
I prefer a lot of animations on the screen
5.
I prefer straight, pla in typeface as compared to cursive text
6.
I do not want to answer all the questions posed to me
7.
The package must provide challenging questions
8.
Background music is a must
9.
I can exit an activity any time I want
10.
Scores are provided for my responses
11.
Video presentations are appealing
12.
Time for accessing information and answering questions is
unlimited
13.
Ability to browse responses from other users is helpful
1
2
3
4
5
251
14.
Help facilities are provided on all activities
15.
The main menu is accessible from all screens
16.
Awards or prizes for good marks are useful motivators
17.
Freedom to choose background music appeals to me
18.
I like to be able to choose any activity tha t appeals to me
19.
Games are a must
20.
I like to see beautiful pictures or abstract designs on screen
21.
The software allows me to give my comments on it directly
Additional comments:
________________________________________________________________________
252
APPENDIX B2
Table B2
PACKAGE EVALUATION FORM FOR STUDENTS
Name:_____________________
Gender:_______
School:____________________
Date: _________
Time: ____________________
Module:_______
Instructions:
‘1’ is Extremely Disagree; ‘2’ is Disagree;
‘3’ is Neutral; ‘4’ is Agree; ‘5’ is Extremely Agree.
Items
1.
The package is fun to use
2.
The package is easy to use
3.
The package motivates me to think deeply to my full
potential
4.
The package is well structured and thus can be easily
understood
5.
The activities in the package aroused my interest
6.
The background color suits me
7.
The fonts are easily readable
8.
I like the background music used in the package
9.
The animation used in the background enhances the screen
10.
The package gives me help cues when needed
11.
I can navigate my way round the package easily
12.
I can exit myself out of the package at any time
13.
The extra facilities such as Internet and e- mail provided in
the lab gives me added resources to generate more ideas
14.
The package expose me to ways to think more effectively
15.
The package made me realize the benefits of collaborative
learning
16.
The instructions given are precise and concise
1
2
3
4
5
253
17.
The package helps me to think strategically
18.
The package makes me value opinions from other people
19.
The preliminary exercise in the trial version helps me to
visualize the whole picture of the package
20.
I would recommend the package to my friends
Other comments about the package are very much appreciated:
254
APPENDIX B3
PACKAGE EVALUATION FORM
(for Thinking Skills Experts)
Instructions:
‘1’ is Extremely Disagree; ‘2’ is Disagree;
‘3’ is Neutral; ‘4’ is Agree; ‘5’ is Extremely Agree.
Please tick your responses in the appropriate column.
Items
1.
The use of brainstorming strategy is suitable for developing
analytical thinking in the particular age group
2.
The use of graphic organizers in the package provides
sufficient scaffolding for students in generating multiple
ideas
3.
The use of verbal organizers in the form of statements to
bolster ideas helps students to reflect on their thinking
4.
The use of CoRT1 technique in the package is sufficient in
diversifying the students’ outlook on a problem
5.
The facility for collaborative learning in the package is able
to upgrade students’ analytical thinking skills
6.
The problems posed to the students are able to stimulate their
minds to think analytically and critically
7.
The activities in the module are enough for the students to be
able to transfer them to other domains
8.
The use of computers as the delivery agent of the critical
thinking package does not pose any problems in teaching the
skills
9.
The games install in the package help the students in
upgrading their analytical thinking
1
2
3
4
5
255
10. The objective of upgrading students’ analytical thinking skills
by using the package is achieved
Other comments about the package are very much appreciated:
256
APPENDIX B4
PACKAGE EVALUATION FORM
(For Instructional Design Expert)
Instructions:
‘1’ is Extremely Disagree; ‘2’ is Disagree;
‘3’ is Neutral; ‘4’ is Agree; ‘5’ is Extremely Agree.
Please tick your responses in the appropriate column
Items
Instructional Strategies
1.
The methodology used is suitable for the age group
2.
The objectives are explicit
3.
The problems posed are easily understood
4.
The activities are well-structured
5.
The problems posed are realistic and can be tackled
6.
The package can generate students’ interest
7.
The package provides for collaborative learning
8.
The students are motivated to think systematically
9.
Constant guidance is available
10. The evaluation (score) given by the package is appropriate
Instructional Presentation
11. The screen interface design is appropriate
12. Fonts used are readable
13. Graphics used enhanced the screen
14. The colors used are suitable
15. The audio used in the package do not dis tract the user
16. The functions of icons used can be easily identified
17. Instructions are clear and concise
18. The position of icons, texts and text entries are consistent
1
2
3
4
5
257
19. Guidance is complete, facilitator not required
20. Users’ manual is available
Navigational and technical design
21. The user can redo the activity while still in it
22. The user can familiarize with the package first
23. Help cues are readily available at all text entry points
24. The user can access other students’ scores and responses
25. Exit facility is available at all times
26. Statements
clarifying
users’
responses
help
students’
navigation
27. The use of password for an individual user helps
28. The help buttons provide an overview of the package
29. The use of diskettes hamper the speed of the package
30. Crashes often happen
Other comments about the package are very much appreciated:
258
APPENDIX B5
OBSERVATIONAL CHECK LIST
Items
Seen
Not
No of occurrence
Seen
A
lot
Respondents consulted their friends
while engaging in the activities
provided
Respondents listened to the music
provided in the background while
thinking about their responses
Respondents used the package in a
haphazard manner, from scenarios to
quiz then back to scenarios or
browsing
feedbacks
from
their
friends
Respondents experienced problems
in navigating around the package
Respondents did their best to outdo
their friends in generating as much
ideas as possible
Respondents keyed- in nonsensical
statements in the spaces provided
Respondents used the help cues
provided to help them to generate
ideas
Respondents spent a lot of time on
the games provided
Respondents used other facilities
Freq Rare
Notes
259
such as the Internet or e- mailing
services to spruce up their ideas
Respondents
used
the
facility
provided to generate their own
scenarios to be solved by their
friends
Respondents referred to the trial
version in the beginning of the
package
Respondents repeated the scenarios
provided to upgrade their scores
Respondents chattered about their
experience using the package on
their way out of the lab
a.
in a positive manner
b.
in a negative manner
260
APPENDIX B6
INTERVIEW QUESTIONS FOR RESPONDENTS
1.
What are the features of the package that you particularly like and why?
2.
How does the package enhance your analytical thinking capabilities?
3.
How do your friends help you in generating more ideas for each of the problems
posed? Do you think it helps you to upgrade your thinking skills?
4.
Do you think the skills taught in the package are transferable? In what areas can
you apply these skills that you have acquired?
5.
How does the package change your outlook on the ways you exercise your
thinking?
261
APPENDIX B7
ANALYTICAL THINKING INVENTORY FOR MODULE 1 (PRE-TEST)
BORANG SOALAN KAJI SELIDIK MENGENAI
KEMAHIRAN BERFIKIR SECARA ANALITIKAL
BAGI PELAJAR TINGKATAN EMPAT
MODUL 1
Assalamualaikum dan salam sejahtera:
Para pelajar yang dikasihi sekalian,
Saya, Hamizer b Mohd Sukor, pelajar jurusan Teknologi Pendidikan (Ph.D),
Universiti
Teknologi
Malaysia,
Skudai,
ingin
menjalankan
penyelidikan
mengenai perkara di atas.
Dengan itu, saya memohon kerjasama para pelajar sekalian bagi memenuhi
borang kajian yang disediakan dengan memberikan seberapa banyak jawapan
yang boleh kepada setiap persoalan yang dicuba secara ikhlas.
Anda juga tidak semestinya memberikan jawapan kepada kesemua persoalan
yang disediakan.
Semua respons anda adalah SULIT. Nama anda tidak akan didedahkan kepada
sesiapa.
Kerjasama anda amatlah dihargai. Terima Kasih.
262
ARAHAN
Anda bebas menjawab mana-mana persoalan yang anda suka sahaja.
Anda juga digalakkan untuk memberikan seberapa banyak jawapan yang anda
dapat fikirkan bagi persoalan-persoalan yang anda cuba.
Sila tuliskan jawapan anda di dalam borang jawapan yang disediakan dengan
RINGKAS.
Anda boleh gunakan seberapa banyak helaian kertas jawapan yang anda
perlukan.
Tuliskan NAMA RINGKAS anda pada setiap helaian.
TERIMA KASIH YANG TIDAK TERHINGGA DARIPADA SAYA
1.
Nyatakan sekurang-kurangnya tiga kesemuanya bagi ciri persamaan dan ciri
perbezaan di antara:
Kehidupan seorang pelajar di bandar dan di luar bandar.
2.
Nyatakan sekurang-kurangnya tiga kesemuanya bagi ciri-ciri persamaan dan
perbezaan yang terdapat di antara:
Pembelajaran di sekolah rendah dan di sekolah anda sekarang.
3.
Nyatakan sekurang-kurangnya tiga kesemuanya bagi ciri-ciri persamaan dan
perbezaan di antara:
Kelab/persatuan dan unit badan beruniform di sekolah anda?
4.
Nyatakan sekurang-kurangnya tiga kesemuanya bagi ciri-ciri persamaan dan
perbezaan di antara:
Kehidupan di rumah dan di asrama anda sekarang.
263
5.
Nyatakan sekurang-kurangnya tiga kesemuanya bagi ciri-ciri persamaan dan
perbezaan di antara:
Kelas anda pada tahun ini dan kelas anda pada tahun lepas.
6.
Nyatakan sekurang-kurangnya tiga kesemuanya bagi ciri-ciri persamaan dan
perbezaan di antara:
Kehidupan seorang yang berkerja dan kehidupan anda sebagai pelajar.
264
APPENDIX B8
ANALYTICAL THINKING INVENTORY FOR MODULE 2 (PRE-TEST)
BORANG SOALAN KAJI SELIDIK MENGENAI
KEMAHIRAN BERFIKIR SECARA ANALITIKAL
BAGI PELAJAR TINGKATAN EMPAT
MODUL 2
Assalamualaikum dan salam sejahtera:
Para pelajar yang dikasihi sekalian,
Saya, Hamizer b Mohd Sukor, pelajar jurusan Teknologi Pendidikan (Ph.D),
Universiti
Teknologi
Malaysia,
Skudai,
ingin
menjalankan
penyelidikan
mengenai perkara di atas.
Dengan itu, saya memohon kerjasama para pelajar sekalian bagi memenuhi
borang kajian yang disediakan dengan memberikan seberapa banyak jawapan
yang boleh kepada setiap persoalan yang dicuba secara ikhlas.
Anda juga tidak semestinya memberikan jawapan kepada kesemua persoalan
yang disediakan.
Semua respons anda adalah SULIT. Nama anda tidak akan didedahkan kepada
sesiapa.
Kerjasama anda amatlah dihargai. Terima Kasih.
265
ARAHAN
Anda bebas menjawab mana-mana persoalan yang anda suka sahaja.
Anda juga digalakkan untuk memberikan seberapa banyak jawapan yang anda
dapat fikirkan bagi persoalan-persoalan yang anda cuba.
Sila tuliskan jawapan anda di dalam borang jawapan yang disediakan dengan
RINGKAS.
Anda boleh gunakan seberapa banyak helaian kertas jawapan yang anda
perlukan.
Tuliskan NAMA RINGKAS anda pada setiap helaian.
TERIMA KASIH YANG TIDAK TERHINGGA DARIPADA SAYA
1.
Sila nyatakan sekurang-kurangnya tiga ruang penting yang patut ada bagi rumah
idaman anda. Berikan seberapa banyak pernyataan bagi menyokong setiap
ruang yang anda nyatakan.
2.
Nyatakan sekurang-kurangnya tiga segmen penting yang harus ada pada
sesebuah akhbar harian agar ia menjadi akhbar yang popular.
Berikan seberapa banyak alasan yang boleh anda fikirkan mengenai
kepentingan setiap satu segmen tersebut.
3.
Nyatakan sekurang-kurangnya tiga komponen penting yang harus ada pada
sebuah bilik darjah yang ideal.
Sertakan seberapa banyak alasan yang boleh anda fikirkan mengenai
kepentingan komponen-komponen tersebut.
4.
