CULTURAL LANDSCAPE OF TRADITIONAL HOUSE COMPOUNDS
IN TERENGGANU
LONGUET CHRISTINE @ ROHANI BINTI ABDULLAH
A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the
requirements for the award of the degree of
Master of Science in Architecture
Faculty of Built Environment
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
FEBRUARY 2007
iii
To my dear husband, Wan Othman Wan Abdullah, and to my beloved
children and grand children who all helped me each in their own ways.
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I am truly thankful to my supervisor, Associate Professor Zainul Hakim
Mohd Zain for his judicious suggestions along the research, for having patiently
edited the many versions of the thesis, coaching me toward intellectual progress
even under the pressure of time.
My gratitude goes also to Associate Professor Dr.Ismail Said for his help in
the literature review, for many fruitful conversations and the warm hospitality of his
family.
I owe a lot as well to the inhabitants of villages in Terengganu who
welcomed me in their compounds and generously volunteered a treasure of
information.
Finally, I wish to thank Ms. Jarina Mohd Jani and Mr.Yorgo Georgiou for
their kind assistance during the final stage of this work.
v
ABSTRACT
As it was observed that Terengganu traditional residential landscapes are
disappearing fast, it seemed obvious that something had to be done before oblivion
sets in. Therefore, taking the traditional houses compounds as basic building blocks
of the traditional villages, a survey on 16 house compounds found mostly in the
valley of the Terengganu River, was conducted. The study was aimed at
demonstrating i) that these units have a particular identity, ii) that they are valuable
assets to the state as cultural landscapes. The 16 house compounds have been
divided into four categories or types, based on socio-economic differences amongst
the inhabitants reported in background literature on Terengganu, i.e: “rakyat”,
“aristocrat”, “clan heritage” and “farmer”. The investigation entails the use of
pictures, interviews, lists of features and sketch plans of the house compounds. The
findings are presented in tables of frequencies revealing priorities for each type:
“rakyat” - household activities, “aristocrat” -status symbols, “clan heritage” -family
ties, and “farmer” -harvest and storage. The resulting “portraits” are then analysed
against a series of seventeen criteria for cultural value drawnd the literature on
cultural landscape assessment. In conclusion, the landscape in the house compounds
are found to present varying identity types, homogeneity, variety, symbiosis and
ethic norms, and hence qualify as cultural landscape. This can be considered as a
valuable indication for the rest of the house compounds in ancient villages. The
research intends to serve as a first stage framework towards further course of action
to document and /or to preserve what remains of the identified heritage in
Terengganu.
vi
ABSTRAK
Menyedari bahawa landskap kediaman tradisi di Terengganu sedang
menghilang dengan cepatnya, sesuatu patut dilakukan sebelum ia luput untuk
selamanya. Dengan menganggapkan perkarangan rumah tradisional sebagai asas
kepada kewujudan kampung tradisi, satu penyelidikan terhadap 16 buah
perkarangan rumah yang kebanyakannya terdapat di lembah Sungai Terengganu
telah dijalankan. Penyelidikan bertujuan untuk membuktikan i) bahawa perkarangan
rumah tradisi mempunyai identiti tersendiri; ii) dan bahawa ia adalah sesuatu yang
bernilai bagi negeri Terengganu sebagai landskap budaya setempat. Enam belas
kediaman dan perkarangan tersebut telah dibahagikan kepada empat kategori,
berdasarkan perbezaan sosio-ekonomi di antara penduduk dan kajian awal negeri
Terengganu, iaitu: “rakyat”, “bangsawan”, “warisan keluarga” dan “petani”.
Penyelidikan ini menggunakan gambar, temuduga, inventori dan lukisan pelan
ringkas kediaman dan sekitaran. Hasil kajian disenaraikan dalam bentuk jadual yang
menunjukkan kekerapan beberapa elemen yang mendefinasikan sebilangan ciri ciri
khas bagi setiap jenis landskap. Gambaran tersebut kemudian dibandingkan dengan
17 kriteria yang telah digunakan oleh pakar dalam bidang senibina dan landskap
budaya bagi mendapatkan nilai budayanya. Pada kesimpulannya, perkarangan
rumah tradisional yang telah dikaji telah terbukti mempunyai pelbagai ciri identiti
tersendiri seperti: berkategori, mempunyai persamaan, pelbagai, simbiotik, beretika
dan adalah layak sebagai landskap budaya. Ini boleh dianggap sebagai petanda yang
kuat bagi lain lain kediaman tradisi yang masih ada. Kajian ini diharapkan dapat
menjadi langkah pertama ke arah tindakan lanjut dalam mendokumentasi dan
seterusnya memelihara warisan yang telah dikenalpasti di Terengganu ini.
vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER
TITLE
PAGE
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
iv
ABSTRACT
v
ABSTRAK
vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
vii
LIST OF TABLES
xiii
LIST OF FIGURES
xiv
LIST OF APPENDICES
xvii
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Problem Statement
3
1.1.2 Assumption
6
1.2 Objectives of the Study
7
1.3 Scope of the Study
8
1.3.1 Stage of the Study in a cultural Conservation
Process
9
1.3.2 Common Boundaries with other Disciplines
10
1.4 Definition of Terms as understood in the Thesis
11
1.4.1 Landscape
11
1.4.2 Culture
12
1.4.3 Cultural Landscape
14
1.4.4 Traditional Village, kampong and Garden
14
1.4.5 Elements, Features and Attributes
16
1.4.6 Glossary
17
1.5 Significance of the Study
17
1.5.1 Originality of the Thesis Subject
17
1.5.2 Preservation of the esthetic Diversity
18
viii
1.5.3 Awareness of the Significance or Implications
of cultural Changes
1.5 4 Education and Learning
18
19
1.6 Summary of the Chapters
20
CHAPTER 2 LITTERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Introduction
23
2.1 Evolution of Landscape Perceptions
23
2.1 1 Natural Environment as a Source of Danger,
Food, Medicine and Moods
24
2.1.2 Political Implications of Landscape Management
Decisions
2.2 Theoretical Approaches to Cultural landscape
25
27
2.2.1 The Preferential Model and experiential
Approaches
28
2.2.2 Landscapes seem through holistic Lenses
29
2.2.3 The historical Perspective
31
2.3 Cultural Landscape Assessment Methods
32
2.3.1 The problem of assessing Heritage Value
32
2.3.2 Heritage Registration
33
2.3.3 Recapitulation of theoretical Approaches to
Landscape and derived cultural Landscape Criteria
2.4 Conclusion from the conceptual Approaches Review
34
36
CHAPTER 3 OVERVIEW OF THE CULTURAL LANDSCAPE
OF TERENGGANU
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Kampung Nostalgia in the Collective Memory
38
38
3.1.1 A romantic Archetype
39
3.1.2 Novels and short Stories
40
3.2 Terengganu natural Environment
41
.
3.2.1 Geography
42
3.2.2 Wild Flora
44
ix
3.2.3 Natural Landscapes
3.3 History, Economy and Society of Terengganu
44
46
3.3.1 Historical Background
46
3.3.2..Economy: from Success to Obsolescence
48
3.3.3 A hierarchised Society
50
3.4.3 The Particularity of the Terengganu Village
51
3.4.1 The kampung in scholarly Studies
51
3.2.1 The Terengganu Village Lay out
52
3.2.2 Terengganu House Architecture
53
3.5 Villagers Beliefs and Relationship with Nature
53
3.5.1 A mystical Interpretation of Nature
55
3.5.2 A psychological Bond
58
3.5.3 Quotidian Use of Nature resources
58
3.6 Conclusion
59
CHAPTER 4 METHODOLOGY
4.1 Theoretical Framework
4.1.1 Cultural Landscape Components
61
61
4.1.2 Role of the cultural Value Criteria as Guides
in the Study
63
4.2 Dynamics of the Demonstration
65
4.3 Prerequisites to the Investigation
66
4.3.1 Sample Acquisition
66
4.3.2 Objectivity: Observer previous Knowledge and
Involvement
68
4.3.3 Range of Data Collection: Profusion and
Parsimony
4.4 Operative Classification
4.4.1 Heuristic Types of House Compounds
4.5 Field Inventory Procedure
69
70
70
72
4.5.1 Check List of Elements and features
74
4.5.2 Interviews
75
4 5.3 Site Survey Procedure
76
x
4.6 Structured Information Supports
80
4.6.1 House Compound Sketch Plans
80
4.6.2 Inventory Tables
80
4.6.3 Ethnobotanical Table and Charts
81
4.7 Exploration of the House Compounds
81
4.7.1 Sample Identification
81
4.7.2 House Compounds Classification and Code
84
4.8 Field Surveys and Informants Response
86
CHAPTER 5 INVENTORY, ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS
5.0 Introduction
88
5.1 Most Frequent Features
88
5.1.1 Flora
89
5.1.2 Ground Features and Garden Accessories
96
5.1.3 Architectural Features
101
5.1.4 Fauna
106
5.2 Particular Features of cultural Significance
107
5.2.1 Particular botanical Features
107
5.2.2 Particular architectural Features
108
5.2.3 Particular Ground Accessories
108
5.2.4 Particular Fauna Features
110
5.3 Measurements, Space Articulation and Patterns
5.3.1 Zones
111
115
5.3.2 Differences in Space Organisation
according to Type
5.4 Ethno-botanical Compound Analysis
5.4.1 Plant Species Habits
117
123
125
5.4.2 Geographical Origin of the Plant Species
126
5.4.3 Husbandry
127
5.4.4 Function of the Plant Species
128
5.4.5 Location of Plant Species on the Grounds
129
5.5 Summary of Findings
134
5.6 Inventory recapitulative Tables
135
xi
CHAPTER 6 EVALUATION
6.0 Introduction
151
6.1 Characterisation
151
61.1 Characterisation Limits and Bearing
166
6.2 Cultural Value Assessment by screening to Criteria
167
6.3 Results from the Screening
169
6.3.1 Sample cultural Values and Priorities
169
6.3.2 Summary of the Results
171
6.4 Empirical Verification
172
6.5 Practical Use of the Results
176
6.5.1 Conservation
176
6.5.2 Modern Use of traditional Accessories and
Plant Species
176
6.5.3 Re use of ancient Lay out and Space
Organisation
178
6.5.4 Contribution to and Collaboration with
other Disciplines
CHAPTER 7
178
PERSPECTIVES AND CONCLUSION
7.1 Generalisation
183
7.2 Contribution of the Study
185
7.2.1 Investigation Method and further Research
186
7.2.2 Brief Reference to other Studies
187
7.2.3 Theoretical Aspects of Terengganu cultural
Landscapes
188
7.3 Recommandation Urgency of Documentation
191
7.4 Conclusion
192
REFERENCES
195
APPENDICES
21
xii
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE NO.
4.1
TITLE
PAGE
Cultural landscape criteria from various
theoretical perspectives
64
4.2
Adjustement of heuristic types
72
4.3
Rakyat house compounds identification and code
84
4.4
Aristocrat house compound identification and code
85
4.5
Clan heritage house compounds identification and code
85
4.6
Farmer house compounds identification and code
86
5.1
Ethnobotanical analysis of a “Rakyat” House
Compound (R4 ) in Pulau Ketam
125
5.2
Recapitulation of flora species features: a,b,c,d,e
136
5.3.
Recapitulation of ground features
145
5.3
Recapitulation of architectural features
148
5.4
Recapitulation of fauna species.
150
6.1
Screening of the sample of house compounds to criteria
for cultural value
6.2
168
From cultural components to examples in
the surveyed house compounds
173
xiii
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE NO
TITLE
PAGE
1.1
“Timeless scenery” in a Terengganu Village
2
1.2
Changes in Terengganu house compounds
5
1.3
First stages of the Burra Charter sequence
9
1.4
Flow chart of research procedure.
22
2.1
Map of cultural landscape theories
34
3.1
Paintings of village scenes in Terengganu
39
3.2
Relief map of Malaysia with details on the
state of Terengganu
45
4.1
Terengganu house compounds as “total landscapes”
61
4.2
Dynamics of the demonstration
74
43
Detail of the research sequence.
66
4.4
Filled-in example of “Field Survey Data Set”
C1 Haji Yusof in Kuala Hiliran
77
4.5
Example of sketch plan, clan heritage compound C1
79
4.5
Sketch map of location of surveyed house compounds
83
5.1
Some of the most frequent trees species
90
5.2
Some of the most frequent shrubs species
91
5.3
Some of the most frequent herbs species
92
5.4
Some of the most frequent climbers, epiphytes
and palms species
93
5.5
Most frequent ground features
99
5.6
Most frequent architectural features
105
5.7
Examples of wild native species, favoured or planted.
108
5.8
Particular ground and architectural features
110
xiv
5.9
Particular fauna and accessories
5.10 Difference of orientation house//compound (pictures)
111
114
5.11 Difference of orientation house //compound (sketch plan)
access to R4 from the road
114
5.12 Analysis of a typical compound zones in relation with the
neighbouring part of the house
117
5.13 Spatial organisation according to house compound type
119
5.14 Four examples of sketch plans
120
5.15 Analysis of plants habit, uses and location in R4,
5.16
in Pulau Ketam)
126
Functions of the plants species in the sample
130
5.17 Example of location matrix applied to the house compounds
132
5 18 Summary of Findings
134
6.1
Clues Rakyat
153
6.2
Clues Aristocrat
154
6.3 Clues Clan heritage
155
6.4
Clues Farmer
156
6.5
Recapitulative portrait Rakyat compound
157
6.6
Recapitulative portrait Aristocrat compound
157
6.7
Recapitulative portrait Clan heritage compound
158
6.8
Recapitulative portrait Farmer compound
158
6.9
Research results
170
6.10 Clan heritage 3, components 3 (nature resources)
and 9 (history)
6.11 Farmer 1, components 5 (knowledge) and 7 (activity)
174
174
6.12 Aristocrat 1, component 6 (construction principles)
and 9 (historical events)
174
6.13 Clan 1: components 6 (construction principles)
and 9 (historical events)
174
6.14 Clan 1: components 1 and 2 (cosmic orientation
and Islamic culture)
175
6.15 Farmer 2, components 3 (nature resources)
and 4 (way of life)
175
xv
6.16
Aristocrat 3: components 2 (beliefs) and 8 (status)
6.17
Farmer 4, components 5 (knowledge) and
6 (construction principles)
175
175
7.1
Pulau Ketam: jar from Patani, component 9 (history)
184
7.2
Pulau. Ketam: open fence, component 3 (way of life)
184
7.3
Merang: feet washing, jar and slab: component 3
(way of life)
7.4.
