vii
CONTENT
CHAPTER
1
TITLE
PAGE
DECLARATION
ii
DEDICATION
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
iv
ABSTRACT
v
ABSTRAK
vi
CONTENTS
vii
LIST OF TABLES
xiii
LIST OF FIGURES
xv
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
xix
LIST OF APPENDICES
xxi
INTRODUCTION
1.1
Introduction
1
1.2
Problem Statement
3
1.3
Objectives
4
1.4
Scope of Study
5
1.5
Significant of Study
6
viii
2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1
Introduction
7
2.2
Danga – Pendas Coastal Area
7
2.2.1
9
Water Quality at Danga- Pendas
Coastal Area
2.2.2
The Distribution of P.viridis
10
at Danga-Pendas coastal area
2.2.3
Existing and Future Planning Landuse
12
2.3
Iskandar Development Region (IDR)
13
2.4
Landuse Impact to Water Quality
16
2.5
Water Quality Parameters and Heavy Metals
17
2.5.1
Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
17
2.5.2
Temperature
18
2.5.3
pH
19
2.5.4
Salinity
20
2.5.5
Total Dissolved Solid (TDS)
20
2.5.6
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
21
2.5.7
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
21
2.5.8
Nutrients
22
2.5.8.1 Ammoniacal nitrogen
22
Heavy Metals
23
2.5.9.1 Nickel (Ni)
23
2.5.9.2 Zinc (Zn)
24
2.5.9.3 Lead (Pb)
24
2.5.9.4 Cadmium (Cd)
25
2.5.9
2.6
Water Quality Standard
25
2.6.1
26
Interim National Water Quality
Standard (INWQS)
2.6.2
Interim National Marine Water Quality
26
Standard (INMWQS)
2.6.3
2.7
Water Quality Index (WQI)
27
Asian Green Mussel, Perna viridis
28
2.7.1
31
P.viridis as Bioindicator and
ix
Biomonitor
2.7.2
Heavy Metal Contamination on Green
32
Mussels (Perna viridis)
2.7.3
Studies of Heavy Metal Contaminants in
33
Green Mussels at Johor Rivers and Estuaries
2.8
Remote Sensing and Geographic Information
34
System (GIS)
2.8.1
Remote Sensing
34
2.8.1.1 Remote Sensing Data Landsat
39
Thematic Mapper (TM) and Enhanced
Thematic Mapper (ETM)
2.8.2
2.9
3
Geographic Information System (GIS)
41
Integration of Remote Sensing and GIS
42
2.9.1
Landuse Monitoring Using Satellite Data
43
2.9.2
Landuse Change Detection
44
METHODOLOGY
3.1
Introduction
45
3.2
Literature Review
45
3.3
Data Collection and Sampling
46
3.4
Sampling Processes and Laboratory Analysis
46
3.4.1
Study Area and Sampling Stations
47
3.4.2
Sampling Frequency and Parameters
50
Analyzed
3.4.3
Sampling Techniques
51
3.4.4
Laboratory Analysis
52
3.4.4.1 Sample Pretreatment
52
3.4.4.2 Laboratory Analysis for BOD,
53
COD and Ammoniacal Nitrogen
3.4.4.3 Laboratory Analysis for Heavy Metals
3.5
54
Integrated Remote Sensing and GIS
55
3.5.1
55
Remote Sensing Data, Landsat TM
x
3.5.2
4
Landuse Extraction from Satellite Imagery
57
3.5.2.1 Geometric Correction
58
3.5.2.2 Atmospheric Correction and Masking
59
3.5.2.3 Subset
60
3.5.2.4 Image Classification
60
3.5.3
Landuse Change Detection
61
3.7
Flowchart of Methodology
63
EFFECT OF LANDUSE ON WATER QUALITY
4.1
Introduction
64
4.2
Landuse Classification
64
4.2.1
Landuse Classification for 1991
65
4.2.2
Landuse Classification for 2000
66
4.2.3
Landuse Classification for 2005
67
4.2.4
Landuse Classification for 2008
68
4.3
Landuse Change Detection
69
4.3.1
Differential in 1991 and 2008 images
70
4.3.2
Statistical Difference
74
4.3.2.1 Statistical Changes Report for
75
1991 and 2005
4.3.2.2 Statistical Changes Report for
76
2005 and 2008
4.4
Analysis of Water Quality
77
4.4.1
77
Physical and Chemical Water Quality
Parameters
4.4.1.1 Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
78
4.4.1.2 Temperature
79
4.4.1.3 Salinity
79
4.4.1.4 pH
81
4.4.1.5 Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)
82
4.4.1.6 Ammoniacal Nitrogen
82
4.4.1.7 Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
83
xi
4.4.2
4.5
4.4.1.8 Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
85
Heavy Metals
86
4.4.2.1 Zinc (Zn)
86
4.4.2.2 Lead (Pb)
88
4.4.2.3 Cadmium (Cd)
89
4.4.2.4 Nickel (Ni)
90
Analysis of Previous Water Quality Data Compared
92
to Present Data
4.6
Analysis on the Effects of Landuse Change to
99
Water Quality along Danga-Pendas coastal area
5
EFFECT OF WATER QUALITY ON GREEN MUSSELS
(Perna viridis)
5.1
Introduction
102
5.2
Analysis on Effects of Water Quality on Green
102
Mussels Vs Water Samples
5.2.1
5.2.2
5.3
Physical Parameters
103
5.2.1.1 Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
103
5.2.1.2 Salinity
104
5.2.1.3 Temperature
105
5.2.1.4 pH
107
5.2.1.5 Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)
108
5.5.1.6 Ammoniacal Nitrogen
109
5.5.1.7 Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
110
5.5.18 Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
111
Heavy Metals
111
5.2.2.1 Cadmium (Cd)
112
5.2.2.2 Lead (Pb)
114
5.2.2.3 Zinc (Zn)
115
Comparison of Cd, Pb and Zn Concentrations
117
in P.viridis from Previous Studies
5.4
Effects of Water Quality on Green Mussel
122
xii
6
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
6.1
Conclusions
124
6.2
Recommendations
126
REFERENCES
128
Appendix A – D
145 - 162
xiii
LIST OF TABLES
TABLES NO.