Nyatakan sekurang-kurangnya tiga komponen penting yang harus ada pada
sesebuah filem agar ia dapat mendapat sambutan yang hangat daripada
penonton.
Sertakan seberapa banyak alasan yang boleh anda fikirkan mengenai
kepentingan komponen-komponen tersebut.
266
5.
Nyatakan sekurang-kurangnya tiga ciri penting yang harus ada pada sebuah
novel yang menarik.
Sertakan nyatakan seberapa banyak alasan yang boleh anda fikirkan mengenai
kepentingan ciri-ciri tersebut.
6.
Nyatakan sekurang-kurangnya tiga perkara penting yang harus disediakan di
tapak perkhemahan yang dikhaskan untuk pelajar sekolah menengah.
Nyatakan seberapa banyak alasan yang boleh anda fikirkan mengenai
keperluan perkara-perkara tersebut.
267
APPENDIX B9
ANALYTICAL THINKING INVENTORY FOR MODULE 3 (PRE-TEST)
BORANG SOALAN KAJI SELIDIK MENGENAI
KEMAHIRAN BERFIKIR SECARA ANALITIKAL
BAGI PELAJAR TINGKATAN EMPAT
MODUL 3
Assalamualaikum dan salam sejahtera:
Para pelajar yang dikasihi sekalian,
Saya, Hamizer b Mohd Sukor, pelajar jurusan Teknologi Pendidikan (Ph.D),
Universiti
Teknologi
Malaysia,
Skudai,
ingin
menjalankan
penyelidikan
mengenai perkara di atas.
Dengan itu, saya memohon kerjasama para pelajar sekalian bagi memenuhi
borang kajian yang disediakan dengan memberikan seberapa banyak jawapan
yang boleh kepada setiap persoalan yang dicuba secara ikhlas.
Anda juga tidak semestinya memberikan jawapan kepada kesemua persoalan
yang disediakan.
Semua respons anda adalah SULIT. Nama anda tidak akan didedahkan kepada
sesiapa.
Kerjasama anda amatlah dihargai. Terima Kasih.
268
ARAHAN
Anda bebas menjawab mana-mana persoalan yang anda suka sahaja.
Anda juga digalakkan untuk memberikan seberapa banyak jawapan yang anda
dapat fikirkan bagi persoalan-persoalan yang anda cuba.
Sila tuliskan jawapan anda di dalam borang jawapan yang disediakan dengan
RINGKAS.
Anda boleh gunakan seberapa banyak helaian kertas jawapan yang anda
perlukan.
Tuliskan NAMA RINGKAS anda pada setiap helaian.
TERIMA KASIH YANG TIDAK TERHINGGA DARIPADA SAYA
1.
Pelajar tidak harus dibebankan dengan kerja rumah yang diberikan oleh guru
selepas waktu sekolah.
Berikan sekurang-kurangnya tiga kesemuanya bagi alasan yang menyokong dan
menolak cadangan ini.
2.
Pelajar harus diberikan kebebasan memilih guru untuk setiap mata pelajaran.
Berikan sekurang-kurangnya tiga kesemuanya bagi alasan yang menyokong dan
menolak cadangan ini.
3.
Semua pelajar sekolah menengah diwajibkan menjalani latihan ketenteraan
sewaktu cuti sekolah selama sebulan setiap tahun bagi menerapkan semangat
cintakan negara.
Berikan sekurang-kurangnya tiga kesemuanya bagi alasan yang menyokong dan
menolak cadangan ini.
4.
Umur bagi dilayakkan memandu kereta diturunkan kepada 16 tahun.
Berikan sekurang-kurangnya tiga kesemuanya bagi alasan yang menyokong dan
menolak cadangan ini.
269
5.
Pelajar harus diberi ganjaran setiap kali berjaya meningkatkan pencapaian
akademiknya.
Berikan sekurang-kurangnya tiga kesemuanya bagi alasan yang menyokong dan
menolak cadangan ini.
6.
Sila nyatakan sekurang-kurangnya tiga pernyataan bagi menyokong dan/ atau
menolak usul bahawa cuti persekolahan diadakan sekali sahaja untuk setiap
tahun tetapi meliputi jangka waktu 3 bulan terus.
270
APPENDIX C
RESULTS FROM PILOT STUDY
Table C1:
Students ‘think aloud’ responses for items in Module 1 (Compare and
Contrast) in first pilot test.
Nyatakan seberapa banyak pernyataan bagi ciri persamaan dan perbezaan di antara:
Problem scenario 1:
Negara maju dan negara mundur di dunia masa kini pada pandangan anda.
The term ‘maju’ and ‘mundur’ were vague and was recommended to be changed.
Problem scenario 1 modified to:
Negara pertanian dan negara perindustrian di dunia masa kini pada pandangan anda.
Problem scenario 2:
Hobi bercucuk tanam dan membaca novel.
Gardening was not a hobby to any of the students
Problem scenario 2 modified to:
Hobi bersukan dan membaca novel.
Problem scenario 3:
Sekolah berasrama penuh dan sekolah harian biasa.
Students did not face any predicaments with this problem
Problem scenario 3 was not modified for second pilot study
Problem scenario 4:
Kantin sekolah anda dan kantin sekolah yang bersebelahan dengan sekolah anda
Most of them did not know much of the nearby school canteen
Problem scenario 4 modified to:
Kantin sekolah anda dan kedai kopi berdekatan dengan rumah anda
Problem scenario 5:
Permainan bola sepak dan catur
271
Students did not face any predicaments with this problem.
Problem scenario 5 was not modified for second pilot study.
Problem scenario 6:
Kelakuan pelajar kelas anda dan kelas bersebelahan dengan kelas anda
Students did not face any predicaments with this problem.
Problem scenario 6 was not modified for second pilot study.
Problem scenario 7:
Kehidupan seorang pelajar daripada keluarga yang kaya dan yang miskin.
‘Kaya’ and ‘miskin’ were not defined. All the students preferred to consider themselves as
offspring of poor families
Problem scenario 7 modified to:
Kehidupan seorang pelajar di bandar dan di luar bandar.
Problem scenario 8:
Pembelajaran di sekolah rendah dan di sekolah anda sekarang.
Students did not face any predicaments with this problem.
Problem scenario 8 was not modified for second pilot study.
Problem scenario 9:
Kelab/persatuan dan unit badan beruniform di sekolah anda
Students did not face any predicaments with this problem.
Problem scenario 9 was not modified for second pilot study.
Problem scenario 10:
Kehidupan di rumah dan di asrama anda sekarang.
Students did not face any predicaments with this problem.
Problem scenario 10 was not modified for second pilot study.
Problem scenario 11:
Rakan karib anda pada tahun ini dibandingkan dengan rakan karib anda pada tahun lepas
272
Most students had the same person as their best friend this year as of last year
Problem scenario 11 modified to:
Kelas anda pada tahun ini dan kelas anda pada tahun lepas.
Problem scenario 12:
Kehidupan berkeluarga dan kehidupan seorang yang bujang
Students faced difficulty in visualizing the situation.
Problem scenario 12 modified to:
Kehidupan seorang yang berkerja dan kehidupan anda sebagai pelajar
273
Table C2:
Students ‘think aloud’ responses for items in Module 2 (Parts of a Whole)
in first pilot test.
Sila nyatakan seberapa banyak:
Problem scenario 1:
Bilik-bilik khas yang anda rasa perlu bagi rumah idaman anda.
The word ‘bilik -bilik khas’ was suggested to be changed to ‘ruang’ since kitchen, lounge or
study area may not be confined to ‘rooms’ but just open spaces.
Problem scenario 1 modified to:
Ruang penting yang patut ada bagi rumah idaman anda.
Problem scenario 2:
Segmen penting yang harus ada dalam majalah hiburan.
The scope of ‘Majalah hiburan’ was seen as too restricted. Most students in the study did
not spend much time reading this type of magazines.
Problem scenario 2 modified to:
Segmen penting yang harus ada pada sesebuah akhbar harian agar ia menjadi akhbar yang
popular.
Problem scenario 3:
Komponen penting yang harus ada pada sebuah bilik darjah yang ideal.
Students seemed to like this problem based on the number of ideas produced.
Problem scenario 3 was not modified for second pilot study
Problem scenario 4:
Komponen penting yang harus ada pada sesebuah drama TV agar ia dapat mendapat
mendatangkan manfaat kepada pelajar.
‘Drama TV’ was not appealing to some students because they do not watch much TV.
Problem scenario 4 modified to:
Komponen penting yang harus ada pada sesebuah filem agar ia dapat mendapat sambutan
yang hangat daripada penonton
Problem scenario 5:
Ciri penting yang harus ada pada sebuah novel yang baik.
274
Students did not face any predicaments with this problem.
Problem scenario 5 was not modified for second pilot study.
Problem scenario 6:
Perkara penting yang harus disediakan di tapak perkhemahan yang dikhaskan untuk pelajar
sekolah menengah
Students did not face any predicaments with this problem.
Problem scenario 6 was not modified for second pilot study.
Problem scenario 7:
Kemudahan penting yang patut ada dalam sebuah kapal terbang mewah idaman anda.
Students faced difficulty in visualizing the problem.
Problem scenario 7 modified to:
Kemudahan penting yang patut ada dalam hotel di tempat pelancongan idaman anda.
Problem scenario 8:
Ciri-ciri penting yang harus ada dalam sebuah komputer peribadi idaman anda
Students did not face any predicaments with this problem.
Problem scenario 8 was not modified for second pilot study.
Problem scenario 9:
Ciri-ciri penting bagi seseorang yang ingin menjadi penghibur terkenal di peringkat
antarabangsa
Students did not face any predicaments with this problem.
Problem scenario 9 was not modified for second pilot study.
Problem scenario 10:
Komponen penting yang harus ada pada sesebuah model kereta terbaru yang boleh
mengatasi masalah kesesakan lalu lintas di Malaysia
Students did not face any predicaments with this problem.
Problem scenario 10 was not modified for second pilot study.
275
Problem scenario 11:
Ciri penting yang harus ada pada laman web yang anda bina
The word ‘peribadi’ was suggested to be included after ‘web’ to indicate the purpose of
building the web page which was seen as the key factor in developing a web page
Problem scenario 11 modified to:
Ciri penting yang harus ada pada laman web peribadi anda
Problem scenario 12:
Ciri-ciri penting yang patut ada pada diri pelajar cemerlang
Students did not face any predicaments with this problem.
Problem scenario 12 not modified for second pilot study.
276
Table C3:
Students ‘think aloud’ responses for items in Module 3 (Proposal Ponder)
in first pilot test.
Berikan seberapa banyak alasan yang menyokong dan menolak cadangan ini.
Problem scenario 1:
Pelajar-pelajar sekolah tidak diwajibkan memakai uniform ke sekolah.
Relevant with students’ life, ideas were easily procured
Problem scenario 1 was not modified
Problem scenario 2:
Komputer digunakan bagi menggantikan peranan guru.
Need to specify the areas that computers could take over teachers’ role
Problem scenario 2 was modified to:
Komputer digunakan bagi menggantikan peranan guru dalam bidang akademik
Problem scenario 3:
Kapal terbang digunakan sebagai pengangkutan utama di Sabah dan Sarawak menggantikan
pengangkutan air
Students seemed to be knowledgeable in geography
Problem scenario 3 was not modified
Problem scenario 4:
Pelajar dibenarkan membawa telefon bimbit ke sekolah
Change ‘membawa’ to menggunakan
Problem scenario 4 was modified to:
Pelajar dibenarkan menggunakan telefon bimbit ke sekolah
Problem scenario 5:
Aktiviti kokurikulum dimasukkan ke dalam jadual waktu harian persekolahan
Students did not face any predicament with this problem
Problem scenario 5 was not modified
277
Problem scenario 6:
Semua jenis peperiksaan dimansuhkan di Malaysia.
Students indicated that ‘examinations’ should be related to the field of education only
which was more relevant to them.
Problem scenario 6 was modified to:
Semua jenis peperiksaan dimansuhkan dalam sistem pendidikan di Malaysia
Problem scenario 7:
Pelajar tidak harus dibebankan dengan kerja rumah yang diberikan oleh guru selepas waktu
sekolah.