184
Pasir Panjang: morning sun façade, Gerai bersalin
platform, peles boards, components 1 and 2
(cosmic orientation and Islamic culture) and 6 and 3
(architecture principles and way of life)
7.5
P.Duyung: Platform under kapok tree by the river,
:component 3 (way of life)
7.6
184
Kpg. Bahri: curtain of palms leaves and cloth line
: components 4 and 3 ( nature challenges and way of life)
7.7
184
185
Bukit Tumbuh, platform with veiled and batik
clad ladies on a background of a house on high stilts
and coconut grove, components 4 (way of life)
and 3 (nature resources and challenges)
7.8
185
Kpg. Losong, “wave stairs”: components 6
(construction principles) and 9 (history)
185
xvi
LIST OF APPENDICES
APPENDICES
A
TITLE
Reference Documents
1) Burra Charter Sequence
2) Spheres of the Ecological Hierarchy
3) Total Human Ecosystem Ecosphere
4) Dunn’s shema of the Cultural system of the Temuan
5) National Park Register Criteria
B
Examples of filled in Information Supports
1) Field Inventory Data sheets
2) Etnobotanical tables and Charts
3) Comparative Charts extracted from the Inventory Lists
C
Glossary
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
The state of Terengganu in Malaysia was for a long time synonym with
“unspoiled beaches”, “charming fishing villages” and “pristine forest hills”. Then,
over the last fifteen years, transformation of natural landscapes was noted, both by
visitors and by residents (Chang, 2000). The estuary of the Terengganu River lost its
fringe of sands and coconut fronds. Kuala Ibai lost its dream-like lagoon. Merang
hill’s sweeping perspective over the sea and the land, the grand approaches to the
Gajah Terung hills in Kuala Berang, these and other views that were for centuries
part of the beauty of the land, disappeared. In the rural vicinity of the capital of
Kuala Terengganu, rice fields and orchards have been replaced by rows of terrace
houses (Marzuki et al.1999). In Seberang Takir, on the northern bank of the
Terengganu River, hectares of mangrove palm have been replaced by a giant lowcost housing esplanade.
However, inside the villages, as illustrated in Figure 1.1, the traditional
scenery with houses on stilts and laid back atmosphere described in guidebooks had
remained untouched.
2
Figure 1.1: A “timeless” scenery in Pulau Ketam, an island in the estuary of
the Terengganu River. (Picture by author, 2004)
Then, from years 2000 to 2005, drastic changes occurred, starting in the most
populated areas of Terengganu such as villages around towns, and on the coastline.
One example is the beach agglomeration of Marang –facing Pulau Kapas, a former
successful tourist attraction with its “cowboy town” planks walkways and fishing
village lagoon. Development made without attention to the sensorial assets of the
place destroyed all its charm to the eyes of outsiders. As one guidebook puts it:
“Marang “was”, because Marang is not anymore. No reason at all to stay
there”. (Guide du Routard, 2003, translated from the French by the author).
The paradox is that, while this study is conducted, its subject, the Terengganu
cultural landscape, is vanishing. According to the figures from the State Economic
Planning Unit, from 1980 to 2004, although the pace is one of the slowest in the
country, the population in some areas of the state has doubled (Unit Perancang
Ekonomi Negeri Terengganu, 2004). Changes are deemed to happen. The
phenomenon is global. The media echoes of protests in China and Africa where the
numerous losses brought about by the spreading onslaught of traditional settlements
are deplored (Three Gorges Probe, 2002, BBC World Africa, 2005).
3
Global trends in economy, including the rising scarcity of land and traditional
materials do not presage well for the newly appreciated assets. As expressed in the
following statement of the International Council of Monuments and Sites
(ICOMOS) in Mexico.
“Due to homogenization of culture and global socio-economic transformation,
vernacular structures all around the world are extremely vulnerable, facing
serious problems of obsolescence, internal equilibrium and integration,”
(ICOMOS 1999).
At the same time, the value of the previously overlooked or taken for granted
heritage is re-asserted:
“The built vernacular heritage is the fundamental expression of the culture of
a community, at the same time, the expression of the world’s cultural
diversity”
(Ibid.1999).
The vernacular built environment, especially in the tropics, includes the floral
background that frames traditional structures. Under the Burra Charter on the built
Vernacular landscapes heritage (ICOMOS, 1981), landscapes and gardens may be
considered as places of cultural significance and part of the human heritage.
In Malaysia, landscape architects Kamariah Kamsah (1997) and Nor Atiah
Ismail (2003) among others, have expressed their concern for the Malaysian
landscapes which now demonstrate the “identity loss” and “placelessness” reported
as characteristics of modern landscapes which “lack identity and personality”
(Antrop,1997). Apart from warning of the physical disappearance of the vernacular
landscape identity, these Malaysian authors have also emphasized the importance of
vernacular landscape documentation for future planning: “There is a need to create a
richer base of resources to design” further explained Nor Atiah (2003), studying the
planting composition in rural Malay residential Perak.
4
1.1. Problem Statement
The disturbance of traditional vernacular landscapes raises social and
anthropological questions. Do outward cultural changes such as those occurring in
landscapes affect a people’s sense of identity? Is the loss of the material supports of
a former identity prejudicial to the people? A second series of questions are more
technical: How to identify cultural values in a place? How much culture is
embodied in dwellings and the built environment? How to demonstrate that a place
warrants to be considered as cultural heritage?
A landscape architecture approach affords an answer to the technical
questions by providing an inventory of landscape features. These features, such as
architectural traits, plants species, gardens lay out and ground elements, may be
shown to express a people’s culture and their historical, artistic, economic and social
achievements. The identified heritage may then be used in planning future
development.
The task at hand for this particular study is to provide such an inventory and
to demonstrate that there are good grounds to consider a series of house compounds
in Terengganu as cultural entities or repositories of a culture. If the assumption that
a cultural heritage is embodied in Terengganu house compounds is verified, then,
further steps can be taken to document, preserve or use the identified assets.
Another aspect of the problem is the scale and the pace of the changes
observed directly by this author in a growing number of house compounds in
Terengganu. The speed and the large scale of the evolution are due to cumulative
factors. Vernacular compounds are today submitted to numerous influences
including abandon, demolition (internal influences), introduction of new materials
and replacement with new standards (external influences),as illustrated in the
pictures of Figure 1.2
5
a) New materials (Pulau Ketam)
c) Demolition (Nisan Empat,K.Terengganu)
b) Abandon (Kuala Terengganu)
d) Replacement (Pulau Duyung)
Figure 1.2: Changes in Terengganu house compounds. (Pictures by author, 2005)
Gradually modified, some of the residences reach a turning point where they
disappear to leave room to new cultural categories. Renovated or new habitations
are called “bungalows” (Anglo-Indian) “terrace houses”, “villas” (Latin) and
“Taman” gardens (promoter’s language) where garden space is minimal.
Documentation of the still extant traditional houses compounds is urgent
because the features that characterised the vernacular landscapes in Terengganu are
now transformed by the forces of material globalisation. The change is not
evolutionary, nor “involutionary” -an evolution from within, as described by Voss
and Meekes (1999 ) in a study on the types of landscape changes.. It is more radical:
“In many areas, landscape history reflects a shift in man-landscape relations
from involution towards replacement that strongly determines an over-all
tendency towards decreasing characteristics, biodiversity, scenic values,
6
sustainability.”
ICOMOS Charter, Mexico (1999):
The evolution, in Terengganu, is fast. New generations are brought up
interiorizing psychologically new concepts that have no links with the past. A new
psyche, a new world vision is being formed. That is not the gradual “involution”
observed in Europe by Voss and Meekes (1999). What is seen in Terengganu, in
these authors’ terms, is “replacement”.
1.1.2
Assumption
However, it is still reasonable to assume that Terengganu cultural landscape
exists and that the house compounds in the villages may be considered as cultural
entities in their own right. In fact, the assumption is supported in various ways:
1.1.2.1 Observation
It had long been obvious to visitors in the East Coast state that Terengganu
village landscapes had a striking personality made of the natural assets associated
with the vernacular architecture and the practice of traditional trades and crafts
(Sheppard 1949). Furthermore, living for more than thirty years in such a village, the
author had ample opportunity to notice that houses and the grounds around them
showed constant characteristics as well as visual differences that were not obviously
linked to the natural background and, so, may be cultural.
7
1.1.2.2 Circumstantial contextual evidence.
The vanishing of the traditional house compounds observed today is
interpreted by visitors as well as by villagers as an effect of the modernisation of
building techniques and of the way of life of the inhabitants. Cultural landscapes are
not only value related but also context dependant. Therefore, seeing that the
Terengganu village landscape is affected by contextual changes, one may assume
that the village landscape in Terengganu is fundamentally cultural.
1.1.2.3 Architectural Evidence
The existence of a Terengganu cultural landscape has been previously
acknowledged through the bias of its architecture. It has been recorded for example,
at the Universiti Teknologi Malaysia in a collection of measured drawings on 14
houses in Terengganu (Pusat Kajian Alam Bina Melayu, 2002). It has been the
inspiration behind elegant reconstitutions made by Tengku Ismail Tengku Su in
hTanjung Sabtu (Yong, 1997), and Dato’ Raja Bahrin Shah in his beautiful Aryani
resort (Kee, 1996). Both princes, pillars of the traditional heritage of Terengganu,
have dismantled and reconstructed ancient houses and some of the landscape around
the buildings.
Another Terengganu aficionado is tourism businessman Alex Lee (2000) who
in Jenang near Marang has gathered ancient houses and artifacts from the past.
Today, exclusive hotels like the Tanjung Jara in Dungun and a few private
residences reproduce the features that composed the traditional atmosphere. They
seek the “feel” of the Malay village –Terengganu style-, with full sensorial
experience, using timber architecture, gulai and ulam treats, herbal baths, music,
flora and fauna. The trend may have started in Bali and Thailand and could be
influenced by cultural heritage of these countries, but the gathered features are
indigenous (Joshua Lim, personal communication).
8
The Terengganu State Museum has also relocated palaces and ancient houses
showing the variety of the traditional style, including even a “fisherman’s house”.
1.2
Objective of the study
Observation, contextual change dependency, and recognized architectural
specificity- are as many reasons to suppose that a Terengganu cultural landscape
embodied in its villages exists. Yet, a bibliographical survey shows that, from an
academic point of view, it does not. Documents about the compounds, their lay out,
the buildings in them, the ground accessories, plants use and garden composition are
still too few to demonstrate the existence of a “Terengganu village cultural
landscape” and to establish its characteristics.
In consequence, the objective of this thesis is to begin to substantiate the
existence of this landscape, and to prepare for an exploration of its cultural value.
Referring to global efforts towards identification and evaluation of vernacular
landscapes -such as International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN)
seeking to identify “on the ground cultural landscapes of universal value” (Roberts,
1994), the thesis focuses on one essential feature of the Terengganu landscape, the
house compounds that composed until very recently the building blocks of the
residential structures in villages and even towns in the state.
The title of this thesis deliberately contains an assumption that these house
compounds of Terengganu may be considered as cultural entities. The goal of the
study then is, through a preliminary assessment of a series of house compounds in
the state, the verification of the assumption. To reach this goal, after a review of the
literature to elicit theoretical and vernacular backgrounds, it will be proceeded to
(i) Investigate features and lay out principles of the considered house
9
compounds to contribute to the identification of the Terengganu landscapes;
(ii) Refer these features to their roots and role within Terengganu cultural
context and substantiate through examples the significant relationship that exists
between landscape features and a cultural heritage.
1.3
Scope of the study
The target of this study is the houses and their compounds. This includes the
buildings, the flora, the fauna and the grounds on which these elements are found.
At first, the chosen subject may appear to be vast. It needs to be circumscribed by
defining its boundaries.
1.3.1
Stage of the study in a cultural conservation process
The proposed demonstration is a preliminary exploration. It is a first step
towards a proper assessment.
If one refers to the Burra Charter cultural preservation sequence (ICOMOS
1999) for the conservation of places of cultural significance (available in Appendix
A), this study is at the beginning of the sequence, at the “Understand significance”
stage as shown in Figure 1.3.
10
IDENTIFY PLACE AND ASSOCIATIONS
GATHER AND RECORD INFORMATION ABOUT THE PLACE
SUFFICIENT TO UNDERSTANCE SIGNIFICANCE
Documentary
Oral
Physical
ASSESS SIGNIFICANCE
PREPARE A STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE
Figure 1.3: First stages of research in the Burra Charter Sequence, with the
scope of the present study enlightened in grey.
After completion of these stages, the option would be opened to proceed to
the further stages of the sequence towards preservation or full documentation
provided in the Charter.
1.3.2 Common Boundaries with other Disciplines
As the field of cultural phenomena is multifaceted and “landscape issues are
of interest in many disciplines “(Tress et al. 2001), it is necessary to precise the
scope of this thesis in relation to other disciplines related to the field of cultural
landscape.
1.3.2.1 History
In general, the material witnesses of the past remaining on the field are
considered in this work in their modern role as part of the inventory of today s
11
landscapes, not for their historical value per se. However, the author believes that
historical reference is essential to help select significant features and link these to
the culture of the people who live in the given area. It provides proof of the
documentary value of the considered compounds if these are eventually submitted to
criteria for historical value.
1.3.2.2 Other disciplines
“Cultural” phenomena include man’s psyche and his natural environment.
The exploration of the Terengganu landscapes from a cultural perspective includes a
reference to disciplines such as sociology, psychology, architecture, botany and
ecology to identify as well as understand the significance of the encountered
features.
1.3.2.3 Spatial and temporal Determination of the Subject
The physical or geographical field of the research has historically determined
boundaries. The areas of potential material are settlements mentioned in the
literature on the history of Terengganu (Muhamad Saleh, 1992; Sheppard,1949).
They have been habited for more than three generations, are known for historical
personages, or particular events, crafts or products establishing a long existence of
the settlement. They are scattered following traditional economical patterns along
river valleys (travels, trade and fishing), around estuaries (trade, fishing and
international networking), and on the fringes of the forest (hunting and forest
products gathering) (Mohd Taib, 1997).
To illustrate the existing diversity, the house compounds sample should be
gathered from such varied areas in the state.
12
1.4.
Definitions of the Terms as understood in the Thesis
The literature shows that there have been considerable shifts through times
and places in perception of nature, earth and man’s environment. Concepts have
expended and taken enlarged meanings, starting with the term of “landscape” itself:
1.4.1 Landscape
Vidal de la Blache (1903), founder of the French School of Geography,
which introduced the relationship between physical and human elements in
geographical studies, had given a simple definition:”Un paysage est ce qui peut etre
percu d’un seul coup d’oeil “ “A landscape is what can be grasped at a glance-”
John Brinckerhof Jackson, pioneer of landscape architecture who in 1951
founded “Landscape Magazine”, further detailed the perception:
”Landscape consists of two root words: land and scope. While land
refers to the physical and tangible things that we see and feel such as trees,
lakes, mountains, buildings, flower beds etc. scope refers to how these
physical phenomenon are translated and perceived in the mind.”
(Jackson, 1984)
In both definitions, although the human observer is involved, there is a
dichotomy between the object, the landscape and the onlooker, the subject. The
second definition begins to involve more the senses and the mind as tools that
influence the perception of the considered space.
Today, the inhabitant is seen as he invests himself in the landscape in an
interactive relationship. The concept of landscape perception has been extended by
the tenants of the School of Environmental Psychology to all the senses (Appleton,
13
1975, Kaplan & Kaplan, 1989). Its realm is now limited only by what the viewer’s
mind and heart can grasp during a very long lasting “glance” while experiencing his
environment.