TITLE
PAGE
2.1
Salinity represents the types of water.
20
2.2
INWQS Classification
26
2.3
DOE- INMWQS parameters and standard
27
2.4
Water Quality Index
28
2.5
Scientific classification of Perna viridis
28
2.6
Description of seven elements in remote sensing
36
Processes
2.7
Landsat satellite sensor characteristic and specification
39
2.8
Landsat’s band descriptions
40
3.1
Data collection and sampling
46
3.2
Coordinates of the eleven sampling stations at the study area
48
3.3
Date of sampling
51
3.4
Recommended condition for Flame Atomic Absorption
55
Spectrophotometer
3.5
Landsat TM Specifications
57
3.6
Projection specifications
59
3.7
Coordinates for image subset.
60
4.1
Overall statistical landuse for 1991, 2000, 2005
75
and 2008
4.2
Statistical changes based on landuse types between
76
2005 and 1991
4.3
Statistical changes based on landuse types between
77
2005 and 2008
4.4
Water quality data for year 1991, 2006 and 2009
5.1
Guidelines of maximum permissible limits of heavy
94
118
xiv
metals (µg/g) in seafood from different countries
5.2
Mean concentration of Cd, Pb and Zn in P.viridis
collected from Pantai Lido in present and previous studies.
119
xv
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE NO.
2.1
TITLE
PAGE
(a) Location of Danga-Pendas coastal area
8
(b) Developed Danga coastal area
(c) Mangrove along Pendas coastal area
(d) Development progress of IDR near coastal
area of Nusajaya.
2.2
Figure shows the tributaries which empty into
9
Danga – Pendas coastal area.
2.3
(a) Green mussels harvested area from satellite view.
11
(b) and (c) show the harvested mussels along
Danga-Pendas Area.
2.4
Existing landuse along Danga-Pendas coastal area
12
2.5
Existing landuse types along Danga-Pendas.
13
2.6
Proposed land use under IDR
14
2.7
Proposed for major development of coastal zone
15
under Iskandar Development Region
2.8
Development of IDR near Tebing Runtuh
16
2.9
Green Mussel
29
2.10
The geographical distribution of P.viridis worldwide
30
2.11
Seven elements in remote sensing processes consisting of
35
A is energy source or illumination, B is radiation and the
atmosphere, C is interaction with the target, D is recording
of energy by the sensor, E is transmission, reception and
processing, F is interpretation and analysis and G is applications
2.12
Example of (a) spatial variations (b) spectral
38
xvi
resolution and (c) temporal resolution in remote
sensing data.
2.13
Data integration from different forms of input through GIS
42
3.1
Flowchart of sampling and laboratory works
47
3.2
Location of study area with eleven sampling stations
48
3.3
Sampling station S2 at Sungai Danga estuary
49
3.4
Sampling station M1 for mussels collection station near
49
Sungai Melayu estuaries
3.5
Sampling stations M3 for mussel’s collection
50
3.6
Sampling station M4 and S9 near Nusajaya area
50
3.7
(a) YSI-USA multiparameter probe (b) HACH DR
54
5000 Spectrophotometer for water quality analysis
3.8
Perkin Elmer model Analyst 400 Atomic Absorption
54
Spectrometer
3.9
Landsat TM and ETM images
56
3.10
Flowchart of Landuse Classification
58
3.11
Flowchart of Landuse Change Detection.
62
3.12
Overall flowchart of methodology
63
4.1
Landuse classification for 1991
66
4.2
Landuse classification for 2000
67
4.3
Landuse classification for 2005
68
4.4
Landuse classification for 2008
69
4.5
Series of landuse types at Johor Bahru city center
71
4.6
Series of landuse information at Sungai Danga and
72
Sungai Skudai estuaries.
4.7
Series of landuse information at Nusajaya.
73
4.8
Landuse information at Sungai Pendas coastal area.
74
4.9
DO concentration measured at station S1 to S11 from
78
November 2008 to April 2009.
4.10
Temperature level measured at station S1 to S11 from
79
November 2008 to April 2009.