Students did not face any predicament with this problem
Problem scenario 7 was not modified
Problem scenario 8:
Pelajar harus diberikan kebebasan memilih guru tingkatan.
Most students did not think that class teachers affect their academic performance as much
as individual subject teachers.
Problem scenario 8 was modified to:
Pelajar harus diberikan kebebasan memilih guru untuk setiap mata pelajaran
Problem scenario 9:
Semua pelajar sekolah menengah diwajibkan menjalani latihan ketenteraan sewaktu cuti
sekolah selama sebulan setiap tahun bagi menerapkan semangat cintakan negara.
Students did not face any predicament with this problem
Problem scenario 9 was not modified
Problem scenario 10:
Umur bagi dilayakkan memandu kereta diturunkan kepada 16 tahun.
Students did not face any predicament with this problem
Problem scenario 10 was not modified
278
Problem scenario 11:
Pelajar harus diberi hadiah berbentuk wang setiap kali berjaya meningkatkan pencapaian
akademiknya
The phrase ‘hadiah berbentuk wang’ was suggested to be change to ‘ganjaran’ to cover a
wider scope.
Problem scenario 11 was modified to:
Pelajar harus diberi ganjaran setiap kali berjaya meningkatkan pencapaian akademiknya
Problem scenario 12:
Cuti persekolahan diadakan sekali sahaja untuk setiap tahun tetapi meliputi jangka waktu 3
bulan terus.
Students did not face any predicament with this problem
Problem scenario 12 was not modified
Students
ps101 Ps102 ps103 ps104 ps105 ps106 Ps107 ps108 ps109 ps110 ps111
*Items
Number of responses for each problem scenario attempted for the high score category
S115
3
4
5
3
6
3
4
4
4
3
5
S101
4
3
5
6
2
5
3
4
4
5
2
S103
3
5
3
2
6
6
4
4
3
4
3
S102
5
4
3
3
5
3
4
5
3
4
4
S110
4
3
3
4
4
5
3
4
4
3
3
S111
6
3
2
4
3
2
5
3
3
5
3
Number of responses for each problem scenario attempted for the middle score category
S114
4
3
3
2
5
3
4
4
3
2
4
S112
4
2
4
5
3
2
5
1
5
4
3
S104
2
3
3
5
4
3
1
3
4
4
3
S105
4
3
3
5
2
2
3
4
3
4
2
S113
3
2
2
3
4
4
3
1
2
3
5
S106
5
4
3
2
2
1
4
4
4
1
2
Number of responses for each problem scenario attempted for the low score category
S117
2
3
4
4
3
2
2
3
3
3
3
S118
1
2
2
3
5
3
2
3
2
3
4
S108
2
2
3
2
2
3
2
2
3
1
1
S107
2
2
2
1
1
2
1
2
4
2
2
S109
0
3
2
2
2
2
1
3
2
1
2
S116
0
3
1
2
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
Index of
0.61 0.72
0.67
0.61
0.61
0.57
0.61
0.81
0.78
0.67
0.67
Difficulty
Index of
1.00 0.50
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.50
1.00
0.50
0.50
0.67
0.67
Discrimination
Alpha-Cronbach Coefficient from Reliability Analysis = 0.8153 (*ps = problem scenario)
48
47
47
45
44
41
40
39
38
36
36
34
34
33
26
22
22
21
4
4
4
2
4
2
3
1
3
1
4
2
2
3
3
1
2
2
0.33
0.50
Total
score
ps112
Calculation of Index of Difficulty and Index of Discrimination for items in Analytical Thinking Skills
Inventory for Module 1 (Compare and Contrast) after second pilot study
Table C4:
279
Students
ps201 Ps202 ps203 ps204 ps205 ps206 Ps207 ps208 ps209 ps210 ps211
*Items
Number of responses for each problem scenario attempted for the high score category
S212
6
6
5
4
5
6
4
3
4
5
6
S208
5
6
6
4
4
4
5
5
5
4
4
S202
4
5
6
5
6
6
4
4
4
3
5
S214
3
5
5
4
5
5
4
3
4
5
6
S209
5
4
4
4
3
4
2
4
4
4
3
Number of responses for each problem scenario attempted for the middle score category
S204
4
4
5
4
5
4
5
3
2
3
3
S203
4
4
2
3
2
4
3
3
2
4
3
S211
5
2
4
3
2
2
3
5
4
2
2
S213
3
3
3
2
3
3
2
4
3
3
2
S206
4
3
4
2
3
2
4
2
3
3
2
S201
2
3
4
2
3
2
3
2
4
2
3
Number of responses for each problem scenario attempted for the low score category
S205
2
2
3
2
3
3
2
4
4
3
2
S215
3
2
3
2
3
2
2
3
3
2
3
S210
2
3
2
3
2
2
3
3
2
2
2
S216
3
3
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
2
S207
2
2
2
2
2
3
2
2
3
2
2
Index of
0.75 0.75
0.75
0.56
0.63
0.63
0.63
0.75
0.75
0.69
0.56
Difficulty
Index of
0.60 0.60
0.60
0.80
0.60
0.60
0.60
0.40
0.40
0.80
0.80
Discrimination
Alpha-Cronbach Coefficient from Reliability Analysis = 0.8362 (*ps = problem scenario)
58
55
55
53
46
45
37
37
34
34
33
32
30
29
27
26
4
3
3
4
5
3
3
3
3
2
2
2
2
3
2
2
0.63
0.80
Total
score
ps212
Calculation of Index of Difficulty and Index of Discrimination for items in Analytical Thinking Skills
Inventory for Module 2 (Parts of a Whole) after second pilot study
Table C5:
280
Students
ps301 Ps302 ps303 ps304 ps305 ps306 Ps307 ps308 ps309 ps310 ps311
*Items
Number of responses for each problem scenario attempted for the high score category
S311
7
6
6
4
6
5
5
4
6
5
6
S307
6
5
5
3
4
6
4
5
6
6
4
S305
7
6
6
4
5
4
4
5
5
4
4
S304
4
5
5
4
6
5
4
5
5
4
3
S310
5
6
6
3
5
5
3
3
4
4
5
Number of responses for each problem scenario attempted for the middle score category
S302
5
4
4
4
5
4
5
4
4
4
5
S312
4
5
5
5
4
5
5
4
4
3
4
S314
4
5
3
5
4
5
4
4
4
3
4
S303
3
4
4
3
5
3
5
4
3
5
4
S308
4
3
4
4
4
4
4
3
3
4
4
Number of responses for each problem scenario attempted for the low score category
S306
3
4
4
4
4
5
3
3
4
4
3
S313
3
3
3
3
2
4
3
4
3
4
4
S309
3
4
2
3
3
3
3
3
4
3
3
S301
3
2
3
3
3
4
3
3
2
3
4
S315
4
2
3
3
3
2
3
3
4
3
3
Index of
0.67 0.73
0.67
0.53
0.73
0.80
0.60
0.60
0.73
0.67
0.73
Difficulty
Index of
0.80 0.60
0.80
0.40
0.80
0.40
0.80
0.60
0.40
0.60
0.40
Discrimination
Alpha-Cronbach Coefficient from Reliability Analysis = 0.8190 (*ps = problem scenario)
66
58
58
55
54
53
52
49
46
44
44
39
38
36
35
6
4
4
5
5
5
4
4
3
3
3
3
4
3
2
0.60
0.80
Total
score
ps312
Calculation of Index of Difficulty and Index of Discrimination for items in Analytical Thinking Skills
Inventory for Module 3 (Proposal Ponder) after second pilot study
Table C6:
281
282
APPENDIX D
RESULTS OF FORMATIVE EVALUATION OF PACKAGE
Table D1:
Package evaluation results by students
‘1’ is Extremely Disagree; ‘2’ is Disagree;
‘3’ is Neutral; ‘4’ is Agree; ‘5’ is Extremely Agree.
Items
Mean score
from 1 to 5
1.
The package is fun to use
2.53
2.
The package is easy to use
3.40
3.
The package motivates me to think deeply to my full potential
3.73
4.
The package is well structured and thus can be easily understood
2.73
5.
The activities in the package aroused my interest
3.33
6.
The background color suits me
3.73
7.
The fonts are easily readable
3.40
8.
I like the background music used in the package
3.53
9.
The animation used in the background enhances the screen
3.27
10.
The package gives me help cues when needed
3.40
11.
I can navigate my way round the package easily
3.73
12.
I can exit myself out of the package at any time
3.20
13.
The extra facilities such as Internet and e-mail provided in the lab
3.47
gives me added resources to generate more ideas
14.
The package expose me to ways to think more effectively
3.53
15.
The package made me realize the benefits of collaborative learning
3.67
16.
The instructions given are precise and concise
3.20
17.
The package helps me to think strategically
3.27
18.
The package makes me value opinions from other people
2.67
19.
The preliminary exercise in the trial version helps me to visualize the
3.33
whole picture of the package
20.
I would recommend the package to my friends
3.27
283
Table D2:
1.
Comments made by students in formative evaluation of prototype
Description
Actions taken
Some computers run too slow or CD drive not working
Reported the problem
to ITC
2.
Back button desirable
Back button made
available for users to
modify or renew input
3.
Game quiz quite interesting, but quit button sometimes hidden
Rectified
behind question
4.
Software should provide correct answers
Answers not provided
because they can be
diverse, depends on
students analytical
mind
5.
Ability to change background music is a good feature
6.
Some graphics deemed suitable for lower age group only
Those graphics have
been deleted
7.
Questions provided are stimulating
8.
Easy to procure high score, software should create situation
A mathematical
whereby as the respondent’s score increases, the movement of
formula is now used to
score bar gets impeded so as to increase motivation
slow down the
movement as the score
increases
9.
Include more flash animation to make it more interesting
More flash animations
have been included but
only in the main menu
screen
10.
Provision for browsing responses from other respondents is an
Open to users’ abuse
interesting feature. Ability to post self-made questions for other
respondents to attempt is good
11.
Some parts of the package needs debugging
12.
Use of graphic organizer helps to organize and stimulate new
ideas
13.
Provision for self reflection is good
Rectified
284
14.
Direct connection to the Internet would enhance the software
No action taken
15.
Need getting used to, quite cumbersome at first
Help buttons made
available at every
screen that needs
user’s input
16.
More video materials should be implanted into the package
Suggestion accepted
17.
Some of the activities in Module 1 and 2 were tedious and
Not rectified
monotonous
17.
Demo session quite helpful but the trial version is confusing
18.
Overall quite an interesting session mostly due to the ability to
browse responses from other respondents and post self-devised
questions to them- a two way communication
Modified
285
Table D3:
Results of formative evaluation of prototype by Instruction Design Expert
‘1’ is Extremely Disagree; ‘2’ is Disagree;
‘3’ is Neutral; ‘4’ is Agree; ‘5’ is Extremely Agree.
Items
Mean score
from 1 to 5
Instructional Strategies
1.
The methodology used is suitable for the age group
4
2.
The objectives are explicit
4
3.
The problems posed are easily understood
5
4.
The activities are well-structured
4
5.
The problems posed are realistic and can be tackled
5
6.
The package can generate students’ interest
4
7.
The package provides for collaborative learning
5
8.
The students are motivated to think systematically
4
9.
Constant guidance is available
5
10.
The evaluation (score) given by the package is appropriate
4
Overall mean score for instructional strategies
4.4
Instructional Presentation
11.
The screen interface design is appropriate
4
12.
Fonts used are readable
4
13.
Graphics used enhanced the screen
4
14.
The colors used are suitable
4
15.
The audio used in the package do not distract the user
5
16.
The functions of icons used can be easily identified
4
17.
Instructions are clear and concise
3
18.
The position of icons, texts and text entries are consistent
4
19.
Guidance is complete, facilitator not required
3
20.
Users’ manual is available
3
Overall mean score for instructional presentation
3.8
Navigational and technical design
21.
The user can redo the activity while still in it
4
22.
The user can familiarize with the package first
5
23.
Help cues are readily available at all text entry points
5
286
24.
The user can access other students’ scores and responses
5
25.
Exit facility is available at all times
3
26.
Statements clarifying users’ responses help students’ navigation
4
27.