Additionally, following those who emphasize the importance of history in
planning the future (Yahner and Nadenicek 1997; Marcucci 2000), it is necessary as
well to consider the third protagonist not literally written in the word “landscape”
yet essential, that is “time”. For these authors, a landscape is the result, through
centuries, of both -events in nature and impact of man, a perspective which confirms
that the concept of landscape is inseparable from the concept of culture.
1.4.2
Culture
Culture is generally referred to as:
i)
“Ensemble des structures sociales, regligieuses etc. des manifestaion
intellectuelles, artistiques etc. qui caracterisent une societe” –“A sum of
social, religious etc. of the intellectual, artistic etc. manifestations that
characterise a society” ( Larousse,1982).
ii)
“The customary beliefs, social forms and material traits of a racial, religious
or social group”. (Webster, 1977)
These two definitions refer mainly to the social and spatial aspect of culture
at a certain point in time. There is also another, more encompassing, vision of
culture.
iii)
”The integrated pattern of human behavior that includes thoughts, speech,
action, and artifacts and depend on man’s capacity for learning and
transmitting knowledge to succeeding generation” (Webster, ibid.)
14
This last dictionary definition is normative. It implies a judgment of values. It
has many other implications. Culture is seen as synonym to civilisation. It involves
the array of man’s devices to project himself in time, to overcome death after his
own individual demise through his teachings, his art and his built environment.
Closer even to the present research perspective is the definition of culture
given by Wan Salleh (1991).
“Culture is a kind of self actualization process, continuous, consistent, and
self sustaining for any given community . It is a way of life typical of a
group referring to beliefs and perceptions, values and norms, customs and
behaviour. They share the quality among the group in a consensual way,
passing on to others through the socialization and education of a new
member in the society.”
This last definition expresses well the wide ranging role of the culture in
traditional communities such as in Terengganu villages.
1.4.3 Cultural landscape
A “cultural landscape” is, literally, a landscape affected by a relation with a
culture. Carl Sauer further defined the particular dynamism attached to the concept.
“The cultural landscape is fashioned from a natural landscape by a culture
group. Culture is the agent, the natural area is the medium, and the cultural
landscape is the result”
Sauer (1925, 19)
Anthropologist and sociologist Amos Rapoport, refers to the same
parameters:
15
“Cultural landscapes are defined as the result of the human action on the
“primeval” landscape over long period of time”.
Rapoport, (2004, 1)
A mirror for anthropologists, a cultural landscape expresses the identity of a
people on a considered land. Beyond this, the rich semantic aspect of cultural
landscapes implicated by the dynamism of the concept is today well appreciated by
researchers from multiple horizons. Studying an area in southern France, Roberts
(1994) observed the “multiple-functional layers” that characterize the landscape and
“make it a narrative text of overlapping and oscillating meanings”.
1.4.4
Traditional Village, Kampong and Garden
There are numerous definitions of what is “traditional” and “they apply to
much more generally than just the built environment” writes Rapoport (2004). To
simplify, a “traditional village” is taken to mean a small settlement, established at
least for more than 50 years by people united by a common origin or economical
activity, following a common customary rule (Birbaum, 2002). When used in this
study, the term refers to that definition. It may be added that, in Terengganu,
traditional settlements are often found established since more than three generations
of Malay inhabitants who share the same religion and customs (Muhamad Saleh,
1992).
A “kampong” (or in Malay “kampung”) is not synonym with “village”
because in academic writings, the vernacular expression has anthropological
connotations of “Malayness” which brings a perspective other than landscape
observation. When used in this study, it implies these connotations.
“Compound”: According to the dictionary, the word “compound” comes
from the Malay language. It is, “by folk etymology, from Malay kampong, group of
buildings, village; a fenced or walled area containing a group of buildings and
16
especially residences.” (Webster, 1977). It is a physical unit composed of houses
and grounds that implies material or symbolic boundaries.
“House compound” refers to a residence, -a house, and the grounds -the
compound, on which it is located. It is the subject, and the basic unit of this thesis.
In Perak, Nor Atiah (2003) has chosen the term of “residential garden” to elicit the
cultural value of the “planting composition” in the rural residences. However, this
author does study the relationship between the house parts and the garden space and
planting organisation. Nor Atiah demonstrates how house and grounds are a physical
unit that tells a researcher how the inhabitants live, how they perceive life and
interact with their natural environment. The scope of the present study includes as
well other aspects of cultural significance such as architecture and ground features.
Hence, the two words unit “house compound” has been selected as appropriate to
describe the field of the research.
The term of “garden” is used by landscape architecture researchers in
Malaysia (Ismail Said 2000, Nor Atiah, 2003,) when describing an area with plant
species associated to a residence. A convenient, professionally explicit term; it may
not be exactly adapted to the reality in Terengganu. A “garden”, literally, is
“guarded”. From these researchers’ observations, one particular feature of the Malay
village “garden” is that it has not usually delimited by material borders or fences.
The term generally used in this study is “grounds”, except for the designation
of separate zones around a house when the term of “yard” would not sound
adequate: “back garden”, “side garden” are preferred to “backyard” and “side yard”.
1.4.5 Elements, features and attributes
Terms related to landscape components commonly used in descriptive
analysis such as “elements”, “features” and “attributes”- are understood here
according to the chosen perspective, in order of progressive abstraction respectively.
17
Therefore “Features” refer to the visible and outward aspects of landscape
components; “Elements” are the components considered as parts of the landscape;
“Attributes” refers to characteristics in the landscape which are found not separable
from its identity and “Markers” , idiosyncratic features of a landscape may emerge
among the attributes. But it would be premature to seek to determine these in a
preliminary study. “Feature”, understood as a descriptive term without particular
connotation is the preferred term at this stage of the research.
1.4.6
Glossary
Definition of terms that could not for various reasons find a place in this
chapter or in the text of the following chapters signaled by an asterisk(*) in the text
are available in Appendix C.
1.5.
Significance of the Study
The present study hopes to bring a new contribution to landscape architecture
through its multidisciplinary approach of landscape units and the documentary value
of its inventories. Its results may benefit other disciplines as well such as
architecture, anthropology, planning and sociology.
1.5.1
Originality of the Thesis Subject
Studies on small scale landscapes such as the Mormon homesteads in Utah
and “farmersteads” in Arizona have been the work of American geographers
(McClalland et Al., 1990). Similarly, in Europe, geographers have identified and
studied regional individual habitats such as the “souf” of Algeria or the Normandy
18
farm in France, the “hacienda” in Brazil, as part of chorography discipline (study of
places or regions), (Bruhnes, 1960).
As mentioned earlier, a number of researches have been conducted on
villages in Terengganu from the architectural and environment planning point of
view at Malaysian universities (Pusat Kajian Alam Bina Melayu 2002, Wan Fadhila
2003, Mohd Sarhil 2003). Both series of studies give views on the land and
compounds as well. However, the perspective chosen in the thesis is presently
relatively unexplored. A study covering house compounds as integrated units of
landscape or “wholes”–building, grounds, flora and fauna- has not been made yet in
the east coast state.
Referring to a holistic ecology perspective, the study intends to emulate the
efforts of international agencies such as the International Council of Monuments and
Sites (ICOMOS), as well as those of individual nations including the Malaysian
Ministry of Art, Culture and Heritage, towards increased awareness of the heritage
value of vernacular landscapes. In Terengganu, particular points of significance may
be stressed as follows.
1.5.2
Preservation of the esthetic diversity.
The research may help reduce the process of oblivion of the material and
visual diversity of Terengganu cultural landscape. It can bring some material
towards further identification of the features of a “Malay garden” and may
contribute to the preservation of the “zahir” (the visible) part of this type of South
East Asian gardens.
19
1.5.3 Awareness of the Significance or Implications of cultural Changes.
If the house compounds are in effect found to be cultural and to embody the
world-view of their inhabitants, the normative element of these landscapes (Arnesen
1998, Rapoport, 2004) will be emphasized. Once it is shown that the identified
“cultural units” (the house compounds) carry values (norms), and that these values
may disappear with them, it is the hope of the author that awareness of the
significance of the changes will be triggered or reinforced. The social and moral
issues alluded to previously may be examined. Are these changes really necessary to
the inhabitants or wanted by them? Are they ineluctable? What are their far reaching
consequences?
The transforming traditional Terengganu landscape is particularly worthy of
scholarly attention because it is associated with a known rich historical and artistic
heritage (Sheppard 1978; Syed Ahmad Jamal,1994).Trying to decipher that heritage
through its remains in the landscape will help increase the awareness of an
alienation threat brought about by the changes.
Alienation, for anthropologists is expressed in a feeling among villagers of
being strangers –alien- or by-standers on their native land. The impression of “onsite uprooting” was previously reported as experienced mostly by indigenous tribes
“when their attachment to the land is removed” and by dwellers of suddenly logged
forests (Colin, 1996).
Furthermore, “losing landscape is threatening social cohesion in the affected
groups. It may produce what we could call landscape induced alienation” (Arneson
1998). The point is that not only knowledge, art and skills disappear, but also that
the effects of that disappearance on the Malay villagers are still rather uncharted. On
the positive side, with studies such as the present one, a measure of continuity may
be envisioned.
20
1.5.4 Education and Learning
This study is expected to illustrate the didactic function (Rapoport 2004, 4) of
the built environment in a traditional culture such as the one in Terengganu where it
would have played the role of an ever available teacher. In fact, the house compound
unit has still today a pedagogic role for a researcher who has the opportunity to read
the “live” lessons from the past.
In the past, preservation in writing was not necessary as the culture was
written in the way of life of a people. “The vernacular built heritage” was “the
fundamental expression of the culture of a community” (ICOMOS 1999) and the
“memory bank of social groups” (Arnesen, 1998). Education was made by
environmental information and oral transmission. Informal interviews conducted for
this study continue the tradition. The research attempts to capture knowledge
consigned on nowadays fragile material supports such as the vernacular landscapes
and the memory of elders.
1.6
Summary of the chapters
The first chapter states the problem of the rapid landscape changes and
presents the study’s approach, a preliminary assessment of the cultural value of
some Terengganu house compounds landscapes. This involves the assumption that
these house compounds in Terengganu can be considered as cultural entities to begin
with, an assumption that will be verified by substantiating their cultural value.
Chapter two reviews the literature on (i) the perceptions of landscape through
history and (ii) the theories on cultural landscape that are potentially pertinent to
Terengganu. The various theories are summarized in a conceptual map and the
criteria for cultural value derived from the various perspectives are introduced.
.
21
Chapter three gathers background information on the state’s geography,
history, architecture, flora, literature, and evokes the links of the Terengganu people
with surrounding nature. This information is particularly important because of the
necessity to know beforehand the components of the vernacular culture in order to
find them embodied in the features of the surveyed house compounds.
Chapter four presents the conceptual framework of the research, together with
a diagram of cultural components and a table of criteria for cultural value derived
from the literature. Heuristic “types” of compounds are proposed. The investigation
tools and information supports such as tables of features and plan sketches are
presented as well as the selected house compounds.
In chapter five, tables of features frequency yield findings on the general
aspect of these landscapes. Observation of less frequent but conspicuous features
brings about the more specific Terengganu character. Observation of patterns in
space organization and. ethno-botanical surveys complete the findings
Chapter six presents a characterization of the sample deducted from the
findings and confirms the value of the exploratory typology. Then, the surveyed
house compounds are screened to the series of cultural value criteria derived
previously from the literature. The screening is followed by an empirical verification
of the results. The results are found to be positive and the assumption of cultural
value is verified. A brief review of implications of the results is made.
In conclusion, Chapter seven suggests an extrapolation of the study results to
similar landscapes in the state of Terengganu. Finally, the importance of elaborating
a conceptualisation of the Terengganu’s house compounds landscape architecture is
envisioned. The process is illustrated in the flow Chart presented in Figure 1.4.
22
Assumption
A series of House Compounds in Terengganu qualify as Cultural Landscapes
Literature review
-What is a cultural landscape?
What criteria help identify a
landscape of cultural value?
Experiential, holistic, historical
etc. perspectives Æ 17 criteria
-Components of a Cultural
Landscape from theories, then
applied to T’gnu background:
Nature, History, Society
Methodology of Research
&
Conceptual Framework for Research Design
Qualitative Investigation
-Sample acquisition: 16 cases
-Classification in heuristic types
-Interviews Æhistory & significance
-Sketch plans
-Photographs
Quantitative investigation
-Sites inventory recapitulation:
-Tables of features frequency,
averages by case, by type and for
the whole sample,
-Charts of ethno-botanical data
Field Analysis & Findings
Main features in each landscape element:
Particular features
Findings from space lay out & articulation
Relationship inhabitants/nature
Synthesis, Discussion and Perspectives
Characterization, including types
Screening to cultural criteria
Discussion and empirical verification
Results: cultural value of the sample
Generalisation to Terengganu
Conceptualisation and recommendations
Conclusion
Fig.1.4: Flow Chart of Research Procedure & Demonstration.
CHAPTER 2
LITTERATURE REVIEW
2.0
Introduction:
This chapter presents the theoretical background behind the concept of cultural
landscape as understood in this study on Terengganu. It retraces the steps of the
evolution of the concept from perceptions to theories obtained from the literature
review.
2.1
Evolution of Landscape Perceptions
The literature review shows that there has been an evolution in landscape
perceptions through history and in different parts of the world. That evolution has led
to the modern approach of man’s habitat and to the concept of “cultural landscape”.
The modern approach focuses on the semantic layers written in landscapes that reveal
the stages of the relationship between the inhabitants of a place and their natural
environment through time.
The idea of “reading” a landscape for its significance is now considered as
fundamental. Searching for the historical ecology and the “cultural sequences” of a
landscape is a recommended practice in planning the development of an area (Vos &
Meekes, 1999, Marcucci, 2000).
24
However, landscapes had been long regarded as two-dimensional views of
arrangement of nature and human intervention that referred only to themselves. When
Jackson Brinkerhof Jackson, founder in the 50ties of the “Landscape” magazine
whose vision had been influenced by years of travels including in “old” Europe, said,:
”I see things that other people don’t see and I call their attention to it” (Jackson,
1984), the semantic interpretation of a landscape was new, especially to the American
public.
Landscapes or surrounding nature had previously been considered differently:
Nature had been (i) a wilderness to be tamed, (ii) a source of food to be exploited, and
(iii) an occasion for esthetic emotions or (iv) for meditation on the design of the
universe. Then, (v) political and (vi) moral implications behind land management
decisions were identified. These interpretations are listed below as they retrace the
history of a human perception and attitude, some aspects of which may be shared by
the Terengganu inhabitants in their relationship with their natural environment.
2.1.1
Natural Environment as a Source of Danger, Food, Medicine and Moods
It was not only in the jungle-covered lands like Malaysia or even the hilly
Champa that nature was commonly considered as dangerous (Winstead 1981, Po
Dharma, 1992). As late as the eighteen century in Western countries, forests were the
abode of fearsome creatures. Nature was “hostile and forbidding “(Roberts, 1994). In
the 17th century, French writer Madame de Sevigné (1971) in her “Lettres a Madame
de Grignan”, commiserates with her daughter for having to live in the “savageness of
the country”. During the reign of Louis XIV (1638-1715) the “Sun King”, who
commissioned the gardens of Versailles to Le Notre, landscaping was the art of
creating gardens to frame a palace in a carefully domesticated version of nature
(Booth, 1983). It was a way to reassure oneself against the perceived disorder of
natural environment. Labyrinths would cater for the adventurous.