4.11
Salinity measured at station S1 to S11 from November
80
2008 to April 2009.
4.12
pH measured at station S1 to S11 from November 2008
81
xvii
to April 2009.
4.13
TDS concentration measured at station S1 to S11 from
82
November 2008 to April 2009.
4.14
Ammoniacal nitrogen concentration measured at station
83
S1 to S11 from November 2008 to April 2009.
4.15
BOD concentration measured at station S1 to S11 from
84
November 2008 to February 2009.
4.16
COD concentration measured at station S1 to S11 from
86
November 2008 to February 2009.
4.17
Zinc concentration measured at station S1 to S11 from
87
November 2008 to April 2009.
4.18
Lead concentration measured at station S1 to S11 from
89
November 2008 to April 2009.
4.19
Cadmium concentration measured at station S1 to S11
90
from November 2008 to April 2009.
4.20
Nickel concentration measured at station S1 to S11 from
91
November 2008 to April 2009.
4.21
Water quality data at Danga and Pendas area for year 1991,
96
2006 and 2009 (a) pH (b) temperature (c) DO and
(d) ammoniacal nitrogen (AN).
4.22
Heavy metals concentration data at Danga and Pendas
98
area for year 1991, 2006 and 2009 (a) zinc (b) cadmium
(c) lead and (d) nickel.
4.23
Concentration of manufacturing in and outer of
100
Johor Bahru.
5.1
DO concentration at mussel sampling stations, M1 to
104
M4 from November 2008 to April 2009.
5.2
Salinity level at mussel sampling stations, M1 to M4 from
105
November 2008 to April 2009.
5.3
Water temperature at mussel sampling stations, M1 to
106
M4 from November 2008 to April 2009.
5.4
pH at mussel sampling stations, M1 to M4 from November
107
2008 to April 2009.
5.5
TDS concentration at mussel sampling stations, M1 to
108
xviii
M4 from November 2008 to April 2009.
5.6
Ammoniacal nitrogen concentration at mussel sampling
109
stations, M1 to M4 from November 2008 to April 2009.
5.7
BOD concentration at mussel sampling stations, M1 to M4
110
from November 2008 to February 2009.
5.8
COD concentration at mussel sampling stations, M1 to
111
M4 from November 2008 to April 2009.
5.9
Cadmium concentration in water and P.viridis samples at
113
mussel sampling stations, M1 to M4 from November 2008
to April 2009.
5.10
Lead concentration in water and P.viridis samples at mussel
114
sampling stations, M1 to M4 from November 2008
to April 2009
5.11
Zinc concentration in (a) water and (b) P.viridis samples
116
at mussel sampling stations, M1 to M4 from November
2008 to April 2009.
5.12
Cadmium concentration in P.viridis samples at Pantai Lido
120
from 1991 to 2009
5.13
Lead concentration in P.viridis samples at Pantai Lido
121
from 1991to 2009.
5.14
Zinc concentration in P.viridis samples at Pantai Lido
from 1991to 2009.
121
xix
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
µg
-
micro gram
AN
-
Ammoniacal nitrogen
BOD
-
Biochemical Oxygen Demand
Cd
-
Cadmium
COD
-
Chemical Oxygen Demand
DDDW
-
Double Distilled Deionised Water
DEIA
-
Detail Environmental Impact Assessment
DN
-
Digital Number
DO
-
Dissolved Oxygen
DOE
-
Department of Environment
DOF
-
Department of Fisheries
ETM
-
Enhanced Thematic Mapper
g
-
gram
GCP
-
Ground Control Point
GIS
-
Geographic Information System
GPS
-
Global Positioning System
ha
-
Hectares
IDR
-
Iskandar Development Region
INMWQS
-
Interim Marine National Water Quality Standard
INWQS
-
Interim National Water Quality Standard
JUPEM
-
Jabatan Ukur dan Pemetaan Malaysia
m
-
meter
MACRES
-
Malaysia Center for Remote Sensing
mg
-
milligram
Mid-IR
-
Middle Infrared
NA
-
Not Available
NH3
-
Ammonia
xx
Ni
-
Nickel
NIMPIS
-
National Introduced Marine Pest Information System
NIR
-
Near Infrared
NO2
-
Nitrite
NO3
-
Nitrate
NST
-
New Straits Times
P.viridis
-
Perna viridis
Pb
-
Lead
ppm
-
part per million
ppt
-
part per thousand
RADAR
-
Radio Detection and Ranging
ROI
-
Region of Interest
RSO
-
Rectified Skew Orthomorphic
SEC
-
Special Economic Corridor
SJER
-
South Johor Economic Region
SPOT
-
Systeme pour l’Observation de la Terre
TDS
-
Total Dissolved Solids
TM
-
Thematic Mapper
US EPA
-
United State Environmental Protection Agency
USGS
-
United State Geological Survey
WQ
-
Water quality
WQI
-
Water Quality Index
xxi
LIST OF APPENDICES
APPENDIX
TITLE
PAGE
A
Water Quality Standard
145
B
Laboratory Analysis
147
C
Accuracy Assessment for Landuse Classification
152
D
Water Quality Data
154