The use of password for an individual user helps
4
28.
The help buttons provide an overview of the package
4
29.
The use of diskettes hamper the speed of the package
3
30.
Crashes often happen
3
Overall mean score for navigational and technical design
4.0
287
Table D4:
1.
General comments made by Instructional Design Expert on prototype
Description
Actions taken
Introductory texts such as UTM Skudai, CoRT1 etc not suitable
Texts deleted and
as welcoming user who are students to use the software.
replaced with
welcoming note
2.
Exit button must be accompanied by prompt message before
Back button is put in
user actually exiting
place if users decide to
go back
3.
Pull down menu not suitable for students who are not used to
Not rectified too avoid
computer software
heavy use of buttons.
Running message is
installed to alert user
of pull down menu
4.
Avoid excessive blinking title
Number of blinking
titles reduced
5.
User name should not disappear before password is entered
Rectified
6.
Too many buttons- confusing
General help button is
deleted. Specific help
facility is put in place
7.
Too many animations in some screens
Number of animations
have been cut down
8.
Double clicking should be avoided
Rectified
9.
Some buttons such as background music, not neatly done
Buttons have been
changed
10.
Graphics need touching up, avoid jagged edges
Rectified
11.
Prompt message is needed after questions are posted to
Rectified
databank
12.
Space for inputting ideas too limited
Users are warned of
288
not using long words.
Anyway, one of the
three modules would
accommodate for long
words and sentences
13.
The demo session is useful but the trial version (simulation) is
Suggestion accepted
confusing. Suggest to place the demo session before the trial
version
14.
The underlying idea of the software is good
Table D5:
Results of formative evaluation of prototype by content experts
Instructions:
‘1’ is Extremely Disagree; ‘2’ is Disagree;
‘3’ is Neutral; ‘4’ is Agree; ‘5’ is Extremely Agree.
Items
Mean score
From 1 to 5
1.
The use of inquiry-based learning strategy is suitable for
4.3
developing analytical thinking in the particular age group
2.
The use of graphic organizers in the package provides sufficient
4.7
scaffolding for students in generating multiple ideas
3.
The use of verbal maps in the form of statements to bolster ideas
4.7
helps students to reflect on their thinking
4.
The use of CoRT1 technique in the package is sufficient in
4.0
diversifying the students’ outlook on a problem
5.
The facility for collaborative learning in the package is able to
4.3
upgrade students’ critical thinking skills
6.
The problems posed to the students are able to stimulate their
4.0
minds to think analytically
7.
The activities in the module are enough for the students to be able
3.7
to transfer them to other domains
8.
The use of computers as the delivery agent of the package does not
4.3
289
pose any problems in teaching the skills
9.
The games install in the package help the students in upgrading
4.0
their analytical thinking
10.
The objective of upgrading students’ analytical thinking skills by
4.3
using the package is achieved
Table D6:
General comments made by content experts on prototype
Descrip tion
1.
Inquiry-based learning approach is suitable
2.
Graphic organizer used is appropriate
3.
Steps in running the trial version is difficult to be followed
Actions taken
Trial version
(simulation) is being
rectified
4.
CoRT1 techniques help users to procure more ideas.
Suggestion not
Suggestion: give incentives to users who use this facility to
implemented. Students
renew their point of view
in control group (not
exposed to the
package) did not have
this facility.
5.
Facility for collaborative le arning is very helpful
6.
The questions put to the users are stimulating but must indicate
Rectified
the no of minimum ideas needed
7.
The activities are suitable for users of the age range targeted
8.
The game quiz is useful and stimulating
9.
Can the package be modified for use by students in day
The collaborative
schools?
features in the design
need work stations
with intranetworking
to run
9.
Overall the software is capable of achieving its objective of
upgrading students analytical thinking capabilities
290
Table D7:
Results of formative evaluation of prototype by content expert:
Professor Abdullah b Hassan (Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris)
1.
Description
Actions taken
Change title of project from ‘critical thinking’ to ‘analytical
Rectified
thinking’ because it was more appropriate to the activities
designed in the package
2.
Quantify the no of minimum ideas to be procured and prompt
Rectified
users to add on to this number
3.
Indicate to users their current level of proficiency by rewarding
Suggestion accepted
them in the form of ‘stars’
4.
Provide for decision making exercise after users have exhausted Software modified to
all their ideas so as to indicate to users that the ideas procured
include this facility
are basis for decision making process
5.
Users can directly use the questions posted by their friends in
the databank without having to type it out again
Rectified
291
APPENDIX E
RESULTS OF SUMMATIVE EVALUATION OF PACKAGE
Table E1:
Score distribution of pre-test and post-test of control group for Module 1
Respondent
Pre -test
score
17
29
34
18
18
25
28
25
19
25
22
25
21
18
31
26
Post-test
score
15
22
37
24
22
27
25
28
26
26
28
28
24
20
30
25
C101
C102
C103
C104
C105
C106
C107
C108
C109
C110
C111
C112
C113
C114
C115
C116
N = 32
Mean pre-test score = 24.59
Std deviation = 5.84
Median pre-test score = 25.00
Minimum, maximum score = 14, 34
Respondent
C117
C118
C119
C120
C121
C122
C123
C124
C125
C126
C127
C128
C129
C130
C131
C132
Pre -test
score
28
31
21
32
32
28
28
14
23
28
34
28
28
22
15
14
Post-test
score
32
33
24
30
34
30
32
22
28
31
35
28
32
20
21
18
Mean post-test score = 26.59
Std deviation = 5.27
Median post-test score = 26.59
Minimum, maximum score = 15, 37
292
Table E2:
Score distribution of pre-test, first post-test and second post-test for
experimental group of Module 1
Respondent
Pre -test score
First post-test score
E101
E102
E103
E104
E105
E106
E107
E108
E109
E110
E111
E112
E113
E114
E115
E116
E117
E118
E119
E120
E121
E122
E123
E124
E125
E126
E127
E128
E129
E130
E131
E132
E133
E134
E135
E136
E137
E138
E139
E140
E141
E142
E143
32
28
30
25
31
24
34
24
35
36
25
32
25
28
24
27
27
30
29
30
28
29
25
32
25
21
32
22
21
23
18
25
22
22
17
21
22
21
32
28
30
19
28
38
34
37
32
38
32
42
34
45
46
36
44
37
42
38
41
42
45
44
45
44
45
42
50
42
40
52
42
42
45
41
48
46
46
42
47
48
52
39
38
40
29
39
Second
post-test
score(fully
collaborative mode)
52
48
52
60
62
44
58
50
54
55
46
54
52
48
44
50
48
63
62
54
48
61
46
52
54
56
62
53
50
55
60
72
54
58
58
64
59
68
50
48
62
64
64
293
E144
E145
E146
E147
E148
E149
E150
E151
E152
E153
E154
E156
E157
E158
E159
E160
E161
E162
E163
E164
E165
E166
E167
E168
E169
E170
E171
E172
E173
E174
E175
N = 75
31
26
33
19
18
23
27
32
27
21
27
26
29
22
30
25
34
20
23
25
28
31
32
10
19
21
22
30
19
26
18
42
38
45
32
32
38
42
47
42
36
42
42
45
38
46
42
51
38
41
44
47
51
52
39
40
42
44
52
42
51
40
Average statements generated
per problem = 5.1
Mean first post-test score =
42.15
Std deviation = 4.81
Std deviation = 5.22
Median pre-test score = 26.00 Median first post-test score =
42.00
Minimum, maximum score Minimum, maximum score =
=17, 36
29, 52
Average statements generated
per problem = 2.9
Mean pre-test score = 25.99
58
52
64
58
54
64
58
55
66
48
55
58
62
58
54
58
72
58
60
58
55
60
60
68
55
62
58
70
62
25
54
Average statements generated
per problem = 6.2
Mean second post-test score =
56.91
Std deviation = 6.40
Median second post-test score
= 58.00
Minimum, maximum score =
44, 72
294
Table E3:
Score distribution of pre-test and post-test for control group of Module 2
Respondent
Pre -test
score
13
11
8
10
11
10
9
11
11
12
8
13
12
11
15
12
Post-test
score
10
9
11
12
8
11
10
9
12
13
14
10
11
12
10
8
C201
C202
C203
C204
C205
C206
C207
C208
C209
C210
C211
C212
C213
C214
C215
C216
N = 31
Mean pre-test score = 10.90
Std deviation = 1.76
Median pre-test score = 11.00
Minimum, maximum score = 8, 15
Respondent
C217
C218
C219
C220
C221
C222
C223
C224
C225
C226
C227
C228
C229
C230
C231
Pre -test
score
10
11
9
8
11
12
14
9
10
10
12
11
10
14
10
Post-test
score
11
13
12
12
13
10
11
10
8
11
10
9
12
12
11
Mean post-test score = 10.81
Std deviation = 1.56
Median post-test score = 11.00
Minimum, maximum score = 8, 14
295
Table E4:
Score distribution of pre-test, first post-test and second post-test for
experimental group of Module 2
Respondent
Pre -test score
First post-test score
E201
E202
E203
E204
E205
E206
E207
E208
E209
E210
E211
E212
E213
E214
E215
E216
E217
E218
E219
E220
E221
E222
E223
E224
E225
E226
E227
E228
E229
E230
E231
E232
E233
E234
E235
E236
E237
E238
E239
E240
E241
E242
E243
E244
10
8
10
11
9
9
12
11
12
8
13
10
11
11
10
9
11
11
11
8
12
12
9
13
12
15
11
10
13
11
10
12
9
13
13
8
13
12
16
12
9
14
10
9
14
12
14
15
12
13
15
10
15
10
12
12
14
14
12
13
12
14
14
12
16
14
10
12
14
14
15
15
16
15
14
12
13
16
18
14
16
16
14
16
14
16
15
14
Second
post-test
score(fully
collaborative mode)
16
19
16
20
18
17
19
18
21
18
17
19
19
18
21
22
18
15
17
19
18
20
18
19
19
18
20
18
21
20
22
18
17
20
22
18
18
21
20
20
18
19
20
21
296
E245
E246
E247
E248
E249
E250
E251
E252
E253
E254
E255
E256
E257
E258
E259
E260
E261
E262
E263
E264
E265
E266
E267
E268
E269
E270
E271
E272
E273
E274
N = 74
13
12
14
12
10
13
12
10
11
12
14
12
13
16
13
10
13
11
16
15
12
10
13
12
15
12
13
15
12
14
Average statements generated
per problem = 1.8
Mean pre-test score = 11.66
Std deviation = 1.98
Median pre-test score = 12.00
Minimum, maximum score =
8, 16
16
17
18
17
14
18
16
15
14
16
17
10
16
14
16
14
15
15
18
14
17
16
17
14
18
16
14
14
17
16
Average statements generated
per problem = 2.5
Mean first post-test score =
14.55
Std deviation = 1.97
Median first post-test score =
14.20
Minimum, maximum score =
10, 18
20
22
20
24
20
24
23
20
18
23
21
18
17
19
23
19
17
21
22
19
19
20
20
22
20
22
16
17
21
19
Average statements generated
per problem = 2.7
Mean second post-test score =
19.43
Std deviation = 1.96
Median second post-test score
= 19.50
Minimum,maximum
score
=15, 24
297
Table E5:
Score distribution of pre-test and post-test for control group of Module 3
Respondent
Pre -test
score
38
43
44
38
48
46
50
33
45
28
34
55
38
44
50
48
C301
C302
C303
C304
C305
C306
C307
C308
C309
C310
C311
C312
C313
C314
C315
C316
N = 32
Mean pre-test score = 46.66
Std deviation = 8.88
Median pre-test score = 46.00
Minimum, maximum = 28, 66
Post-test
score
45
48
54
42
52
48
52
42
40
36
46
61
44
54
48
52
Respondent
C317
C318
C319
C320
C321
C322
C323
C324
C325
C326
C327
C328
C329
C330
C331
C332
Pre -test
score
39
46
54
52
46
66
62
44
55
56
36
48
45
45
65
52
Post-test
score
42
48
55
52
52
63
66
62
58
58
32
52
55
47
66
54
Mean post-test score = 50.78
Std deviation = 8.15
Median post-test score = 52.00
Minimum, maximum score = 32, 66
298
Table E6:
Score distribution of pre-test, first post-test and second post-test for
experimental group of Module 3
Respondent
Pre -test score
First post-test score
E301
E302
E303
E304
E305
E306
E307
E308
E309
E310
E311
E312
E313
E314
E315
E316
E317
E318
E319
E320
E321
E322
E323
E324
E325
E326
E327
E328
E329
E330
E331
E332
E333
E334
E335
E336
E337
E338
E339
E340
E341
E342
E343
E344
50
33
45
28
34
55
38
44
50
58
39
46
54
52
46
66
62
50
33
45
28
34
55
38
44
50
58
39
46
54
52
46
66
62
50
33
45
28
34
55
38
44
50
58
64
60
76
54
68
77
58
72
80
82
56
68
68
72
68
86
82
76
66
66
54
62
77
64
74
78
82
64
84
76
72
70
85
78
72
64
74
57
66
82
64
68
72
64
Second
post-test
score(fully
collaborative mode)
74
78
84
69
74
82
64
88
92
96
83
76
84
82
76
92
94
90
78
82
83
80
84
78
83
55
88
92
94
85
86
94
90
94
85
82
80
64
74
80
78
82
88
75
299
E345
39
68
E346
46
74
E347
54
82
E348
52
74
E349
46
77
E350
66
84
E351
62
76
E352
50
72
E353
33
58
E354
45
74
E355
28
57
E356
34
64
E357
55
86
E358
38
65
E359
44
64
E360
50
75
E361
58
77
E362
39
54
E363
46
60
E364
54
68
E365
52
82
E366
46
62
E367
66
83
E368
62
77
E369
33
63
E370
45
68
E371
28
52
E372
34
61
E373
55
74
E374
38
62
E376
50
67
E377
58
72
E378
39
50
E379
39
50
E380
54
74
E381
42
64
E382
46
70
E383
53
72
E384
58
68
Average statements generated Average statements generated
per problem = 6.0
per problem = 8.0
Mean pre-test score = 46.70
Mean first post-test score =
69.85
Std deviation = 10.00
Std deviation = 8.67
Median pre-test score = 46.00 Median first post-test score =
69.50
Minimum, maximum score = Minimum, maximum score =
28, 66
50, 86
77
92
97
84
93
90
85
84
75
84
77
84
92
84
79
88
92
80
74
80
86
78
86
94
75
76
74
84
80
73
80
78
68
68
92
77
78
88
76
Average statements generated
per problem = 9.0
Mean second post-test score =
82.65
Std deviation =7.25
Median second post-test score
= 83.00
Minimum, maximum score
=64, 97
300
APPENDIX F
SUMMARY OF STUDENTS’ RESPONSES FROM GROUP INTERVIEWS
Table F1:
Summary of students’ responses from interview questions after exploring
Module 1 (Compare and Contrast)
Responses obtained from group interviews cross-checked with interviews done
with different group of students on a smaller scale
3 = similar response given by at least two students
Interviewees: 16 students (8 boys and 8 girls)
No. of sessions: 2 (Male and female group interviews)
1. What are the features that appeals to Male- MaleHigh
you in the package?