25
However, throughout the Middle Ages, with indigenous knowledge and
Islamic influence, a more scientific trend in botanic and horticulture had persisted
There had been utilitarian gardens of herbs and medicines around monasteries and
functionally designed gardens of tamed nature in ordered landscapes (Booth, 1983 )..
In contrast to the fear and the awe or the aesthetic and the horticultural
attitudes, another way of benefiting from nature’s gifts appeared. In Europe. the
“Romantics” like French writer Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) surrendered to
their natural environment and regarded nature as a most suitable pedagogue (Roberts,
1994). In the 19th century, the movement spread from literature to painting with
Constable and the impressionists. Music in Germany celebrated landscapes. Views
(skopein, the visual part of landscape) inspired artists, and their moods.
In China of the 6th century, another artistic and quasi-mystical trend had
already developed. Represented by the Ch’an school of painting, it was expressed in
”meditation scrolls” (Bankroft, 1979).Waterfalls and rivers were part of the arhat
(hermit) spiritual experience. The hermit contemplative stance, in turn, was
represented as physical part of the landscape. This attitude had an echo in the Malay
man in search of knowledge (ilmu) who retired (bertapa) in the forest or wild areas.
Yet the retreat was not meant to be an immersion in nature. Nature was often a path to
other -mystical or magic, quests (Winsted, 1981).
At the beginning of the twentieth century, the shifting perspectives that
presented landscape and environment as sometimes alien to, sometimes part of human
psyche, found a stabilising ground in the environmental or ecological movement. The
founding fathers of environmentalism were a forester like Aldo Leopold, agriculture
engineer like Rene Dubos, or scientists like Bertrand de Jouvenel. Knowingly or not,
meeting with religious thinking (Islamic stewardship of the earth and Buddhist respect
of life), they clearly stated the responsibility of man and his solidarity with nature. A
vision shared today by modern Malay Muslims (Mohd Taib 1997) and in their own
way by traditional villagers, particularly (Coatalen, 1982) on the east coast of
Malaysia.
26
2.1.2
Political Implications of Landscape Management Decisions
In parallel, another type of awareness had taken shape. Landscapes can be
considered as arenas for ideology or power confrontations. Ingerson (2002) evokes
“the invisible politics of visible landscapes”. She quotes scholars from various
horizons, a geographer, a landscape archeologist and an urban historian, who all speak
of landscapes (the “land” part of the concept) as the center of a debate because they
are intrinsically linked to land use, lebensraum (living space), and territory.
“The cultural landscape is the physical and symbolic arena for the social
process of production, the accumulation of wealth, and the resistance to
unequal accumulation. The cultural landscape…is both a tool and the context
of cultural change”
(Hood, in Ingerson 1996)
“The study of urban landscape needs to be embedded in both the aesthetics of
experiencing places with all five senses and the politics of experiencing
places as contested territory”
(Hayden, in Ingerson 1996)
Ingerson (2002) further points out:
“These scholars drew attention to the different and often conflicting meaning
of a single landscape to those who owned the land and those who worked it
those who painted it and those who wrested a living from it.”
The confrontational aspect of land use is part of a long standing contestation of
the right of land ownership when ownership is not associated with actual work on the
land. In that context, “Ownership is theft” claimed French socialist theoretician
Proudhon (1840). Soon, unilateral land management politics would be denounced as
imperialist or totalitarian. Indigenous communities would have to be informed about
27
technocratic decisions that could change the lands. They would be called to
“participate in the decision making process” (UNICED Rio 1992).
After the straightforward territorial struggles of the past, politicians and
planners have become more aware of the deeper significance of the impact of man’s
action on the land, including within one's frontiers.
Land use and landscape planning are now understood not only as a matter of
space control and development but also as a proclamation of one’s beliefs. They are a
statement of a people’s idea on the management of their parcel of earth. “Landscape
enters life and politics, and touches upon important aspects of social life such as
shared memory and validation, group identity and acceptance” (Arnesen 1998). One
of the results of this study then will be to see how this interpretation of space
organisation as a political, social and religious statement is expressed in the traditional
Terengganu house compound.
Research on the concept of landscape during the last three decades have
extended that field in depth and range, to almost all aspects of life. Landscape studies
include the effects of landscape on the human psyche and the far reaching
consequences of a change in a landscape. They cover from anthropology to politics,
from archeology to economic prospective. Landscape studies have become transdisciplinary (Tress et al., 2001). This epistemological evolution has helped to
understand better the cultural aspects of landscapes, to read them in a useful (i.e.
prospective) way, beyond plain record. It has allowed elaborating theories reaching
farther than the basic definition of a cultural landscape and yet to rate landscapes for
their cultural value. A few of these theories are reviewed in the following section.
2.2
Theoretical Approaches to Cultural Landscapes
Referring to the definition by Rapoport (2004) of cultural landscapes as “the
result of human action on the primeval landscape over long periods of time”, at one
level, the “human action” is caused by the need to feel safe, provided for and
28
comfortable in one’s environment. That need results in particular “preferences” in
environment. Identifying these preferences to design better habitats is one of the
objectives of the environment psychology school of thought.
2.2.1
The preferential Model and experiential Approaches
In her study of the rural Perak Malay Residential garden, Nor Atiah (2003)
relies on the psychological approaches of the study of landscape design elaborated by
Rachel Kaplan and Stephen Kaplan (1975) further developed by Appleton (1975) in
the “Prospect-Refuge Theory” to show how some Perak house compounds exhibit
culturally responsive features in their planting composition.
To identify the basis for man preference in a landscape, Kaplan and Kaplan
(1975) applied the “Preferential Model” and selected “four informational variables”:
“coherence, legibility, complexity and mystery”, as characteristics of a landscape
responsive to human psychological needs, -a landscape that is cultural, by opposition
to purely functional or decorative.
This approach is useful in establishing the components that contribute to the
sensorial attractiveness of a residential area as well as inspire the attachment of the
inhabitants to some landscapes perceived as particularly suitable to them. In the case
of Perak, Nor Atiah (2003) found it appropriate to express the “cocooning” feeling
created by Perak rural landscapes. The Perak garden, she observed further, also
catered for material and religious needs and so, did qualify as totally culturally
responsive from the preferential and experiential perspective.
After years of being constantly referred to and effectively used in landscapes
study and planning, the psychological approach was tested by Arthur E.Stamps III
(2002). Stamps found that the method has its drawbacks. An exploration on large
numbers of studies using the informational model of environmental preference (IME)
resulted in mitigated conclusions: It did appear that questionnaires designed to find
29
out the correlation between the identified factors and the index of satisfaction gave
more reliable results than random interviews. Yet, subjective appreciations by
respondents and heterogeneity of data often prevented scientific replication.
This approach also leads far from actual historical and anthropological
documentation on existing sites. Claims to cultural value by house compounds in
Terengganu are expected to be more numerous and more specific. Some of the state’s
buildings (as the Kota Lama Duyung and the Tukku Paluh residences) have already
been identified as historical places, so their compounds, if examined as cultural
landscapes, are expected to answer to more culturally stringent criteria than the
psychologists experiential variables.
.
2.2.2
Landscapes seen through holistic Lenses
Another way to consider landscapes is the holistic ecology perspective
propounded by Naveh (1995) and his colleagues since a few decades. It may be
connected to the terms “primeval” and “over a long time” in Rapoport’s definition of
a cultural landscape, in the sense that it places any environment within the frame of
the evolution of the planet. Envisioning landscapes as part of the global system,
Naveh (1995), referring to “the general systems theory of Bertalanffy” dating back to
1968, brings the significance of landscape onto a cosmic plane. Describing the
“ecological hierarchy”, he writes:
“Its central holistic concept is the Total Human Ecosystem as the highest
level of co-evolutionary complexity in the global ecological hierarchy, with
solar energy powered biosphere and fossil energy technosphere landscapes
as its concrete system”.
(Naveh,1995,16)
Scientific disciplines, understood in an ecological sense, are comprised in the
study of the “ecology of man and his environment”. ”As the integrative science of the
30
Total Human Ecosystem, landscape ecology acquires a unique position, bridging the
bio-ecology disciplines and human ecology” (Naveh 2000,15). The schema of this
“hierarchised, trans-disciplinary” concept is reproduced in Appendix A
The Total Human Ecosystem-Ecosphere includes the geosphere, the
atmosphere, lithosphere and hydrosphere, the biosphere and the technosphere.” We
live also”, adds Naveh (2000), “in the conceptual space of the human mind, the sphere
of human mind -the “noosphere” (from the Greek noos – mind)”.Each of the “coevolutionist” and “co-existent spheres” is present simultaneously in man’s “multidimensional” cultural ecological reality.
In the holistic ecology perspective, Terengganu house compounds landscapes
are “ecotopes” -i.e. places with their individual environment-, located within the
human ecosystem. They are also “holons” -from the greek :”holos” = whole +
“proton” = part” (Naveh 2000). They are “wholes” -as microcosms, through the
complex of biological, cultural and historical features that compose their existence,
and “parts” -as emanations of larger South East Asian cultural and biological systems.
This view highlights the far reaching consequences of landscape changes, as in
a system, as all parts are interdependent. What happens in a part has a repercussion in
the whole. Material changes, like those occurring in Terengganu village landscapes,
are a sign that something is happening as well in other spheres such as at the
noosphere, the biosphere and the technosphere.
Another concept evoked by Naveh (2000) is the “supersystem” idea. The
structure of a “super-system” is constituted by the relation between systems. It is a
dynamic, “overarching” encrypted (“implicated”) structure. The “super-system”it
refers to is different from a “world view” or a religious belief as these are made
explicit from time to time Naveh (2000). A “super-system” is the more effective
because, being implicit, unsaid and unwritten, it cannot be challenged.
This conceptual construction helps understand the cohesion of traditional
societies such as the Terengganu village communities where the fundaments of the
31
customary rules were not taught explicitly, but transmitted together with their material
supports, from one generation to the other. These communities are now measured to
another implicit, mondial “super-system” which is not mapped, not tangible, but
encrypted in the trends of the networks of global development.
The holistic ecology system concept helps explain metamorphoses that take
place at the level of an “implicate order" (Naveh ,2000 ), behind the scene so to say,
when material changes occur in a landscape, such as house orientations or water
source relocation for example, affecting the traditional and tacit order of things. A
traditional society is replaced not only because its material objects disappear but
because they have lost their network of meaning or semiotic correlations. This view is
advanced as well by Tor Arnesen (1998) who explains how “landscapes are semiotic
resources” and studies “How landscapes are lost”.
Already, in 1975, anthropologist-archeologist-medical researcher Dr. F.L.
Dunn, studying a group of Temuan rain forest collectors and traders in Malaysia has
given a similar holistic view of “a cultural system”, where the “supernatural world” is
represented as part of the same cultural schema as “energies, artifacts and social
organization".(Dunn(1975).Dunn’s shema is reproduced in Appendix A .
Dunn’s study, focusing on the Temuan environment, represent also a model
of multidisciplinary approach suitable for landscape studies. It includes flora, fauna
and the relationship between the inhabitants and their environment. It includes as well
the prehistory, the geological history and evolution of the Temuan forest environment
as part of today’s reality. That latter view is shared as well by the tenants of the role
of an historical perspective in landscape theory and planning.
2.2.3
The historical Perspective
The definition of cultural landscape as the result of “human action on nature
over time” (Rapoport 2004) involves a number of common features related to a
people over time. With time passing, constant landscape features become the
32
expression of the relation of a community with its environment. They become
valuable documents on the people’s history as well as on human process of evolution
in general.
.
The historical perspective in landscaping is at first linked to conservation of
monuments and sites such as in the National Park Service of the USA. ”Period
research”, studies on changes over time, evaluation, integrity and significance of a
landscape, all implied solid historical founding ( McClelland et al. 1990).
However, the historical perspective should be furthered in prospective,
explains Marcucci (2000) who presents “Landscape history as a planning tool” and
historical research as a sine qua non base for planning the future:
”A landscape is a contextual phenomenon, embedded in a world that is both
spatial and temporal, or, if you prefer, geographical and temporal. Yet while
methods to study the geographical attributes of landscape are increasingly
understood, methods to know their temporal contexts are not”
(Marcucci, 2000,68)
Marcucci re-asserts that:
“A landscape existing today results from previous conditions and events in that
locale, and it follows that landscapes of the future will be legacies of the
elements and processes occurring today” (ibid. )
In Marcucci’s view, studies on the pre-historical, archeological and long run
historical evolution of a place will help determine the type of development suitable
for an area. Development then is not conceived as mere innovation, continuation or
even revival of sometimes obsolete activities of the past, but as a re-appreciation of
the natural assets in relation with the use of these by a population through ages.
33
2.3
2.3.1
Cultural Landscape Assessment Methods
The Problem of assessing Heritage Value
Theoreticians (Taylor 2002) have attracted attention to the present state of
landscape “fragmentation” of the major part of the earth surface by global
development: Any landscape impacted by man is cultural. Even those left apart may
be considered as deliberately (cultural decision) put apart, thus cultural too.
“Cultural landscapes can be thought of as any landscape bearing the impact of
human activity, historic or prehistoric. It is a concept emerging from
increasing recognition that human beings are part of nature”
(Taylor, 2002)
The word “landscape” even becomes synonym with “cultural” and “cultural
landscape” becomes a pleonasm:
From the point of view of landscape documentation proper, there may be a
problem. If all landscapes are considered as cultural because one way or another they
are impacted by human presence, any landscape can be considered as significant in its
own right. Then, landscapes that are historical or specifically culturally significant
may be by-passed in the plethora.
2.3.2
Heritage Registration
Fortunately, in this fragmentation context, national agencies in various
countries and world organisations created to preserve world heritage have come out
with criteria and methods to identify landscapes worthy of conservation. There are
also provisions for landscapes worthy of documentation, for cases when preservation
is not an option.
34
The cultural evaluation criteria would deserve a study to themselves which
would be beyond the scope of the research. Some criteria, for example those from the
psychology school and those from the U.S. National Park Register have been clearly
defined. Others have been deducted for the purpose of this study by the author from
the relevant theories. The criteria that will be later referred to in Chapter four
(Methodology) and six (Evaluation) are introduced briefly below along with a
recapitulation of the relevant theories.
2.3.3
Recapitulation of Theoretical Approaches to Landscape and derived
Cultural Landscape Criteria
Authors from different disciplines have devised various theories on the concept
of landscape and on the role of landscape in human life from different points of view
summarized in Figure 2.3.
35
Landscapes to be lived in
Informational
Preference Model
(i)
Landscape being interpreted
Psychology
Philosophy
Function
History of man &
nature together
(v)
Significance
Cultural Landscape
Man
Environment
.Experiential
Theory (ii)
What it is
Holistic
Landscape
Ecology (iv)
What it tells
Realm of landscape
Architecture design
Space articulation & use
Studies on concepts &
design in relation to beliefs & norms
Awareness of reference system
Focus on human needs, well being
Natural assets and survival
Multidisciplinary approach
Focus on paradigms identification
Practice
Policies
Landscape as an image of a society
Sociology
Environment – Behaviour
Studies (iii)
Figure 2.1: “Map” of a number of theories and disciplines concerned with
cultural landscape. (Schema by the author)
The map shows how varied are the perspectives from which a landscape may
be considered. The numbers in brackets in Figure 2.3 refer to the theories that are
summarized clockwise below. Ensuing cultural evaluation criteria are proposed.
(i). Informational Model for the Prediction of Preference (IPM)
Stephen and Rachel Kaplan (1978) have stressed the role of the sensorial
perception by inhabitants and observers in the evaluation of a landscape. They have
Used the Informational Prediction Preference Model to predict the value attributed to
a landscape. The four basic variables (coherence, legibility, mystery, complexity)
36
these authors had identified have long been used as criteria for the cultural value of
landscapes (Nor Atiah, 2003).
(ii) Experiential Approach
Sensorial perception in landscape appreciation and design does not express
fully the role of a landscape for the inhabitants, later remarked Taylor et al (1987).
They advocated focusing as well on the reciprocal interaction of the inhabitant with
his environment, -“his direct experience” of it- as part in the evaluation of the cultural
value of a landscape. “Introducing the Prospect/refuge theory” Appleton (1975)
stressed the psychological effect of space organization on the human psyche.
(iii) Environmental-Behaviour Studies (EBS)
EBS studies were developed over more than thirty years since1969 by Amos
Rapoport who deciphered “model-systems” of communities reactions to changing
context from observation of the environmental evolution in developing countries. This
approach connects landscape studies with anthropological and sociological
approaches (Rapoport ,2004).
Theories (ii) and (iii) relate to the sensorial appreciation and functional
interpretation of an environing landscape by individuals as well as by communities.
The ensuing criteria are identified by the author as (1) “benefit” (usefulness or
function), (2) entertainment and relaxation and (3) socially significant use of space.
(iv) Holistic Landscape Ecology
Holistic ecology (including the “THE” -Total Human Ecosystem) is related to
the system theory. Naveh (2000) summarized the concepts of the holistic
constructions as applied to landscapes where the global, semiotic and multi
dimensional content of man total environment is taken into account.
37
The approach is translated in this work into criteria for cultural value such as
landscape features connected with (1) beliefs, (2) rites and (3) status, which all imply
a collective world view (“noosphere”) and (4) activity, which refers to survival
(biosphere) and skills (technosphere).
(v). The US National Parks Registry
On their part, the National Parks of the USA have listed five criteria for the
registration of landscapes of historical and or cultural value, particularly in Bulletins
18 and 38 ( McClelland et.al.1990, Birnbaum 2002). These criteria, presented in
Appendix A, concern places related to (1) historical events or (2) persons, (3)
antiquity, (4) information and (5) art. Answering to one of some of these critereia are,
for a monument or a site, the first stage towards eventual conservation.
2.4
Conclusion from the conceptual Approaches Review
Whatever are the chosen reference theories, the conceptual background of
landscape studies does appear to be multidisciplinary. Therefore, studies of particular
landscapes have to be similarly based on a multidisciplinary approach involving a
broad knowledge of the vernacular culture. As Birnbaum (2002) explains in the
National Parks Bulletin.No36 giving directives for a Cultural Landscape Report:
“Landscapes can be read on many levels –landscape as nature, habitat,
artifact, system, wealth, ideology, history, place and aesthetic. When
developing a strategy to document a cultural landscape, it is important to
attempt to read the landscape in its context of place and time”.
To read the Terengganu landscape in such a way, it is necessary to have a good
measure of familiarity with the culture of the inhabitants and with the geophysical
environment of the state. This is expended in the following chapter three dedicated to
introduce the Terengganu “context of place and time”.
CHAPTER 3
OVERVIEW OF THE CULTURAL LANDSCAPE
OF TERENGGANU
3.0 Introduction
The chapter retraces briefly the cultural background of the state of
Terengganu. This background is made of closely interrelated material and
immaterial components. The components are obtained from multiple sources, from
artistic works to architectural material witnesses as well as scholarly documents and
previous professional research by the author in the fields of ethnobotany and local
history.
3.1 Kampong Nostalgia in the Collective Memory
Cultural landscapes have been associated as “memory-banks” with the
collective memory of a people, a mental representation of what belongs to them and
to their past (Roberts 1994, Arnesen, 1998). There is, in the urban population in
Malaysia, just as in the rest of the world, a growing nostalgia for the original village,
whether it still exists or not. The country life is idealised by the distance and by the
aura of childhood first loves. The formerly “untouched” East Coast states of
Terengganu and Kelantan are particularly reputed for such idyllic views.
39
3.1.1
A romantic Archetype
Kampongs scenes in water colour like those of painter Ismail Zain (who
hailed from Besut) are bought for hotels for guest to enjoy the scenery without the
lack of comfort. Banking corporations buy painter Chang Fee Ming’s (who was born
in Dungun) village lines of batik to decorate their grey walls. Figure 3.1 shows
reproductions of such paintings made in Terengganu by artists the works of whom
are nowadays sought after by amateurs, not only because of their artistic value, but
also because of their emotional and cultural contents.
Keith Miller: untitled, Pulau Duyung (1989)
Chang Fee Ming “Sail”, P.Duyung (1987).
Figure 3.1: Paintings of Village Landscapes in Terengganu. (Author private
collection and in Chang, 2002)
In Keth Miller’s painting, the sekuci boat evocates the river and the near-by
sea; culture is represented by the shape of the boat, the timber houses with belanda
roof and Singhora tiles. In Chang Fee Ming’s work, nature is felt as the cloth is
blown away by the monsoon winds, while the batik colours and patterns evocate the
hand of the Terengganu crafstmen..
In Malay language, kampung -village- means “home” as well as a particular
place. The whole village is the mental habitat of the villager. Perhaps ancient
experiences of collective migrations have played a role in forging this strong link.
As Dellios (2002) in her study of the Malay village perceptions reports, “and at the
base of every man’s and woman’s sense of self is his or her village…In South Asia
you are not from a village, you belong to it.”
40
The kampung archetype is more than any original village with rural traditions
and family values. It is shaped by closeness with the country luxuriant flora and
fauna, the dramatic nature, the monsoons and rivers, padi fields and palms estates,
virgin forests, misty highlands and sandy coasts bordered by the waves of the ocean
where the Malays used to find their rezeki livelihood even at the risk of their lives
3.1.2
Novels and Short Stories
In contemporary Malay novels, the village “background” is part and parcel of
the story, almost a character in its own right. In “Hari Hari terakhir Seorang
Seniman”, Anwar Ridhwan (1979) describes a well and its surroundings, ablutions
in quietness of the morning to prepare for the drama of the brutality of a Japanese
occupant.
In Angin Timor Laut by Othman Kelantan (1969), a fisherman is sitting on
the lambuh verandah of his house, facing the monsoon. The boundaries of his
compounds are the waves.
In “Empangan” Zakaria Ali (1990) shows how villagers become aware of
their personal preferences, amongst feuds that reflect the importance of the change
that a dam will bring to the landscape and the life of the inhabitants, and what values
are at stake.
French “planter-writers” Henri Fauconnier (1930) and Pierre Boulle (1951),
who have lived in Malaysia in the first part of the twentieth century have given a
good place in their novels the natural landscape surrounding villages, and to “l’ame
de la Malaisie” (the “soul of Malaya”) inseparable for them from that landscape.
British writings, often made by Government servants, give a more academic
view of the places but some, as the short stories written by Hugh Clifford (1897), do
41
reflect the particular atmosphere of the Malay village where nature is omnipresent,
particularly on the more secluded Eastern part of the Peninsula.
3.2
Natural Environment in Terengganu
The State of Terengganu is described as a coastal state when compared to the
other states in Peninsular Malaysia. Yet the land is far from flat or monotonous. A
relief map of Malaysia with the location of Terengganu is shown on Figure 3.2
42
Figure 3. 2: Relief Map of Malaysia with details on the State of Terengganu.
(Source: Polunin 1988.)
3.2.1 Geography
Beginning at about 6 degrees north of the equator, the state of Terengganu
stretches for about 600 km along the China Sea. The relief is divided vertically. On
43
the West are the counterforts of the Banjaran Titwangsa, the Main Range,
culminating at 1518m (Gunong Lawit) in the North and 1479m (Gunong
Gelemat)in the South (Direktorat Pemetaan Malaysia,1988).
Further east, on a lower hilly terrain, rubber and palm oil plantations expand
down to the coastal low-land Dipterocarps forests, belukar (secondary forest), padi
fields, mangrove and long stretches of sand beaches.
In turn, rivers divide the land horizontally, flowing from the high hills inland
toward the sea. The Kemaman, Dungun, Marang, Terengganu, and Besut rivers
give their names to the main districts of the State. The estuary of the last two rivers
spread fan-like in a Northern direction towards the Gulf of Siam.
The rivers begin as streams that cut their path through limestone rock creating
a landscape of boulders and caves, cascading down in water falls and “jeram
(rapids) to become the wide and deep waterways that used to be the main roads in
the past. For a few days in the year, joining the high tides of the full moon during the
rainy season, they flood some of the surrounding lands and villages (Chang, 2000)
The climate is humid with precipitations the heaviest in Peninsular Malaysia
(Polunin 1988); but winds up to 60 km/h from the monsoon full force and breezes
from the sea and from the land ensure that the most populated areas along the
corridors of the rivers or around the estuaries are well ventilated.
The soils are generally considered as poor, formed of red soil (laterite) and a
thin layer of humus, suitable for padi, orchards and vegetable gardens (Yvan Biot,
personal communication ). There are fresh water fish and wild animals, deer, wild
boars, elephants and tigers. Cattle (buffaloes and cows herds) are seen in Besut and
Dungun area. Cows favour the warm roads for the night and goats are still roaming
freely in villages
The vegetation was once so overpowering, that Crawford (1856) in his
dictionary, could write about Terengganu: “of this area nothing certain is known…
nearly the whole is continuous jungle in its present state of very little use to man”.
44
3. 2.2
Wild Flora
With a relief undisturbed for so long, Malaysian flora is includes species
contemporary with the dinosaurs such as the Cycas -common on Terengganu
islands, which can be traced back to “150 to 200 million years ago” (Hsuang Keng
1978). The Malaysian Peninsula is also a passage way for winds, birds and boats
from the far away shores of the Indian and Pacific Oceans and a cross road for all
kinds of migrations from the north down to the warmer lands of the Tropics.
The feature that strike visiting botanists (Deverre 1985, Hume, 1984) is the
diversity of species. That is especially true of Terengganu. The state is located
within the region where most of the 27 endemic genera of Peninsular Malaysia are
found. The richest flora of the Malay Peninsula occurs in south Kelantan,
Terengganu, north Pahang and eastern Perak (Corner, 1952, Hsuan Keng 1978).
Species from Asia, America, Africa, the Middle West and even Australia strive here,
auguring well for the resources at the disposal of the inhabitants.
With the giants of the Dipterocarps forest reaching heigths above 50 m,
there are Rubiaceae, the family of the gambir and coffee, Apocynacea full of
alkaloids, spicy smelling Lauracea and Annonacea, herbs like the Gingiberacees
including the endemic Geostachys. There are the lotus-like Eltingera elatior, palms
and bananas species, giant ferns and mangrove species growing stilts and aerial
roots forming the most exuberant and entertaining of the natural landscapes.
3.2.3
Natural landscapes
The tropical landscape in Terengganu differs from temperate regions of
Europe or of northern America as the “fragmentation” (Taylor 2002) is not evident.
Balance between the amount of nature and culture is obviously unplanned. Not all
the owners of the land exploit their property. Villages are rich in semi-wild areas
that provide a striking backdrop to the house compounds. (Polunin 1988).
45
Habitations are hidden not only among planted fruit trees and coconuts trees
but also below the foliage of wild species such as the renggas (Gluta sp.), cengal
pasir (Hopea odorata) and meninjau (Gnetum gnemon). On the coastal area, houses
are interspaced with mengkuang (Pandanus sp.), Nipah, gelam (Melaleucca
leucadendron), putat (Barringtonia sp.), bebaru (Hibiscus sp.), all wild species with
attractive fruits or flowers.
As one walks around and in the villages, as the author had continual
occasions to do, living on the field and during years of ethnobotanical research, the
natural landscape of the villages appears grandiose. At the turn of a path, wild floral
species gather in gigantic clusters. Coconut trees or nibong (Oncosperma tigilaria)
are wrapped in climbers used by other climbers to reach the sun forming visually
entertaining compositions. There are the violet flowers of Ipomeas and Aristolochia
with a parachute shaped fruit. The background is filled with the arches of bamboos
and the strong green of banana leaves.
The round fruit of the mangrove gurah, (Euphorbiacea) hang like rustic
ornaments over the titian timber planks paths that cross swampy areas. In the
perspective, village houses are framed by the dark fronds of Nipah palms contrasting
with their brightly coloured walls.
Epiphytes bring more visual interest with the red flowers of the dedalu
(Loranthus sp.) or the long hair of the rambut puteri (Cassytha filiformis). After a
rain fall, the white beads of the pigeon orchids decorate the coconut trunks.
The village wild fauna, especially the birds, adds colour, sound and
movement to the views: On a sun exposed river bank, blue headed doves rest on a
branch under the fragile flowers of a bongor (Lagerstroemia sp.) Metallic green
dollar birds perch on dead coconut trees. Yellow orioles dart toward the red flowers
of tamarind trees. Sea eagles circle with twirls of warm air .Dozens of butterflies
gather around the sweet smelling flowers of a Mengkudu (Morinda sp.)
46
3.3
History, Economy and Society of Terengganu
In times in history when travel by sea was frequent, the beaches and sheltered
estuaries of the Terengganu coasts had attracted people (Weatley 1966) Limestone
caves hidden in the forest hills of the interior offered attractive refuge from wild
animals and weather challenges.
3.3.1
Historical Background
3.3.1.1 A Harbour and a Land of Passage
One of the first descriptions of Terengganu landscape is -befittingly- seen
from the sea. It was recorded by a Chinese traveler, Wang Ta-yuan in around 1330:
“Ting-Chia-Lu (Terengganu) is a triangular island separated from
neighbouring districts by a creek which acts as an important waterway. The
island is high and desolate. The fields are middling to poor, but even the
poorest folks have enough food. There are heavy rains in spring and the
climate is somewhat warm”.(Wheatley 1966, 80).
For an approaching boat, hills emerging along the coast may make
Terengganu, (now the area where the capital city is located) look like an island
(Wan Ahmad, personal communication). Older folks remember paddling to the
market on a small river from the bank of the estuary of the Terengganu River to
Tanjung, on the other side of Bukit Puteri Hill (Wan Endut , personal
communication). Much of the area was a swamp marked by names of areas in the
city such as Istana Kolam, Kampung Paya Keladi, with Bukit Besar and Bukit Kecil
hills emerging on another side of the swamp.
47
The Chinese travelers may have ventured further inland perhaps following
the Nerus river where one of Admiral Cheng Ho junks is said to have been stranded
in Jeram around 1410 (Longuet 1984). Name of places such as Padang Air, Lubuk
Kerbau, Padang Hangus, Banggol, Gong Tok Nasek etc. evoke a land often flooded,
with holes and emerging monticules.