Low
Gain
Gain
(N=4) (N=4)
Background music can be selected by
the user
3
3
40 minutes
Female- No.of
groups of
High
students
Gain
that
(N=4)
indicate the
same
response
3
3
Questions posed are stimulating
3
3
3
3
Facility to check on other users’ 3
responses
3
3
3
4
3
3
3
4
Facility for posing one’s own problem
3
for other users to attempt
Quiz segment is interesting
Step-by-step
statements
on
how
3
3
to
justify
Back button to undo statements
3
2
3
3
Users rewarded with ‘stars’ according
3
to scores gained
2.
Time:
FemaleLow
Gain
(N=4)
3
3
2
3
3
2
Chance to get extra points for
changing point-of-view
3
The package challenges users to give
more than three statements initially
required
Is the package capable of enhancing Male-
3
3
3
Male-
Female-
Female-
3
2
3
301
your analytical
Explain.
thinking
skills? Low
Gain
(N=4)
Use of everyday life problems in the 3
package that users can identify with
made the session absorbing, relevant
and beneficial and not limited to
academic field only
Users are challenged to think harder
because other users can check on each
others’ performance
High
Gain
(N=4)
3
Low
Gain
(N=4)
3
3
The package literally challenges users
to give more from their thoughts after 3
the minimum number of statements
(3) are obtained
High
Gain
(N=4)
3
4
3
2
3
3
3
4
3
3
3
4
3
3
3
4
Ideas that are not readily thought of
are exposed, thus improving one’s
analytical capability
3
3
3
Students posed questions that are
interesting and relevant to students 3
life, thus need for good analytical
mind seem to be important, as
compared to questions based on
academic content
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
Users realize the need to see things
from many points-of-view
3
Segment on collaborative learning
facilitate students to contribute and 3
accumulate
their
thoughts
on
questions posed by fellow students –
student-oriented rather than teacheroriented, a change from the usual
classroom scenario
3
3
The steps shown and the way to
justify opinions teach students to be
critical and responsible
This medium of instruction is far
better than pencil and paper method
302
3.
MaleHigh
Gain
(N=4)
FemaleLow
Gain
(N=4)
FemaleHigh
Gain
(N=4)
I got more diverse and surprising 3
thoughts that I used in my exercises.
3
3
3
4
Some of them I have already thought 3
of or nonsensical
3
3
3
4
3
3
3
3
4
How did the different responses given
by your friends enhance your scores
and your analytical skills? Elaborate
I modified them to suit me
MaleLow
Gain
(N=4)
I only look at them after I have
finished looking at the problem posed. 3
All my statements come from my
thoughts. I did not know that I can
look at other students’ responses first.
Some of them are the same as mine
3
but put in a different manner
3
3
It helped me to get ideas for my own
problem that I posed to the data bank 3
thus relieving me of doing the
thinking
I realize that there so many different
view points
4.
3
How can this type of thinking skills be Maleuseful in the academic field? Explain
Low
Gain
(N=4)
Especially in writing up essays
All the answers are already fixed, so
one only needs to memorize them.
Students need to be highly
informative to exercise analytical 3
thinking or else they would be led to
the wrong conclusions
This type of thinking makes students
read more and exercise their mind to 3
be more critical and not just accept
what other people tells them about a
topic
3
3
3
2
3
3
3
MaleHigh
Gain
(N=4)
3
FemaleLow
Gain
(N=4)
3
FemaleHigh
Gain
(N=4)
3
3
3
3
It can deepens one’s understanding on 3
a certain topic
2
4
2
3
3
3
4
3
3
3
4
3
3
3
4
303
Students are too young to make
decisions based on their own 3
analytical mind
5.
2
3
This exercise is advantageous to those 3
of a strong language background.
Most of the time, it is just stating the
same things in a different manner
How does this package change your Maleoutlook on thinking in everyday life?
Low
Gain
(N=4)
The need to look at things from 3
different angles
3
3
MaleHigh
Gain
(N=4)
3
FemaleLow
Gain
(N=4)
3
Need for collaboration with others on
a subject to acquire maximum number
of view points
3
3
2
Need for wide ranging information to 3
make right decisions
3
3
3
Opinions must be balanced
3
3
3
3
3
3
Must justify statements after putting
them forward
3
Need to be open minded
Need to be critical on all issues before
decision is made
3
3
3
3
FemaleHigh
Gain
(N=4)
3
4
3
3
3
3
3
3
4
304
Table F2:
Summary of students’ responses from interview questions after exploring
Module 2 (Parts of a Whole)
Responses obtained from group interviews cross-checked with interviews done
with different group of students on a smaller scale
3 = similar response given by at least two students
Interviewees: 16 students (8 boys and 8 girls)
Mode: Group interview
1. What are the features that appeals to Maleyou in the package?
Low
Gain
(N=4)
Background music can be selected by
the user
3
3
Facility to check on other users’ 3
responses
3
3
3
Quiz/ game segment is interesting
3
Step-by-step
statements
3
on
how
to
justify
Users rewarded with ‘stars’ according
to scores gained
3
No of sessions: 4
Female- FemaleHigh
Low
Gain
Gain
(N=4)
(N=4)
3
Questions posed are stimulating
Facility for posing one’s own problem
for other users to attempt
2.
MaleHigh
Gain
(N=4)
3
No.of
groups
of
students
that
indicate
the
same
response
2
3
2
3
3
4
3
3
4
3
2
1
3
3
4
Back button to undo statements
3
3
2
Chance to get extra points for changing
point-of-view
3
3
2
The package challenges users to give
more than three statements initially
required
3
3
2
Is the package capable of enhancing Maleyour analytical thinking skills? Explain. Low
Gain
(N=4)
MaleHigh
Gain
(N=4)
FemaleLow
Gain
(N=4)
FemaleHigh
Gain
(N=4)
305
Use of everyday life problems in the 3
package that users can identify with
made the session absorbing, relevant
and beneficial and not limited to
academic field only
3
3
3
Users are challenged to think harder
because other users can check on each
others’ performance
3
3
2
3
3
2
The package literally challenges users
to give more from their thoughts after
the minimum number of statements are
obtained
Users realize the need to see things
from many points-of-view
Segment on collaborative learning
facilitate students to contribute and 3
accumulate their thoughts on questions
posed by fellow students –studentoriented rather than teacher-oriented, a
change from the usual classroom
scenario
Ideas that are not readily thought of are
exposed,
thus
improving
one’s 3
analytical capability
Students posed questions that are
interesting and relevant to students life,
thus need for good analytical mind
seem to be important, as compared to
questions based on academic content
3.
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
4
3
3
3
4
3
3
2
The steps shown and the way to justify
opinions teach students to be critical
3
and responsible
3
3
3
4
This medium of instruction is far better
than pencil and paper method
3
3
3
4
MaleHigh
Gain
(N=4)
3
FemaleLow
Gain
(N=4)
3
FemaleHigh
Gain
(N=4)
3
3
3
How did the different responses given Maleby your friends enhance your scores Low
Gain
and your analytical skills? Elaborate
(N=4)
I got more diverse and surprising
thoughts that I used in my exercises.
Some of them I have already thought of 3
or nonsensical
1
306
3
I modified them to suit me
I only look at them after I have finished 3
looking at the problem posed. All my
statements come from my thoughts. I
did not know that I can look at other
students’ responses first.
3
3
Some of them are the same as mine but 3
put in a different manner
It helped me to get ideas for my own
problem that I posed to the data bank
thus relieving me of doing the thinking
3
4.
How can this type of thinking skills be
useful in the academic field? Explain
Especially in writing up essays
All the answers are already fixed, so
one only needs to memorize them.
MaleLow
Gain
(N=4)
3
3
MaleHigh
Gain
(N=4)
3
Students need to be highly informative
to exercise analytical thinking or else 3
they would be led to the wrong
conclusions
3
2
2
FemaleLow
Gain
(N=4)
3
3
2
FemaleHigh
Gain
(N=4)
3
4
3
3
It can deepens one’s understanding on a 3
certain topic
2
3
3
I realize that there so many different
view points
2
3
2
3
3
3
4
2
3
2
This type of thinking makes students
read more and exercise their mind to be
more critical and not just accept what
other people tells them about a topic
Students are too young to make 3
decisions based on their own analytical
mind
3
3
2
3
3
3
MaleHigh
FemaleLow
This exercise is advantageous to those
of a strong language background. Most
of the time, it is just stating the same
things in a different manner
5.
How does this package change your Maleoutlook on thinking in everyday life?
Low
FemaleHigh
307
Gain
(N=4)
The need to look at things from 3
different angles
Gain
(N=4)
3
Gain
(N=4)
3
Gain
(N=4)
3
4
Need for collaboration with others on a 3
subject to acquire maximum number of
view points
3
3
3
4
3
3
2
Need for wide ranging information to
make right decisions
3
3
2
Opinions must be balanced
3
3
Must justify statements after putting
them forward
3
3
3
Need to be open minded
3
3
3
3
Need to be critical on all issues before
decision is made
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
308
Table F3:
Summary of students’ responses from interview questions after exploring
Module 3 (Proposal Ponder)
Responses obtained from group interviews cross-checked with interviews done
with different group of students on a smaller scale
3 = similar response given by at least two students
Interviewees: 16 students (8 boys and 8 girls)
No. of sessions: 2 (Male and female group interviews)
1. What are the features that appeals to Maleyou in the package?
Low
Gain
(N=4)
MaleHigh
Gain
(N=4)
Time: 40 minutes
Female- FemaleLow
High
Gain
Gain
(N=4)
(N=4)
No.of
groups
of
students
that
indicate
the
same
response
2
Background music can be selected by
the user
3
Questions posed are stimulating
3
3
3
3
4
Facility to check on other users’ 3
responses
3
3
3
4
3
3
3
4
Facility for posing one’s own problem
for other users to attempt
Quiz segment is interesting
Step-by-step
statements
on
how
3
3
3
to
justify
Users rewarded with ‘stars’ according
to scores gained
Back button to undo statements
3
3
2
3
3
3
3
3
2
3
4
3
2
Chance to get extra points for changing
point-of-view
3
3
2
The package challenges users to give
more than three statements initially
required
3
3
2
309
2.
Is the package capable of enhancing Maleyour analytical thinking skills? Ex plain. Low
Gain
(N=4)
Use of everyday life problems in the 3
package that users can identify with
made the session absorbing, relevant
and beneficial and not limited to
academic field only
Users are challenged to think harder
because other users can check on each 3
others’ performance
The package literally challenges users
to give more from their thoughts after
the minimum number of statements are
obtained
Users realize the need to see things
from many points-of-view
MaleHigh
Gain
(N=4)
3
FemaleLow
Gain
(N=4)
3
3
FemaleHigh
Gain
(N=4)
3
4
3
3
3
3
3
3
4
3
3
3
3
4
3
3
3
4
3
3
3
Segment on collaborative learning
facilitate students to contribute and
accumulate their thoughts on questions 3
posed by fellow students –studentoriented rather than teacher-oriented, a
change from the usual classroom
scenario
Ideas that are not readily thought of are
exposed,
thus
improving
one’s
analytical capability
3
3
Students posed questions that are
interesting and relevant to students life,
thus need for good analytical mind
seem to be important, as compared to
questions based on academic content
3
3
3
3
The steps shown and the way to justify
opinions teach students to be critical 3
and responsible
3
3
3
4
This medium of instruction is far better
than pencil and paper method
3
3
3
4
3
310
3.
How did the different responses given Maleby your friends enhance your scores Low
Gain
and your analytical skills? Elaborate
(N=4)
I got more diverse and surprising 3
thoughts that I used in my exercises.
MaleHigh
Gain
(N=4)
3
FemaleLow
Gain
(N=4)
3
3
3
Some of them I have already thought of
or nonsensical
I modified them to suit me
FemaleHigh
Gain
(N=4)
3
I only look at them after I have finished
looking at the problem posed. All my
statements come from my thoughts. I
did not know that I can look at other
students’ responses first.
3
3
3
1
3
3
1
3
2
Some of them are the same as mine but
put in a different manner
It helped me to get ideas for my own
problem that I posed to the data bank
thus relieving me of doing the thinking
3
3
2
3
3
3
3
3
MaleLow
Gain
(N=4)
MaleHigh
Gain
(N=4)
3
FemaleLow
Gain
(N=4)
FemaleHigh
Gain
(N=4)
3
2
3
3
3
4
3
2
I realize that there so many different
view points
4.
How can this type of thinking skills be
useful in the academic field? Explain
Especially in writing up essays
All the answers are already fixed, so
one only needs to memorize them.
3
It can deepens one’s understanding on a
certain topic
3
Students need to be highly informative 3
to exercise analytical thinking or else
they would be led to the wrong
conclusions
3
This type of thinking makes students
read more and exercise their mind to be
more critical and not just accept what
other people tells them about a topic
3
3
3
4
3
3
3
4
Students are too young to make 3
decisions based on their own analytical
3
2
311
mind
3
3
3
3
4
How does this package change your Maleoutlook on thinking in everyday life?
Low
Gain
(N=4)
The need to look at things from 3
different angles
MaleHigh
Gain
(N=4)
3
FemaleLow
Gain
(N=4)
3
FemaleHigh
Gain
(N=4)
3
4
Need for collaboration with others on a 3
subject to acquire maximum number of
view points
3
3
3
4
3
2
This exercise is advantageous to those
of a strong language background. Most
of the time, it is just stating the same
things in a different manner
5.
Need for wide ranging information to
make right decisions
3
3
3
3
3
4
Must justify statements after putting
3
them forward
3
3
3
4
Need to be open minded
3
3
3
3
4
Need to be critical on all issues before
decision is made
3
3
3
3
Opinions must be balanced
4
312
APPENDIX G
EXAMPLES OF STUDENTS’ RESPONSES FROM PRE- AND POST-TEST
SESSIONS
Table G1:
Sample of top five recoded students’ responses from pre-test of
Module 1 (Compare and Contrast) in Bahasa Melayu
Nyatakan sekurang-kurangnya tiga pernyataan bagi ciri persamaan dan/ ata u perbezaan di
antara:
Senario 1:
Kehidupan seorang pelajar di bandar dan di luar bandar.
Persamaan:
Perbezaan
1.
Kurikulum sama
Tekanan ibu bapa, guru,sekolah
2.
Letih, bosan,seronok dll
Mod pengangkutan
3.
Kerja rumah
Sekolah agama
4.
Ramai kawan
Kelengkapan sekolah
5.
Bawa beg, buku dll
Pergaulan sosial
Senario 2:
Pembelajaran di sekolah rendah dan di sekolah anda sekarang.
Persamaan:
Perbezaan
1.
Kerja rumah
Tekanan, faktor masa,cabaran dll
2.
Guru garang, rileks dll
Bilangan buku
3.
Tidak cukup masa, tekanan dll
Susah, senang
4.
Guna buku, alat tulis dll
Seronok, bosan
5.
Patuh peraturan sekolah
Kawan ramai, kurang
Senario 3:
Kelab/persatuan dan unit badan beruniform di sekolah anda
Persamaan:
Perbezaan:
1.
Ada AJK, ahli
Aktif/ Tak aktif
2.
Yuran dikenakan
Jenis aktiviti
3.
Pelajar T5 pegang jawatan
Banyaknya kejayaan yang dicapai
313
4.
Jamuan akhir tahun
Kekerapan perjumpaan
5.
Penglibatan orang luar
Yuran yang murah, mahal
Senario 4:
Kehidupan di rumah dan di asrama anda sekarang.
Persamaan:
Perbezaan:
1.
Peraturan ketat
Kelonggaran peraturan
2.
Hukuman berat
Jenis hukuman
3.
Kena study
Jumlah masa tidur
4.
Sentiasa dikawal
Boleh ke bandar, bersiar dll
5.
Bangun pagi
Berdikari
Senario 5:
Kelas anda pada tahun ini dan kelas anda pada tahun lepas.
Persamaan:
Perbezaan:
1.
Campur jantina
Ahli berlainan
2.
Keceriaan
Guru kelas berlainan
3.
Kedudukan kerusi ,meja, paparan dll
Lokasi
4.
Ada AJK
Kebersihan kelas
5.
Keluasan
Perangai ahli kelas
Senario 6:
Kehidupan seorang yang berkerja dan kehidupan anda sebagai pelajar
Persamaan:
Perbezaan:
1.
Disiplin diri, sahsiah, ikut masa dll
Pendapatan
2.
Ada keluarga
Usia
3.
Bertanggungjawab
Perbelanjaan diri
4.
Beruniform
Rutin seharian
5.
Tekanan hidup
Tanggungan
314
Table G2:
Sample of top five recoded students’ responses from pre-test of
Module 2 (Parts of a Whole) in Bahasa Melayu
Sila nyatakan sekurang-kurangnya tiga:
Senario 1:
Kemudahan penting yang patut ada dalam hotel di tempat pelancongan idaman anda.
Ciri-ciri
Kepentingan setiap ciri
1.
Melayari internet
Maklumat terkini
2.
TV Astro
Mengisi masa lapang, main game
3.
Membeli belah
Membeli cenderamata
4.
Wayang gambar
Menonton filem
5.
Ruang bersukan
Kesihatan badan
Senario 2:
Ciri-ciri penting yang harus ada dalam sebuah komputer peribadi idaman anda
Ciri-ciri
Kepentingan setiap ciri
1.
Siaran TV
Mengisi masa, maklumat
2.
Video game
Kemahiran jari
3.
Teleconferencing
Komunikasi canggih
4.
Pengurusan jadual peribadi
Menyenangkan
5.
Saiz poket
Senang dibawa
Senario 3:
Komponen penting yang harus ada pada sebuah bilik darjah yang ideal.
Ciri-ciri
Kepentingan setiap ciri
1.
Paparan
Keceriaan, pengetahuan, rujukan
2.
Mini perpustakaan
Pengetahuan, rehat minda, bertukar-tukar buku
3
Ruang rehat
Boleh tidur, berehat, makan minum, bersenam
4.
Ruang IT
Internet, cari bahan, chatting, tambah ilmu
5.
Rak letak buku sendiri
Kemas, simpan buku di kelas,cantik
Senario 4:
Komponen penting yang harus ada pada sesebuah filem agar ia dapat mendapat sambutan yang
hangat daripada penonton.
Ciri-ciri
Kepentingan setiap ciri
1.
Romantik
Menghiburkan, menenangkan minda
2.
Pelakon yang lawa
Menarik perhatian, tarikan
315
3.
Cerita yang sedap
Tidak mengantuk, seronok
4.
Animasi canggih
Menarik, terkini, boleh dijual di negara Barat
5.
Tayangan percuma
Murah, ramai penonton
Senario 5:
Ciri penting yang harus ada pada sebuah novel yang baik.
Ciri-ciri
Kepentingan setiap ciri
1.
Cerita yang sedap
Menarik, tidak rugi masa, duit
2.
Kulit buku yang menarik
Menarik perhatian
3.
Kertas yang putih
Tidak menjemukan, mata tidak penat
4.
Bahasa yang senang
Mudah difaham, cepat dibaca
5.
Murah
Senang dibeli oleh pelajar, mudah didapati
Senario 6:
Perkara penting yang harus disediakan di tapak perkhemahan yang dikhaskan untuk pelajar
sekolah menengah
Ciri-ciri
Kepentingan setiap ciri
1.
Tandas
Kebersihan, kemudahan
2.
Tempat memasak
Memasak, aktivti kumpulan
3.
Peti ubat
Semasa kecemasan, keselamatan diri
4.
Jaga
Elak kecurian, binatang buas
5.
TV
Supaya tidak bosan, rehatkan fikiran
316
Table G3:
Sample of top five recoded students’ responses from pre-test of
Module 3 (Proposal Ponder) in Bahasa Melayu
Berikan sekurang-kurangnya tiga kesemuanya bagi alasan yang menyokong
dan/ atau menolak cadangan ini.
Senario 1:
Pelajar tidak harus dibebankan dengan kerja rumah yang diberikan oleh guru selepas waktu
sekolah.
Pernyataan Menyokong Usul
Pernyataan Menolak Usul
1.
Pelajar boleh buat ulangkaji sendiri
Kerja rumah sangat penting
2.
Pelajar SBP terlalu sibuk
Pelajar akan buang masa
3.
Kerja rumah boleh diberi di kelas
Lambat habis sukatan pelajaran
4.
Kerja rumah tidak berguna
Pelajar akan jadi malas
5.
Guru tidak semak
Pelajar mudah lupa pelajaran
Senario 2:
Pelajar harus diberikan kebebasan memilih guru untuk setiap mata pelajaran.
Pernyataan Menyokong Usul
Pernyataan Menolak Usul
1.
Pembelajaran akan lebih berkesan
Pelajar tidak tahu buat pilihan
2.
Guru akan lebih bertanggungjawab
Ada guru yang akan tidak terpilih
3.
Demokrasi pendidikan, adil bagi pelajar
Susah nak atur jadual waktu
4.
Hubungan guru pelajar lebih baik
Kelas tak sama bilangan ahli
5.