3.3.1.2 Early Inhabitants
Relics have been found in the hills and on the coast, pointing to pre-historical
settlements on the coast and in the interior. Manik potteries, bones from prehistoric
times, drums with the sun and star patterns of the Dong Son culture (Sorensen
2002), Sailendra or Majapahit burial jars (Mohd Taib 1987). Both coasts and hills
have been places of passage or dwelling, showing that Terengganu was frequented
from the sea and on land by groups of peoples coming probably from the north and
the north east.
It seems (Muhammad Salleh1992) that the first organized government was
an emporium located up the Terengganu river. The “Terengganu stone” sets the
existence of a Muslim ruler (Telanai) in Kuala Berang as early as 1304 AD. That
connects Terengganu with the future destiny of the rest of the Peninsula where Islam
was going to give a new face to the formerly Hinduised states.
3.3.1.3
Sultanates
By 1726 a royal family had been established (Muhammad Salleh 1992; Khoo
1991). In the middle of the eighteen century, Sultan Mansur developed crafts and,
then mostly maritime, trade. Later, Baginda Omar (1839-1875) actively favored
technology transfers, inviting foreign experts in tembaga metal working from Yunan
(Daud Mohamad, personal communication), boat building from France (Gibson-
48
Hill, 1949) and batik from Java (Mohd Taib, 1997). The harbour of Kuala
Terengganu was thriving:
“For many years, traders from Europe never ceased to call at Kuala
Terengganu, which, in the mid-eighteen century was regarded as one of the
busiest ports between the Indian Ocean and the China Sea.” (Khoo 1991, 88.)
In the first part of the nineteen century, something happened in Pattani that
would have much repercussion on Terengganu. The Malay ruler who had the
support of the Terengganu court was ousted by the favorite of the Siamese (Abdul
Halim Bashah, 1994,). His partisans had to run away. Unable to take refuge for long
in Kelantan where the Siamese ruler had much influence, they sought Baginda
Omar’s protection Baginda gave them land and they were often trusted with official
duties. (Mohd Taib, 1997)
According to previous researches by the author in Trengganu family
genealogies and interviews of the inhabitants of the villages, it appears that many of
the new comers were originally part of the diaspora of the ancient Malay kingdom of
Champa (Wan Endut, personal communication, Longuet 1991). Accepted within
the Terengganu ruling class, they brought to the state their knowledge in Islamic
religion, in administration and their experience in trade. They also brought their
traditions in wood working: carving, house and boat building. Many of them were
able nakhoda (sea captains) and sea men.
Assisted by Haji Ngah (Datuk Amar), Sultan Zainal Abidin II (1881-1918)
the descendant of Baginda Omar, continued the tradition of an active maritime
international trade with export of songket, batik, dry fish exchanged for ceramic,
cotton, silk, rice and opium. Clay bricks, charcoal and salt were carried on coastal
routes along the Gulf of Siam (Sheppard 1949, Wan Ahmad, personal
communication).
49
3.3.2
Economy : from Success to Obsolescence
In “Papers on Terengganu”, Sheppard (1949) has described the industrious
atmosphere of the last of the great Sultanates of Terengganu: Crafts, songket, batik,
weapons making, weaving, fishing, boat and house building, were shaping a
sophisticated landscape of Terengganu, the traces of which are still visible today.
After 1945 and the difficult years of World War II with Japanese and Thai
occupation and even three weeks of Bintang Tiga communist rule, peace returned
and the economic environment evolved. Transport by sea became less profitable
(Wan Ahmad “Khoda”, pers.com.). Roads replaced the sea and the rivers as means
of communication. The landscape on the water changed with engine motored
fishing. On land, industrial rubber and palm oil agriculture replaced part of the
forest. Iron ore was exploited in Bukit Besi (Khoo 1991).
Yet, the numerous village activities involving working with tembaga
brassware, cloth weaving and dying, boat building, carving and painting, musical
instruments, mats, hats (terenduk) baskets making and food preparing, all still
existed about twenty year ago.(observation by the author). These crafts products
found outside markets among amateurs and were still used by the locals in their
daily life The handcrafts activities conducted below the houses on stilts contributed
to make the villages landscapes lively. Meanwhile, fishing with trawls (pukat
harimau) was thriving. Boat builders and Jeragan (trawler skippers) built spacious
timber houses and went to perform the Haj.
Since about 15 years, there are no more perahu besar (salt trading schooners)
entering the estuaries all sails open. A few tigers and elephants in search of lost
territories prowl in new gardens. No more licenses are issued for coastal fishing.
The new 80ft trawlers have to compete with the cheaper labour of Thai fleets. Padi
field are replaced by housing estates that have become a more profitable way to use
land.
For a long while (1974-2001) Petroleum offshore provided a source of wealth
for the state, large roads and a fairy tale illumination on the Kemaman coast.
50
Tourism brought tall hotels on the sea shore and resorts mushroomed on the offshore
islands.
Today, the Terengganu government is promoting a “new civilisation”.
“Tamadun Baru bemula di Sini” was the slogan of the “Terengganu Monsoon Cup”
in November 2005, an event which involved world rated sailors. The future is now
turned towards international modernity and vast projects that, it is hoped, will
accommodate the needs of the inhabitants by bringing a new prosperity.
3.3.3
A hierarchised Society
In 1984, Shaharil Taib Robert, studying the society in Terengganu, wrote
(that was later confirmed by Gullik (1987) on the West part of Malaysia) : “The
ruling class and the subject class formed the main elements in the Malay social
system”. However, added Shaharil (1984) “this division of classes was blurred at its
borders.”
The members of the Terengganu ruling class influenced the image of the
present built environment (Shaharil 1988). They had the means to create residences
and compounds that reflected their rank and would benefit a few generations after
them. Often traveling abroad, they were aware of international styles and techniques.
The ruling class carried the “burden” of teaching religion, making the land
prosperous and maintaining order. Capital was earned and re-invested in land and
maritime trade, agriculture, fruit trees, rice, pepper, rubber, and given to charity in
the form of schools, mosques, surau* and wakaf* (Shaharil 1988)
Family connections were all important. A group of relatives, orphans,
retainers, servants and craftsmen lives on the fringe of an aristocratic family under
their protection and on their land.
51
The “subject class”, the commoners, or “rakyat biasa* “, had been further
described as divided in threes categories “the fishermen, who dwelt along the coast,
the artisans who inhabited the capital and other coastal town as well as the villages
in their immediate vicinity, and, finally the agricultural population who occupied the
villages scattered over the rest of the country” (Khoo 1991): Life was to work
physically, “at times very hard” (Clifford 1961), and bring up the children that will
take care of them later. The “rakyat” frequented the surau and saved money for the
one time pilgrimage to Mecca. Women baked cakes, wove songket*, mats or hats.
Men opened batik* or wood workshops below their house or close by. Crews for
sailing and fishing were in demand. Mobility was frequent as men followed
employment opportunities.
Within the hierarchy, charisma and power (keramat) of the leader ensures the
loyalty of the followers. There is permanent interaction between neighbours and
members of a same surau chapel. Work stops on days when a villager passes away
so that everyone can participate in the funeral rites.
Beside hierarchy, stability was the second characteristic of the Terengganu
society. At the end of his study, Shaharil (1984) notes that the social structure was
not altered by the colonial presence. It has not been drastically altered until today
(Khoo, 1991).Villagers’ ancient perception of the social hierarchy persists.
However, numerous members of the ruling class have now moved out of
Terengganu, towards responsibilities with the Federal government or greener
pastures, leaving the ancestral family compounds to the ward of elderly relatives.
52
3.4.
The particularity of the Terengganu Village
3.4.1
The kampung in scholarly studies
Today, some urban Malaysians discover that they have no more kampung to
go back to wonder what will be the meaning of the word for new generations (Karim
Raslan, 2002). Furthermore, the word “kampung” carries connotations of lack of
civilization. A stigma of poverty remains. In some areas, rural living is still quite
rudimentary.
.
Studies made in the 1970s from a socio-economic point of view in Perak, in
Kelantan and in Pahang give villages lay out plans and explain the social fabric of
some communities and their livelihood (Wan Hashim, 1978; Kuchiba et al.,1979,).
However, the correlation between the traditions of the villagers and the shaping of
the landscapes is not particularly considered.
In the Encyclopedia of Malaysia, Chen (1998) sums up in a sketch the
general features of a Malay village lay out. The represented features can be observed
in Terengganu: a river, coconut trees, houses on stilts, a mosque, fields and winding
paths; yet the portrayed settlements are not located in Terengganu: There is no
apparent unity of orientation of the houses, no rules of village lay out nor a
particular architectural identity, when these three elements have become apparent to
the few authors who observed the state residential areas.
Architect Raja Bahrin (1988), studying the Terengganu timber houses,
remarked that mental expectations inherited from western approaches may be
inadequate to Malaysian reality such as the Malay villages:
…
“The kampong is in essence, not a residential ground in the sense the
term is defined in sociology text books. The definition of the village as a
territorial group is based on the European image of a settlement and is strictly
not applicable to the Malay village settlement.” (Raja Bahrin, 1988, 1)
53
Munshi Abdullah, a Malay writer from the West coast, would misunderstand
the setting of the habitations Kuala Terengganu which he visited in 1836:
“The houses are in all jagged rows, (“congkah mankih”} and different
following their fantasy , their fences are in zig - zag (“bengkang bengkok”), the
high roofs made of palms, with dirt and rubbish all the way down below where
heaps of coconut husks are kept to burn at night to chase mosquitoes.”
(in Muhammad Saleh, 1992, translated by the author)
3.4.2
The Terengganu Village Lay out
It is usual to see the habitat and the lay out of the Malay village described
as “dispersed habitat” (Mohd Taib, 1997).having a “random lay out” (Lim, 1987).
These terms evoke a certain disorder or lack of rules in the settlement; but rules are
present in the lay out of a Terengganu village. The first thing that an observer
would notice, particularly in the morning, is that the houses are all facing the same
morning sun direction. The second is that the houses are –mostly- placed in
quincunx. A reason for this was explained by the religious requirement of not
obstructing the light or the view and not intruding on the privacy of a neighbour
(Mohd Yusof, 1997).
Raja Bahrin (1988) suggests that one way to identify the boundaries of a
village would be to measure the distance to which the call to the prayer carries, (-a
distance that, he remarks, moves with the direction of the wind). Neighbourhood is
also defined by a circle of forty houses around one’s residence. From the Islamic
point of view, the inhabitants within that circle are neighbours and should be invited
to share familial festivities.
The cadastre was introduced in 1919 (Muhamad Saleh 1991). Yet, it is
probable that the study will confirm that the boundaries of a residential compound
are similarly marked more by custom (adat) and pragmatism than by law.
54
.
One other constant feature is the above mentioned rule of orientation of the
roof of a house main structure (rumah ibu,* ) toward North West, the Kiblat or the
direction of Mecca, the holy city of Islam. writes
“To devout Muslim today, this might be the main consideration in the house
orientation: the short side of the house facing Mecca.”
(Raja Bahrin, 1988,40)
This traditional feature is independent from the style of the buildings. It is
mentioned as well by Lim (1987) in his description of the traditional Malay house. It
is not recorded as been systematic in other states of Malaysia (except in Kelantan
and Kedah, states which share common historical features with Terengganu).
3.4.3
Terengganu House Architecture
Following Sheppard (1970), and Raja Bahrin (1988), the Terengganu houses
have at first been described in terms of the number of their posts. That was perhaps
according to the inhabitants practice of identify a house by its size: one simple
building is rumah bujang *, one larger building, rumah tiang dua belas*, or a
double (twin ) buildings, rumah kembar*. Some of these houses were decorated by
timber roof ends finishings (mempeles), carvings (sobek) and trimmings (kumai).
The previously mentioned records of fourteen architecturally significant
residences from Terengganu described in the archives of the Pusat Kajian Alam
Bina Melayu KALAM (2002), at the Faculty of Built Environment in Universiti
Teknologi Malaysia illustrate the variety and the value of the state’s architectural
heritage.
As new styles have been introduced, new denominations have been adopted
by house builders and inhabitants. Like the boats by their sails, houses architectural
style in Terengganu are now more defined by their “top sides” -by their roofs
55
features. Recapitulating data made at the occasion of research on the history of a
number of houses in Terengganu, the author had distinguished a chronological
prevalence of styles (Longuet 1991).
-
From unknown date to 1900: The “rumah berpeles*” with tunjuk langit*
-
From 1900 onward the lima bungkus*
-
From around 1935 onward the atap Belanda* with buah gutong*
-
Later, after the 2nd world war, came glass windows and the “A” frame
roofs structure (@1948).
Finishing decorative elements mark the status of the owners and the period of
the building. Foreign inspiration is present (Chinese, European, Indian) yet
integrated to the vernacular design.
The basic tripartite composition or lay out of the house remains constant: luar
“outside” which is in fact inside the house but is an area reserved to visitors- dalam
“ inside”–dapur –“ kitchen”. It is noted by Lim (1987), Raja Bahrin (1988) and still
exists today. The open-end design which allows ulterior modifications of the
buildings is integrated in the construction.
Another architectural feature is the house basic shape resulting from an
adaptation to the climate and natural environment. The practical design confers to
the buildings their striking visual identity with high roofs, stilts and the organic look
due to the use of materials from the local forests. The later source was abundant
because of the sub-tropical location of the state and its geology “relatively stable for
over fifty million years” preserving a thriving biodiversity (Hsuan Keng 1978).
3.5
Villagers Beliefs and Relationship with Nature
Back in the fifteen century, Wang Ta Yuang (Weatley, 1966) already
observed about “Ting Ka Lu” that “The supernatural plays a large part in the life of
the people”. At the same time, nature was primordial.
56
3.5.1
A Mystical Interpretation of Nature
“Life” for the villager meant constant relationship with a powerful and
often fearsome natural environment Later, Western researchers have been puzzled
by the juxtaposition of “animism” and staunch Islamic belief within the Malay
psyche which could be “shaman, magician and sufi” (Winsted, 1981). The world
“animism” does not render well the spiritual link with nature that is experienced by
the Malay villager.
Furthermore, according to Coatalen (1982) who bases his remarks on
Kelantan boat designs and Mohd Ghouse (1995) who bases his on classic Malay
dances, Hinduism, in a way, may have prepared the Malay to monotheism. The
Malays had once adopted a Brahmanist vision of the universe. Shiva was the giver
of life and the giver of death. Various divinities, perhaps assimilated to spirits and
fairies, ruled nature. But behind nature, there was one Giver of life.
Muslim religious teachers in Terengganu, the Sheik and Syed of Middle East
and Patani origin (Mohamad Abu Bakar 1987), eager to fight the Hinduist
mythology even in the puppets of the wayang kulit, did not fight so vigourously the
native practices and superstitions as long as the fundamental tauhid, belief in one
God, was upheld.