Pelajar lebih bersemangat untuk belajar
Pelajar akan salahkan guru jika gagal
Senario 3:
Semua pelajar sekolah menengah diwajibkan menjalani latihan ketenteraan sewaktu cuti sekolah
selama sebulan setiap tahun bagi menerapkan semangat cintakan negara.
Pernyataan Menyokong Usul
Pernyataan Menolak Usul
1.
Berkesan menaikkan semangat patriotik
Cuti jadi pendek
2.
Masa diguna dengan baik
Latihan PLKN sudah ada
3.
Meningkatkan daya tahan
Latihan ala tentera tidak sesuai bagi pelajar
menengah rendah
4.
Boleh gantikan PLKN
Ganggu masa bersama keluarga
5.
Pengetahuan tentang tentera
Aktiviti pelancongan akan terjejas
Senario 4:
Umur bagi dilayakkan memandu kereta diturunkan kepada 16 tahun.
317
Pernyataan Menyokong Usul
Pernyataan Menolak Usul
1.
Senang ke sekolah
Terlalu muda
2.
Meningkatkan penjualan kereta
Perbelanjaan tinggi
3.
Boleh tumpangkan ramai kawan
Meningkatkan kemalangan
4.
Lebih bersemangat ke sekolah
Kesesakan jalan raya di sekolah
5.
Akan melahirkan jaguh F1
Bas sekolah akan rugi
Senario 5:
Pelajar harus diberi ganjaran setiap kali berjaya meningkatkan pencapaian akademiknya.
Pernyataan Menyokong Usul
Pernyataan Menolak Usul
1.
Pencapaian akan meningkat
Pentingkan ganjaran
2.
Berlumba-lumba
Tidak ikhlas untuk belajar
3.
Meningkatkan pendapatan pelajar
Ada yang akan monopoli
4.
Pelajar terlalu pentingkan akademik
Sengaja rendahkan prestasi
5.
Guru akan senang mengajar
Rasa rendah diri kepada yang lemah
Senario 6:
Cuti persekolahan diadakan sekali sahaja untuk setiap tahun tetapi meliputi jangka waktu 3
bulan terus.
Pernyataan Menyokong Usul
Pernyataan Menolak Usul
1.
Puas berehat
Terlalu lama menunggu
2.
Boleh melancong ke banyak tempat
Masa terbuang
3.
Boleh buat aktiviti lain seperti belajar Cuti ibu bapa tidak sama
memandu, berniaga dll
4.
Boleh adakan program PLKN
Mungkin terkena musim hujan
5.
Bangunan sekolah boleh dibaiki
Menyusahkan ibu bapa
318
Table G4:
Sample of top five recoded students’ responses from post-test of
Module 1 (Compare and Contrast) in Bahasa Melayu
Nyatakan sekurang-kurangnya tiga pernyataan bagi ciri persamaan dan/ atau perbezaan di
antara:
Senario 1:
Negara pertanian dan negara perindustrian di dunia masa kini pada pandangan anda.
Persamaan:
Perbezaan
1.
Penduduk bekerja
Tahap ekonomi, maju-mundur
2.
Kesatuan pekerja
Pencemaran alam sekitar
3.
Ada kemudahan asas seperti air, letrik
Gejala sosial
4.
Keruntuhan akhlak
Jenis pekerjaan
5.
Jumlah masa bekerja
Saiz negara
Senario 2:
Hobi bersukan dan membaca novel.
Persamaan:
Perbezaan
1.
Seronok, bosan
Seronok, bosan
2.
Peruntukan masa, melekakan
Senaman badan-minda
3.
Berfaedah
Kos berlainan
4.
Melibatkan kos
Tempat
5.
Merehatkan fikiran
Berkumpulan-individu
Senario 3:
Sekolah berasrama penuh dan sekolah harian biasa
Persamaan:
Perbezaan:
1.
Hadir ke sekolah
Berdikari
2.
Mata pelajaran sama
Penggunaan IT
3.
Hukuman kesalahan disiplin
Tahap pencapa ian akademik
4.
Kelab, persatuan
Kecekapan guru
5.
Campur jantina
Jumlah pelajar
Senario 4:
Kantin sekolah anda dan kedai kopi berdekatan dengan rumah anda
Persamaan:
Perbezaan:
319
1.
Jual minuman,makanan
Sedap-tak sedap
2.
Kebersihan
Jenis makanan
3.
Keceriaan
Harga
4.
Ada TV, radio
Jenis kerusi meja
5.
Kena bayar
Bilangan pelanggan
Senario 5:
Permainan bola sepak dan catur
Persamaan:
Perbezaan:
1.
Strategi
Lokasi
2.
Perlu latihan
Stamina
3.
Peruntukan masa
Lasak
4.
Sabar
Bilangan pemain
5.
Isi masa lapang
Senyap-bising
Senario 6:
Kelakuan pelajar kelas anda dan kelas bersebelahan dengan kelas anda
Persamaan:
Perbezaan:
1.
Kerajinan
Semangat bekerjasama
2.
Budi bahasa
Senyap-bising
3.
Kebersihan
Kes disiplin
4.
Tolong menolong
Aktif- lembap
5.
Aktif dlm kokurikulum
Budi bahasa
320
Table G5:
Sample of top five recoded students’ responses from post-test of
Module 2 (Parts of a Whole) in Bahasa Melayu
Sila nyatakan sekurang-kurangnya tiga:
Senario 1:
Ruang penting yang patut ada bagi rumah idaman anda.
Ciri-ciri
Kepentingan setiap ciri
1.
Memasak, menyimpan barang makanan, peti
Dapur
sejuk, berkumpul
2.
Bilik tidur
Tidur, berehat, membaca
3.
Bilik air
Buang air, bermenung, mencari idea
4.
Ruang TV
Menonton TV, berehat, berkumpul, bermain
video game
5.
Ruang studi
Belajar, buat kerja rumah, simpan buku
Senario 2:
Segmen penting yang harus ada pada sesebuah akhbar harian agar ia menjadi akhbar yang
popular.
Ciri-ciri
Kepentingan setiap ciri
1.
Pengetahuan tentang filem, berita sensasi,
Hiburan
tenangkan fikiran
2.
Sukan
Patriotik,
perkembangan
bola
sepak,
menyeronokkan
3.
Pendidikan
Berguna, rujukan, latiahn tambahan
4.
Wanita
Perkembangan fesyen, resepi
5.
Komputer
Teknologi terkini, game terbaru
Senario 3:
Ciri-ciri penting bagi seseorang yang ingin menjadi penghibur terkenal di peringkat
antarabangsa
Ciri-ciri
Kepentingan setiap ciri
1.
Suara yang baik
Boleh menyanyi, sedap didengar
2.
Personaliti menarik
Tidak membosankan, model
3
Menguasai pelbagai bahasa
Ramai peminat, komunikasi yang baik
4.
Kacak, lawa
Menarik perhatian, senang dikenal
5.
Gaya terkini
Ikut perkembangan, tarikan kepada semua
321
Senario 4:
Ciri penting yang harus ada pada sesebuah model kereta terbaru yang boleh mengatasi masalah
kesesakan lalu lintas di Malaysia
Ciri-ciri
Kepentingan setiap ciri
1.
Ada video lalu lintas
Canggih, maklumat terkini
2.
Boleh terbang
Jalan tidak sesak, canggih
3.
Jalan alternatif diberi automatic
Maklumat terkini, kereta robotic pertama
4.
Komunikasi dengan polis trafik
Senang mendapat info, maklumat tepat
5.
Saiz kecil
Kurang kesesakan, senang menyelit
Senario 5:
Ciri penting yang harus ada pada laman web peribadi anda
Ciri-ciri
Kepentingan setiap ciri
1.
Video tentang diri
Memperkenalkan diri, lebih canggih
2.
Ruang e-mel
Senang dihubungi, bertukar fikiran
3.
Animasi
Menarik perhatian, canggih
4.
Gambar foto terkini
Memperkenalkan diri
5.
Disambung ke telefon
Senang berkenalan
Senario 6:
Ciri-ciri penting yang patut ada pada diri pelajar cemerlang
Ciri-ciri
Kepentingan setiap ciri
1.
Sahsiah, perangai, kelakuan
Mudah didekati, baik hati
2.
Pencapaian akademik
Berpengetahuan, pandai
3.
Warak
Tidak angkuh, takut buat dosa
4.
Baiki diri daripada kesilapan
Cekal, berpengalaman luas
5.
Cita-cita tinggi
Bermotivasi, tidak dikongkong
322
Table G6:
Sample of top five recoded students’ responses from post-test of
Module 3 (Proposal Ponder) in Bahasa Melayu
Berikan sekurang-kurangnya tiga kesemuanya bagi alasan yang menyokong
dan/ atau menolak cadangan ini.
Senario 1:
Pelajar-pelajar sekolah tidak diwajibkan memakai uniform ke sekolah
Pernyataan Menyokong Usul
Pernyataan Menolak Usul
1.
Kebebasan
Tidak seragam
2.
Seperti di IPT
Pakaian yang tidak senonoh
3.
Selesa
Pakaian sekolah murah
4.
Cantik, ceria
Sifat tidak suka peraturan
5.
Uniform tidak perlu
Tidak kenal pelajar dan guru
Senario 2:
Komputer digunakan bagi menggantikan peranan guru dalam bidang akademik
Pernyataan Menyokong Usul
Pernyataan Menolak Usul
1.
Tiada pilih kasih
Tiada penerapan nilai
2.
Sentiasa tepat
Guru tiada kerja
3.
Kos rendah
Tidak memahami perasaan pelajar
4.
Pembelajaran menarik
Makmal komputer tidak banyak
5.
Boleh belajar sendiri
Perlu elektrik
Senario 3:
Kapal terbang digunakan sebagai pengangkutan utama di Sabah dan Sarawak menggantikan
pengangkutan air
Pernyataan Menyokong Usul
Pernyataan Menolak Usul
1.
Cepat
Kos tinggi
2.
Sungai banyak buaya
Bilangan penumpang kecil
3.
Elak pencemaran air
Banyak kemalangan udara
4.
Moden
Juruterbang tidak ramai
5.
Boleh ke tempat tiada sungai
Syarikat bot rugi
Senario 4:
Pelajar dibenarkan menggunakan telefon bimbit ke sekolah
1.
Pernyataan Menyokong Usul
Pernyataan Menolak Usul
Senang dihubungi ibu bapa
Kos tinggi
323
2.
Keselamatan diri
Mengganggu pelajar
3.
Bergaya
Bil telefon membebankan
4.
Telefon awam selalu rosak
Gejala sosial
5.
Boleh main game
Tarik perhatian pencuri
Senario 5:
Aktiviti kokurikulum dimasukkan ke dalam jadual waktu harian persekolahan
Pernyataan Menyokong Usul
Pernyataan Menolak Usul
1.
Tidak perlu datang petang
Masa untuk subjek dikurangkan
2.
Kehadiran mudah
Tempoh masa lama
3.
Lebih aktif
Memenatkan pelajar
4.
Semua guru terlibat
Buang masa
5.
Boleh keluar kelas
Kelab terlalu banyak
Senario 6:
Semua jenis peperiksaan dimansuhkan dalam sistem pendidikan di Malaysia
Pernyataan Menyokong Usul
Pernyataan Menolak Usul
1.
Tidak tertekan, seronok
Kurang motivasi untuk belajar
2.
Banyak masa untuk aktiviti lain
Tiada penilaian
3.
Jimat kos kertas
Kemasukan ke IPT
4.
Buku rujukan tidak perlu
Pelajar buang masa
5.
Guru tidak perlu buat soalan
Buku rujukan tidak laku
324
Table G7:
Sample of five problem scenarios created by students and responses from
their peers in second post-test for Module 1 (Compare and Contrast) in Bahasa Melayu
Senario 1:
Banding dan bezakan antara perangai pelajar lelaki dan perempuan dalam kelas anda
Persamaan:
Perbezaan
1.
Rajin belajar
Bising
2.
Tak ponteng kelas
Kuat bodek
3.
Tamak
Tak malu, segan
4.
Tidur dalam kela s
Suka mengadu
5.