3.5.1.1 Unity of man and nature
The relationship of the Malays in general and of the Terengganu people in
particular, was always one of unity with nature and is quite officially recognized:
“Daya tarikan pantai yang menuysur panjang turut mempengaruhi karakter
rakyat Terengganu yang tidak di nafikan wujudnya hubungan alam-manusia zaman
berzaman”. “The charm of the long stretches of sand by the sea has influenced the
57
character of the Terengganu people for whom, it is a fact, the relation between man
and nature has existed since the beginning of time.
(State Development Economic Planning Unit (2004,170)
Traditional healers or bomoh* explain their knowledge as part of a holistic
world view. Nature, for example, has “urat*”, structural lines and energy paths
There are urat designs on wood and coconut, and urat of the blood veins. For the
Malay bomoh , there is no structural difference between man and his natural
environment. (Longuet 1984).
This is not an anthropocentric interpretation, but the ontological* perception
that man and nature, animals, plants, mountains, are ruled by the same rules of
balance of life elements: air, water, earth and fire.
3.5.1.2 Superstition transcended
The Muslim ulamak* did not sever the link with the forces of nature. The
attitude of fear and respect was not condemned, but Islamised. To sail on the ocean
or enter the forest, the villager would still place himself under the protection of the
invisible but the original mantera* was completed by a final dua kalimah* or
replaced by evocations of the tutelary prophets for the sea and the forest (Wan
Khadijah, personal communication).
When the people in Terengganu became Muslim, nature became Muslim too.
The ancient pattern of relationship with nature was re-interpreted As an elderly
village woman ( Hajah Wok, personal communication) confided: “Pohon menjadi
tinggi, tinggi adalah doanya kepada Tuhan” –“The growth of the tree is its prayer to
God”-.
58
3.5.1.3 Artistic creation
On their part, Malays artists and craftsmen such as the Terengganu tukang *
seek to interpret the symbolic messages written in nature and translate them in their
work. (Abdul Razak, 1999, Ismail Said, 2001). For them, nature itself is a symbol
emanating of the ultimate Reality. In this, Malay craftsmen, Islamic scientists and
mystics read the world the same way:
“Nature in itself is not a divine entity, but a symbolic form which manifests
the divine” (Syed Muhammad Naquib Al-Attas, 1989, 3)
Furthering the spiritual significance given to the environment by the Muslim
Malays, researchers such as Muhammad Affandi (1995) in Kelantan have recorded
mystical interpretations of house architecture. The building itself is an esoteric
lesson in religious knowledge, just as nature is a veiled revelation for the Muslim
scientists to decipher.
3.5.1.4 Cosmic triangulation
Sea voyagers as the Malays of the north-east were, they put great importance
to the knowledge of their position compared to the sun, the stars, the date in the year
and the time of the day. A proper house in the past could not be erected before a full
analysis of the proposed site was made in relation to the tangible and intangible
forces that may influence the future life of the inhabitants.
In the Besut district of Terengganu, traditional healers and foresters (Ariffin,
personal communication) refer to the “Tajul Muluk” . This book is a compilation of
diagrams and formula to find out auspicious days, and, for choosing the site of a
house, interpret the land shape, earth colour and taste. Orientation of the land and
buildings, placation of the spirits of the place, wind directions, each is taken in
consideration.
59
3.5.2 A Psychological Bond
Nature is a companion through life, invited to the celebration of rites of
passage, to birth, marriages, illnesses, and burials. Floral species were at hand.
Their fragrance pervaded the houses, alternating with the more common smell of the
daily spices and signaling familial events (Longuet 1984).
In competitions and games, animal champions gave a measure of the owner’s
strength or cunning. Wau kites playing with the air masses in movements imitated
the soaring of the sea eagles.
Men and animals shared permanently an experience of life or death. A poet
and fisherman living in Seberang Takir, a village tugged between the sea and the
estuary of the Terengganu river, expressed that intimacy in a few words:
Sewaktu minyak tumpah di laut
Ikan hidupku
Dalam kematian.
J.M.Aziz “Kembang Selaut” (1988)
3.5.3
Quotidian Use of Nature Resources
The role of nature in the Malaysian traditional “pharmacy” has now been well
documented (Burkill, 1966; Gimlette, 1971; A.Samad, 1982, Wiart 2000). Nature
was -and to some extend still is- a seemingly inexhaustible reserve of resources and
knowledge for the villagers in Terengganu. Wood carvings of floral elements
contribute to good ventilation and place the house in continuity with its surroundings
The repetition of Convolvulacea patterns on door lintels (Ismail 2002) and
Trichosanthes wallichii on boats (Coatalen 1982) expresses the close link between
nature and man’s daily life.
60
The red flowers of the Erythrina tree marks the end of the monsoon and the
beginning of the sailing season for the perahu besar* (Wan Ahmad, personal
communication). Plants provide materials for traps, cages, wrappers and household
accessories such as the popular penyapu lidi, a multipurpose kind of broom made of
coconut rib, the sound of which frighten marauding cats.
Some animals such as cats and merpati pigeons, favored by the Prophet are
kept as pets. Goats, chicken, enliven the compound life with their intrusions in the
houses or gardens. Wild fauna participate to the life of the house compound they
have adopted as their territory. Magpie robins sing their early duos, an eagle dines
on a sea snake in a particular cengal tree and the biawak giant lizard sneaks under
the houses hunting for young chicken. All are part of the rich texture of the
compound landscape.
3.6
Conclusion
The background overview has shown that society and landscape in
Terengganu was rooted in history, culture and religion as well as indigenous ways of
using human and natural resources. Having attempted to capture some of the essence
of the Terengganu culture will help understand better the features that will be
observed during the house compound surveys. It also allows devising a methodology
suitable to the multifaceted subject of study.
CHAPTER 4
METHODOLOGY
House compounds nested in rural or anciently established areas such as the
state of Terengganu, are usually considered as traditional. They are automatically
seen as loaded with features significant for the community where they are found,
and so generally deemed to be culturally valuable. Yet, to prove and substantiate
that claim is complex. This chapter explains how this will be done. It presents:
1) The theoretical framework of the study;
2) The investigation procedure;
3) The inventory tools and information supports.
4.1
Theoretical Framework
The study research procedure is based on the holistic ecology theoretical
approach (Naveh 2000). Cultural components and criteria for cultural value
constitute its guidelines.
4.1.1
Cultural Landscape Components:
The tri-dimensional perspective of the Total Human Ecology places features
observed in the house compounds within the broadest context of a human and
natural heritage It covers data in space and time, as well as the permanent dynamic
61
exchange between the present and the past in the various fields of a community life
(Naveh 2000)..
For the purpose of this study, the concept of spheres central to Naveh’s
holistic ecology has been found suitable. A simplified pattern, similar to Naveh’s
“construct” was designed to interpret the cultural background of the Terengganu
house compound. Three groups, equivalent to Naveh’s spheres, were identified: (i)
the “collective psyche” –equivalent to the “noosphere”, (ii) the “group survival”,
equivalent to the “biosphere*and (iii) the “state history”, equivalent to the
“technosphere*. Figure 4.1 shows the schema of this operative interpretation:
STATE HISTORY
COLLECTIVE PSYCHE
(technosphere)
(noosphere)
Political &
historical events
Social organisation
Prehistory, first settlements
Indianised civilisations
Economical
activities
Beliefs – world view
Interpretation of nature
A multilayered. interactive roots Terengganu
system
House
Compound
Architecture,
techniques &
principles
Ethnic groups
Way of life &
Accessories
Natural environment
Challenges &
Resources
Practical knowledge
Experience
GROUP SURVIVAL
(biosphere)
Figure 4.1 : A typical Terengganu house compound interpreted in a holistic ecological
landscape perspective (schema by the author).
62
Within the three main groups of cultural components, nine environment
factors or more detailed components of Terengganu cultural identity have been
further deducted from the overview in Chapter 3
(i) The first group of components, “Collective psyche” comprises of
a) Prehistory, first settlements, Indianized civilisation;
b) Beliefs, world view and interpretation of nature.
(ii) The second group, “Group survival” includes:
a) Ethnic groups way of life and accessories;
b) Natural environment challenges and resources;
c) Practical knowledge and experience.
(iii) The third group,”State history” is composed of:
a) Political and historical events;
b) Social organisation;
c) Economic activities;
d) Architecture, techniques and principles.
The whirl of the pattern aims at illustrating the overlapping dynamic structure
of reality behind the landscape. The schema emphasizes the permanence and
continued role of the tacit components “below” the “above”-more immediately
visual- components. This interpretative schema is used as a guide particularly in the
first and last two stages of the research as explained below.
4.1.1 1 Role of the identified cultural Components as Guides in the Study
During field surveys, the multilevel components schema helps spotting the
significance of features of cultural that could be overlooked or explained only by
their function. For instance, the high benches (bangku) found in the villages are not
simple benches. They are particular garden furniture of areas where floods were
63
frequent and people sat crossed legged, and lived outdoors (“Group Survival”
components). Significant as well are the small “pagar” not only “mini gardens” but
fences to protect a few plants species in communities where larger fences were rare
or signalled status (“State history” components).
In the final stage of the study, the groups of cultural components provide a
reference framework when, as a result of the study, a number of house compounds
features are presented as material expressions of the culture of the inhabitants, but a
specific connection with the cultural roots still has to be shown.
Throughout the field surveys, the “trans-disciplinary” (Naveh, 2000)
approach allows reading the past alive in the present and to connect what is seen
with the unseen. Decorative roof features, such as the tunjuk langit and the buah
gutung, may then be connected with the history of the northern Malays' diaspora
(“State history” components) as well as with symbolism in architecture, an
important trait of the Malay world view (“Collective psyche” components).
4.1.2
Role of the cultural value criteria as guides in the study
The second set of guidelines is found in the criteria briefly elicited in Chapter
two. These are particularly useful in interviews, to prepare questions to respondents
on antiquity and events (National Parks Registry criteria, McClelland et al., 1990)
as well as to obtain more subjective data, from inhabitants’ perception and
experience of their habitat (Kaplan1975, Appelton1975, Taylor, 2002). Table 4.1
recapitulates the 17 selected criteria:
64
Table 4.1 Cultural landscape Criteria from various theoretical Perspectives
No Theories
Informational preference model:
1
Criteria
Stephen and
Coherence, legibility, mystery, complexity
Rachel Kaplan (1978)
2
Experiential Approach Taylor et al (1987) &
Environment-Behaviour Studies
Rapoport (1960, 2004)
Benefit, entertainment, relaxation,
space social role,
.
3
4
Holistic Landscape Ecology Zev Naveh (2000)
&
Historical perspectives: Daniel J.Marcucci
(2000)
US National Park Registry (Bull.18 &38)
.
Religion, rites, status, activity
Antiquity, Historical Events, or persons,
Information, arts,
Perhaps, using one or two series of established assessment criteria (Nor Atiah
(2003), could be considered sufficient; but the multi-faceted approach is necessitated
by the intrinsic richness of the subject. The house compounds respond to a wide
range of criteria which determine ”cultural” from a variety of perspectives may
answer to a wide spectrum of criteria.
It could be advanced as well that some the criteria have been arbitrarily
deducted. However, in this preliminary exploration, the criteria are used in a
heuristic manner. They are needed on the field to seek features that may have
cultural significance.
Finally, the criteria will be used to screen the investigated compounds for
cultural value. The screening is a recapitulation of the findings to obtain
quantitative data. The frequently responded to criteria will further reveal priorities in
the choice of values of the inhabitants as expressed in their built environment.
65
4.2
Dynamics of the Demonstration
The above dual theoretical framework –components and criteria- results in
two paths of reasoning that leads to two sets of results: one focuses on the building
of the identity of the Terengganu cultural landscapes, the other on the demonstration
of the cultural value of these landscapes. In the centre of the process, field inventory
yields data that are gathered and interpreted on these two paths as shown in Figure
4.2.
Reasoning path
Observations
T’gnu Cultural
Components
Field inventory
Detailed data
Types & other
characteristics
Reasoning Path
Criteria for
Cultural Value
screening
Elicitation of
principles &
priorities
Cultural “portrait” of the
sample
Consequence:
Toward a
conceptualisation
of the Tgnu
Cultural landscape
Identity
Empirical verification:
Links Features and T'gnu
Cultural Components
Illustration
Assessment of
Cultural value
Implication: possible
Extrapolation to other
Hse compounds in Tgnu
Demonstration
Figure 4.2: Dynamics of the Demonstration
The investigation is represented as an interactive triptych. The columns show
respectively (i) the building of an identity, (ii) the observation and description of the
subject and (iii) the logics of the demonstration.
66
4. 3
Prerequisites to the investigation
The investigation would not start without considering a few aspects which
may influence the reliability -understood as “likeliness of consistency of the
observations” (Babbie, 1975, 98) and the validity -understood as “accuracy of the
deductions” (Babbie, ibid.) of the study. These are: the method of sample
acquisition, the objectivity requirements and optimum size of the data collection.
4.3.1
Sample acquisition
Finding appropriate series of house compound to serve as research sample is
not a straightforward process because of the recent developments occurring in the
state of Terengganu.
4.3.1.1 Selection
A random selection sampling was at first the objective chosen as a mean to
acquire field data. According to Babbie (1975 ), a random selection process is one in
which “each element has an equal chance of selection that is independent of any
other event in the selection process”. Any house compound located in Terengganu
within the frame of a certain quantity of house compounds pre-selected on the base
that there is a compound and an habitation, could be surveyed
(i)
Actual selection process
Unfortunately, more and more residences not obviously rooted in the
vernacular architecture and cultural context border the roads of the state. To save
time, areas known from historical records (Muhammad Saleh 1992) as having been
established since at list three generations were used as base for the research. .
67
As most of the population of the state is Malay and follow the same
customs (Unit Perancang Economi Negeri Terengganu 2004), the reliability and
validity of the results of the study, in case, for example, one would extrapolate from
the sample or proceed for future similar studies, is narrowed to “traditional” house
compounds in Terengganu..
An initial total of 25 cases of such residences composed of house(s) and
grounds, were identified. In some cases, the apparent garden was not structured
enough to qualify as ground belonging to the residence. For instance, in one site, in
Lorong Haji Jamil, in Kuala Terengganu, a cluster of ancient houses linked to a
common ancestor Haji Awang Besar seemed to be organised on both sides of a
picturesque timber path. Interviews showed that the path was a gift made by the
township authorities to the residents. It was a compensation for the floods caused by
road development around their urban kampung. The compound was not included in
the 25, but a neighbouring cluster, answering the criteria (house and compound) was
retained.
From the base of 25 preliminary surveyed, 16 cases were selected on a quasirandom basis determined by ulterior travel and time opportunities. Some house
compounds were found in the same village, some were the only unit surveyed in one
village. The initial sample size was modified in favour of the more manageable16
units, remarking that Nor Atiah, (2003) was able to work with a survey 9 rural
residences. However, the larger number of 16 house compound was retained to
accommodate the variety of units as, even during the first surveys, visual differences
between the types of house compounds were obvious.
(ii) Integrity*
“Traditional villages” by name are still a majority in the state, but, in reality
traditional features within these villages are rapidly disappearing. As the house
compounds are undergoing a process of transformation, there might be a variable
degree of cultural “integrity”* of the house compounds on the field. There is a risk
that fewer and fewer features worthy of being identified as cultural can be found in
the considered residences.