Kuat gaduh
Wangi
Senario 2:
Banding dan bezakan antara Cikgu X dan Cikgu Y
Persamaan:
Perbezaan
1.
Jantina
Keramahan
2.
Suka menolong pelajar
Kegarangan
3.
Tinggal serumah
Peka terhadap masalah pelajar
4.
Ada kereta
Kedekut
5.
Ada teman lelaki
Lawa
Senario 3:
Cari persamaan dan perbezaan antara mee goreng di kantin dan Dewan Makan
Persamaan:
Perbezaan:
1.
Bahan sama
Sedap/ tak sedap
2.
Kena beratur
Harga
3.
Kebersihan
Panas/ sejuk
4.
Sedap/ tak sedap
Ada telur, sambal
5.
Sama banyak
Banyak sayur
Senario 4:
Cari persamaan/perbezaan antara belajar di rumah dan di asrama
Persamaan:
Perbezaan:
1.
Mengantuk
Kawalan ketat
2.
Masa sama
Masa tetap/ berbeza
3.
Tempat khas
Tempoh belajar berlainan
4.
Keseriusan
Bising
325
5.
Cara belajar
Berbincang/ buat sendiri
Senario 5:
Banding dan bezakan Dr Mahathir dan Pak Lah
Persamaan:
Perbezaan:
1.
Perdana Menteri
Perwatakan
2.
Loghat
Kesibukan
3.
Pandai berbahasa Inggeris
Lama berkhidmat
4.
Kaya
Pengetahuan Islam
5.
Bangsa
Kekacakan
326
Table G8:
Sample of five problem scenarios created by students and responses from
their peers in second post-test for Module 2 (Parts of a Whole) in Bahasa Melayu
Senario 1:
Apakah perkara-perkara yang perlu disediakan di sebuah tapak perkhemahan untuk pelajar
sekolah
Ciri-ciri
Kepentingan setiap ciri
1.
Khemah
Tempat tidur selesa
2.
Pengawal keselamatan
Mengelak kecurian
3.
Dapur
Memasak
4.
Kolam
Berenang, mandi
5.
Aktiviti lasak
Seronok
Senario 2:
Apakah ciri-ciri yang patut ada di dalam sebuah kelas yang ideal?
Ciri-ciri
Kepentingan setiap ciri
1.
Mini perpustakaan
Ruang membaca
2.
Komputer
Internet
3.
Bunga
Keceriaan
4.
Penghawa dingin
Nyaman
5.
Peti sejuk
Minuman
Senario 3:
Ciri-ciri seorang ketua pengawas yang baik
Ciri-ciri
Kepentingan setiap ciri
1.
Bersopan santun
Menyenangkan hati
2.
Tegas
Mudah jalankan tugas
3
Adil, tidak pilih kasih
Tidak ada yang dianiayai
4.
Kemas
Bergaya
5.
Segak
Dihormati semua
Senario 4:
Apakah perkhidmatan yang sepatutnya diberikan oleh Pusat Sumber sekolah?
Ciri-ciri
Kepentingan setiap ciri
1.
Akhbar harian
Maklumat terkini
2.
Buku cerita terkini
Menarik minat pembaca
3.
Menonton VCD
Canggih
327
4.
Bilik studi senyap
Senang untuk belajar
5.
Bilik bercerita
Aktiviti persembahan
Senario 5:
Apakah perkara-perkara yang perlu dilakukan agar menjadi pelajar terbijak?
Ciri-ciri
Kepentingan setiap ciri
1.
Ulangkaji selalu
Tidak cepat lupa
2.
Tanya guru
Mudah untuk mengetahui sesuatu
3.
Bincang dengan pelajar
Dapat meningkatkan pemahaman
4.
Layari Internet
Maklumat terkini
5.
Baca banyak buku
Banyak pengetahuan
328
Table G9:
Sample of five problem scenarios created by students and responses from
their peers in second post-test for Module 3 (Proposal Ponder) in Bahasa Melayu
Senario 1:
Pelajar belajar melalui Internet di rumah tanpa ke sekolah
Pernyataan Menyokong Usul
Pernyataan Menolak Usul
1.
Kos murah
Perlu ada komputer
2.
Bebas dari segi masa
Tidak bergaul dengan pelajar lain
3.
Bebas masa
Bergantung
kepada
elektrik/
capaian
Internet
4.
Boleh tiru daripada rakan lain secara Pengalaman pelajar terhad
senyap
Senario 2:
Satu hari satu mata pelajaran sahaja yang diajar
1.
Pernyataan Menyokong Usul
Pernyataan Menolak Usul
Tumpuan pelajar terfokus.
Pelajar
akan
kurang
pengetahuan/
pengalaman
2.
Pelajar belajar secara mendalam
Penatlah guru
3.
Tidak perlu banyak buku
Membosankan
4.
Kurang mata pelajaran bai pelajar
Banyak subjek terpaksa ditolak
Senario 3:
Hukuman bagi kesalahan disiplin ia lah membersihkan kawasan sekolah
Pernyataan Menyokong Usul
Pernyataan Menolak Usul
1.
Ibu bapa tidak tahu
Menyeksakan, memalukan
2.
Kawasan sekolah akan bersih
Pelajar tidak serik
3.
Pelajar akan menghargai kebersihan
Guru/ waden terpaksa jaga
4.
Tidak kena rotan atau dibuang sekolah
Sekolah sudah ada pekerja
Senario 4:
Setiap pelajar diberikan sebuah komputer bimbit
Pernyataan Menyokong Usul
Pernyataan Menolak Usul
1.
Simpan nota
Mahal
2.
Layari Internet
Tidak dijaga dengan betul, rosak
3.
Tingkatkan IT
Guna untuk videogame
4.
Bergaya, canggih
Dicuri
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Senario 5:
Sekolah bermula jam 9 pagi
Pernyataan Menyokong Usul
Pernyataan Menolak Usul
1.
Boleh bangun lewat
Masa belajar pendek
2.
Tiada kesesakan jalan raya untuk gutu
Tidak sempat habis sukatan
3.
Pelajar tidak mengantuk, penat
Pelajar bangun lewat, tidak Subuh
4.
Pagi boleh beriadah
Mungkin kena balik lambat
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APPENDIX H1
OVERALL STRUCTURE OF CADATS
INTRODUCTORY
INTERFACE
MODULE 1
(COMPARE AND
CONTRAST)
INTERACTIVE
QUIZ
MODULE 2
(PARTS OF A
WHOLE)
JIGSAW PUZZLE
GAME
EXIT
INTERFACE
MODULE 3
(PROPOSAL
PONDER)
INTERACTIVE
QUIZ
ONLINE EVALUATION OF CADATS VIA QUESTIONNAIRE
TYPE OR FREE-TEXT BASED ASSESSMENTRESPONSES AND FEEDBACKS KEPT ON NETWORK
SERVER FOR PUBLIC ACCESS
Figure H1:
Overall structure of CADATS
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APPENDIX H2
STRUCTURE OF INTRODUCTORY INTERFACE OF CADATS
BRIEF PREVIEW OF
USER INTERFACES FOR
MODULE 1, 2 AND 3
ENTER
GENERAL
INFORMATION
ABOUT CAATS
GENERAL
GUIDELINES
EXIT INTERFACE
ACCESS TO
MODULES
ENTER
OUTLINE ON IMPORTANCE OF
DIVERGENT ANALYTICAL
THINKING
MONTAGE
END OF MONTAGE
Figure H2:
Structure of introductory interface of CADATS
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APPENDIX H3
GENERAL STRUCTURE OF MODULES IN CADATS
USER LOG IN (REGISTRATION)
SEQUENCE
EXIT SEQUENCE IN
MODULE
‘KENAL’ SEGMENT
‘DEMONSTRASI’
SEGMENT
‘AJAR’ SEGMENT
MAIN MENU OF MODULE
(PROBLEM BROWSING)
ACCESS TO
INDIVIDUAL
PROBLEM CHOSEN
BY USER
LIST OF STUDENTS’
RESPONSES FOR
EACH PROBLEM
ACCESS TO
‘COLLABORATIVE
LEARNING’
SEGMENT
STUDENTS INPUT AND DELETE STATEMENTS USING
THINKING TOOLS PROVIDEDPEERS’ RESPONSES ACT AS KNOWLEDGE BASE
STUDENTS REFLECT ON THEIR STATEMENTS AND MAKE
DECISIONS BASED ON THEM- RESPONSES SAVED IN
LOCAL A DRIVE
EXIT PROBLEM
Figure H3:
General structure of modules in CADATS
RESPONSE
TRANSFERR
TO NETWOR
SERVER FO
PUBLIC
ACCESS
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APPENDIX H4
GENERAL STRUCTURE OF ‘COLLABORATIVE LEARNING’ SEGMENT
MAIN MENU OF MODULE
MAIN MENU OF ‘COLLABORATIVE LEARNING’ SEGMENT
CREATE AND POST
PROBLEM
BROWSE AND CHOOSE
PROBLEM
CREATE AND KEY IN
PROBLEM BASED ON
TYPE OF MODULE
OPEN TEXT FILES
NAMED AFTER THE
CREATOR OF
PROBLEM SCENARIOS
SEND TO SERVER FOR
PUBLIC ACCESS FOR
OTHER STUDENTS TO
TRY IT
TYPE ANOTHER
PROBLEM OR BACK TO
MAIN MENU OF
‘COLLABORATIVE
LEARNING’ SEGMENT
CHOOSE PROBLEM
THAT INTEREST THE
USER
BROWSE STUDENTS’
RESPONSES
OPEN TEXT FILES
NAMED AFTER THE
CREATOR OF
PROBLEM SCENARIOS
PROVIDE FEEDBACK
ON OTHER STUDENTS’
RESPONSES THAT ARE
PUBLICLY ACCESSIBLE
PROVIDE RESPONSES
USING TOOLS
PROVIDED IN THE
MODULE
MAIN MENU OF ‘COLLABORATIVE LEARNING’ SEGMENT
MAIN MENU OF MODULE
Figure H4:
General structure of ‘Collaborative Learning’ segment
334
APPENDIX J
USER INTERFACES US ED IN CADATS
Figure J1:
Figure J2:
User interface in ‘Kenal’ segment
User interface in ‘Demonstrasi’ segment
335
Figure J3:
Figure J4:
Figure J5:
User interface in ‘Ajar’ segment
User interface in ‘Aplikasi’ segment
User interface displaying other users’ responses before embarking on a
problem scenario
336
Figure J6:
Figure J7:
User interface in ‘Refleksi’ segment
User interface in online assessment of CADATS using questionnaire-type
document
Figure J8:
Interactive chart that portray one’s assessment scores of CADATS
against the average scores indicated by their peers
337
Figure J9:
User interface of free text-based feedback form on CADATS
Figure J10:
Figure J11:
User interface of interactive quiz in CADATS
User interface of ‘Collaborative Learning’ segment
338
APPENDIX K
List of Related Papers Presented by Researcher
1. “Upgrading Critical Thinking Skills via an Interactive Inquiry-Based Multimedia
Courseware:
A
Conceptual
Background.”
In
Seminar
Kebangsaan
Memperkasakan Sistem Pendidikan. 19 -22 October 2003 at Pan Pacific, Johor
Bahru organized by Fakulti Pendidikan, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.
2. “The Development of an Interactive Multimedia Courseware to Upgrade
Analytical Thinking Skills via Inquiry-Based Learning Approach.” In
Persidangan Antarabangsa Pertama UPSI-UPI: Kualiti Dalam Pendidikan. 9-11
August 2004 at Reinassance Hotel, Kuala Lumpur organized by Universiti
Pendidikan Sultan Idris and Universiti Bandung Indonesia.
3. “The Effects of ‘Collaborative Approach Analytical Thinking Simulator’
(CADATS) on Students’ Analytical Thinking Performance.” In Seminar
Kebangsaan Pendidikan Guru. 29 November- 1 December 2004 at Seremban,
Negeri Sembilan organized by Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris and Bahagian
Pendidikan Guru, Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia.
4. Participated in Science, Mathematics and Technology Exhibition. 17-18
February 2005 organized by Fakulti Pendidikan, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.
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