68
4.3.2
Objectivity: Observer previous Knowledge and Involvement
During field surveys, observation is to be kept objective, avoiding on the field
subjective interpretation which may impact on the sites ability to deliver their
specific elements.
The author, living and working since more than thirty years in the field, has
accumulated an experiential image of a Terengganu house compound landscape. In
the process of building evidence for this study, the author may unconsciously select
the compounds that are still relatively whole (to comply for the US National Parks
“integrity” criteria for example) or those that are more easily readable examples
(“legibility” criteria) of cultural value. As Babble (1975, 200) wrote
“The researcher who undertakes the selection of cases on an intuitive basis
might very well select cases that would support his research expectations or
hypothesis.”
The remedy is random sampling. “This procedure serves as a check on
conscious or unconscious bias on the part of the researcher”, further explains the
Babbie (1975). With the quasi-random opportunistic selection process of 16 cases
from a previous larger number of 25 house compounds chosen here, the observer
potential bias may be considered as reasonably kept in check.
Further validation of the findings such as verification through “intersubjectivities* (Babbie 1975) -where results from other researchers are used, as well
as empirical verification, will be considered in the final stages of this research.
On the other hand, the author previous ethnobotanical and historical
knowledge, is also an advantage as understanding of feature significance may be
enhanced by background knowledge while trust is more easily built with interviews
respondents.
69
4.3.3 Range of Data Collection: Profusion and Parsimony
The range of features in the four landscape elements, namely plant species
ground elements, architecture and fauna, to be surveyed to obtain a holistic view of
the house compounds and the profusion of information inherent to cultural reality
presage a rich harvest.
However, the object of the research is not an exhaustive survey of house
compounds or a thorough characterisation, but an elicitation, through investigations,
of a number of cultural features to warrant consideration of these rural residences as
cultural landscapes.
To guide and limit the exploration of data, and for verification of the
assumption purpose, it was resorted to “parsimony*”, a method from the social
research discipline described by Babbie (1975,44 ):
“The social scientist attempts to gain the most explanatory power out of the
smallest number of variables”
The idea is to consider only enough data -the smallest number of variables- to
demonstrate a point. Here, these data will be chosen to prove the existence of
cultural features or characteristics in Terengganu from the observation of a series of
house compounds. In other terms, identify the landscapes only enough to prove that
they are cultural.
For this purpose,the inventory needs not to be exhaustive. However, an
appropriate amount of data must be collected. “Enough” here will means relating
solely to the objectives of the study, i.e.: (i) allowing a simple statistic treatment of
the information such as determination of the frequency of occurrences of features,
(ii) spot particular features and (iii) express the relationship between the inhabitants
and the flora of their compound.
Similarly, the findings or priority traits or characteristics elicited from
analysis of the inventory lists do not have to be exhaustive. At the present stage, for
70
the purpose of the demonstration, only the verification of the cultural value of a
number of frequent features found in the house compounds is necessary.
4.4.
Operative Classification
To extract the culturally significant features from the mass of documentation
gathered, a classification system has been sought.
The World Conservation Union has underlined the importance of
“classifying, assessing and prioritizing” threatened landscapes(Green and Vos,
2001). Their goal is to help select those of the landscapes that will qualify to be
registered for preservation as world heritage. The same approach of classifying
systematically and assessing valued landscape is used here for the house compounds
in Terengganu.
4.4.1
The heuristic Types of House Compounds
Typology is one way of classifying. In this research, operative or heuristic*
types were identified from previous experience in the field, corroborated by
literature.
Shaharil (1984), Khoo (2002), have agreed that the society in Terengganu
during the last three centuries was clearly stratified according to status and
occupation. Privileges were expressed in the way of living and residences of the
“Ruling Class”. Even if society may have changed since, the houses that are seen
today were built and the land was organised during these historical times, so a
classification based on the historically documented social structures is still relevant.
At the beginning of the study, following Clifford (1961), Shaharil (1984) and
Khoo (2002), the house compounds were divided in four types, corresponding to
71
socio-economic categories of the Terengganu population, observing that the
compounds where they lived were marked by signs of belonging to these categories.
The preliminary classification distinguished: (i) Aristocrat; (ii) Fisherman; iii)
Farmer; (iv)Town dweller.
“Aristocrat” house compound was the vast, brick and stucco or carved timber
residences surrounded with an equally vast compound indicating the power and
wealth of their owner. “Fisherman” compound was the rudimentary sea side
dwellings and “farmer” designed the more upriver agriculture based settlements.
Both these two “types” exhibited the tools of their trade in their compounds. Then,
corresponding to the twentieth century’s urbanisation with the growth of
administration, education and businesses, especially around the capital of Kuala
Terengganu, during the twentieth century was the “”town dweller” type of
compound. The later, though, was still, until the around 1990, quite rural. The
capital of the state was a gathering of villages with only a few urban arteries very
similar to the description Munshi Abdullah has made of it in 1836 (Muhammad
Saleh,1992). There were a rural looking areas inside town where it was even
possible to go “botanizing” (Hume,1984).
The first type classification was challenged during the preliminary
explorations: Some house compounds could not fit into the proposed categories.
Although they were based upon vernacular social archetypes, the categories were
not adequate. “Fisherman” (“nelayan”) house compound was not comprehensive
enough to include other occupations. “Town dweller”, (“orang Bandar”} was too
general to reflect the actual variety of the compounds within the “urban”
agglomerations.
The proposed types were modified to follow field observations as illustrated
in Table 4.2
72
Table 4.2 Adjustment of the Heuristic Types
No
Literature
on“State History”
and
“Group Survival”
Preliminary types
1
2
3
4
Politics, society
Architecture,
economy
Relationship with
nature
Trial
of house compounds
Fisherman
Town dweller
Aristocrat
Farmer
Field observation
during exploratory
surveys
Final types
of house compounds
Rakyat
Aristocrat
Clan heritage
Farmer
The finally proposed category of “Rakyat” covers a wide range of
occupations: school teachers, policemen, craftsmen, small traders who live in town
areas as well as in the villages. The Malay word ”rakyat” has been retained as other
terms such as ”commoners”, “people” or “citizen”, carry superfluous connotations.
Rapoport ( 2004) encountered similar difficulty in defining what is “vernacular”
local, people’s architecture etc. the French “populaire” seemed adequate to
Rapoport (2004) but it had other meanings as well and so could not be used here.
“Clan heritage” could be considered as a sub-category of “Aristocrat”; but it is based
on a very distinctive ground and building layout that justifies setting it apart.
At this point, it may be advised to limit the study to only one type of house
compound. However, the hypothetic “types” are proposed categories in the process
of being identified, and cannot be considered as reference before sufficient amount
of facts are collected. The historical and socio-economic based typology is not yet
confirmed by further anthropological research. Therefore, it was not suitable to
select only one of these.
4. 5
Field Inventory Procedure
The research follows the sequence recommended for studies in “material
culture” or “built form” (Rapoport 2004 ) which involves observation, inventory and
interpretation. Similar sequence is recommended in the National Parks Register
73
Bulletins on rural residential sites: (i).field investigation, (ii) analysis and (iii)
assessment.
Research is qualitative and quantitative. It is conducted through case studies
on the field and followed by recapitulative tabulation of data. It refers to practical
guidelines for landscape surveys and Cultural Landscape Report from the USA
National Park Registry Bulletins (Birnbaum 2000) which have been used as well by
the National Heritage Trust of Malaysia, (Badan Warisan 1990 ).
“To document existing conditions, intensive field investigation and
reconnaissance should be exchanged at the same time as documentary
research is being gathered.”
(Birnbaum 2000)
Then, because of the difference of stage in the heritage preservation process,
and following the principle of parsimony evoked earlier, the intensive investigation
will be limited to obtainment of some computable (frequency) data, and to a number
of characteristics of the vernacular identity. The research may be intensive and
extensive but not exhaustive.
From the spectrum of data gathered in the field on the plant species, ground
features, architectural features and the animals that live there or visit, as well as from
the interviews, the research will extract some landscape characteristics. The data
will be narrowed and screened to elicit those which answer to criteria for cultural
value, obtaining the targeted assessment in five steps shown in bold characters on
Figure 4.3.
74
: Data collection:
Inventory Flora, Grounds,
Architecture and Fauna
Analysis: Quantitative approach
Frequency of feature
occurrence
Analysis Qualitative Approach
Particular features
Ethno-botanical data
Findings elicitation:
General traits and
Characteristics
Screening to criteria for
Cultural Value
Preliminary Assessment
Fig. 4.3: Detail of the research sequence from the site inventory to the
preliminary cultural assessment
To guide the field surveys, a standard check list of landscape features is used
referring to previous surveys in Malaysia ( Ismail Said et al.,2000, 20-23 ) together
with a short list of questions for interviews; then, on site, sketch plans are made and
photographs are taken. The results are collated on individual data sheets.
4.5.1
Check List of Elements and Features
(i) The compound in general: neighbourhood, general setting, size, access and
boundaries; one house with a garden or a group sharing a ground; enclosed or not; or
a house with ancillary buildings in a compound; proportion flora and built elements
(ii) The main building, the “house”: style of the building (s), proportions in
height, in width, number of roofs, materials, and number of buildings attached and
transition areas, veranda and stairs, entrances, and accessories.
(iii) The grounds: general aspect and lay out; garden, hardscape, water features and
other accessories,; general aspect: symmetry, order, or fantasy, harmony or
75
disorder; trees, shrubs, climbers, creepers, herbs; colours, foliage branching, leaves
flowers and fruit.
(iv) Plant species: arrangement: systematic, traditional, spontaneous; plants in pots,
wild species. Uses of these by the inhabitants: deliberately decorative (gardening
and horticulture) or ethnobotanical uses: food, medicine, cosmetic; boundary
markers, accent and shade.
(v) Fauna domestic: selected species by inhabitants: chicken, turkeys, ducks, geese,
cage birds, monkeys, goats and cattle; wild species.
4.5.2
Interviews
This part of the field investigation is important as, to be qualified as cultural,
a landscape must be connected to the life or the worldview of the inhabitants and
express it (Robert1994, Birnbaum, 2002).
The statement by the inhabitants of a link between their life and a particular
feature, a ground accessory, or a plant species, is a clue of the cultural value of that
feature. Interviews were semi-structured. They were conversations guided by non
formal questionnaires designed to obtain context data while avoiding intruding on
the privacy of the respondents. Amongst the necessary data were:
(i) Date (s) of construction of the house, age of the present inhabitants, their main
occupation, the one of the founder and his origins as well as the other significant
details concerning the family.
(ii) Information on features names, origins, uses and particularly on the relationship
existing between the inhabitants and the plant species.
(iii) Historical and socio-economic data on the significance some “particular
features” or potentially idiosyncratic features.
76
4. 5. 3
Site Surveys Procedure
The material tools used for gathering field information are: note book for
field notes interviews and drafts sketches; a camera, a measuring tape and a
compass.
The first step is to obtain permission to conduct the survey. It is often
accompanied by a first interview. The pictures are taken: front view of the
compound, facade of the house, main entrance view, side and back garden. Details
prominent at a glance are recorded. Voluminous sketch notes were taken at the
beginning. These were later simplified as the data became organised in field data
sheets to be filled in. The tape will be used mostly to verify the height of the post of
the buildings.
As a result, one house compounds generally has an investigation file
comprising of photographs, interviews reports, field notes, data sheets and draft
sketches plans. Figure 4.4 and Figure 4.5 give an example of filled in data sheet and
sketch plan, for one “Clan Heritage” house compound located in Kuala Hiliran.
Further examples of house compounds data sheets and investigation files are
available in Appendix B.
77
Field survey Data Sheet
Proposed category: “Clan Heritage House Compound"
Front view, linked houses
Location: Kuala Hiliran
Kuala Terengganu
Main resident(s) usual Name(s): Haji Yusof Kelang and descendants
Features
The compound
- neighbourhood …Kuala Hiliran, 2km from KT, ancient wealthy families. Religion and trade by the
Terengganu River.
general setting atmosphere orientation…a hamlet around a “surau” chapel under centenarian fruit
trees. east west compound orientation
- boundaries and circulation…a concrete wall on the south side, tall trees, a
bitumed path leads through the compound to the surau and the river side.
- size (1 ekar = 7 lots)…@ 2 ekar.
- access…Through the river (jetty); main entrance at a small road.
- one house with a garden or………………
- group sharing a delimited ground :7 houses around the path and the surau
- house with ancillary buildings in a compound,………………………………
- proportion flora and built elements within the compound .. Flora 5, built 5.
The buildings:
- style of the main building …each of T’gnu traditional styles + indications
of Tudor roofs, and even “Art Nouveau” inspired floral motives.
- orientation of “rumah ibu”…”Kiblat”.
- proportions roofs, walls, stilts…8’/9’/7’.
- length, width, ………………………
- number of roofs …at least 2 for each house, + kitchen and extensions.
- materials and colours …painted timber, mix colours.
- number of buildings attached …variable.
Window on house 4
- transition areas, …pelantar corridors, titian passages between houses
- verandahs …a few, on top of entrance staircases.
- stairs and entrances …protected by roofs…
- windows : shutters, glass, shapes and colours…varied incl. foreign inspired patterns.
- ancillary buildings ….
- movable accessories….
- contents of the space below the house …cars garage, ancient sampan, furniture and jars store.
- kitchen drying rack jack roof. - status signals: verandah, balconies, fences and gates, carvings.
Fig.4. 4: Example of Field Surveys Data Set: C1, Kuala Hiliran.
78
The grounds
- category: courtyard garden, plantation…residential orchard.
- lay out, various parts….focal center surau, yet as houses follow
standard lay out, gardens around these do too.
- hard features…bathroom (see below)
- soil…. turf, sand, earth, bitumen.
- drains … around the houses.
- communal bathroon around a well …,
Former outdoor Bathroom (hse 2)
elaborated “outdoor bathroom
disused.wild gingers grow in the former large kolah
.- toilets hut… with well on South side
- outdoors indicators of activity…(cloth lines with batiq, baskets, platforms for dry fish, coconut
dehusker, pounding devices.
- garden furniture: resting beds and benches…Not seen.
- special cages for chicken and roosters…
Flora (see individual compounds check lists)
- plants organisation (systematic or not, harmony, symmetry or not)……………………
- planted species in pot:.. some, conscupious use of Asplenium nidum at the foot of porch post.
- on the ground list…………………
- wild species………………………
- function of the plants (apparent & inhabitants knowledge)
decorative (deliberate gardening and horticulture)……
food. ……mangoustan, mangoes, bananas, jambu,
rambutan
medicine & cosmetic ……………………
boundary marker …………………………
accent: entrance, center piece…………………….
shade………………………………………
religion & rites………………………………………
others (game, seat, building and tools material)………
- habit: trees, shrubs, climbers, creepers, herbs, palms…
- colours, foliage branching trunks flowers and fruit……
Kitchen with peles & jackroof (hse 4)
- seasonal variations……
Fauna
- domestic: cats, chicken, peacock, turkey, geese, pigeons and doves or goats, monkeys, moscovi ducks
(social markers!)
- wild : usually related to the species of trees and foodstuff attraction ……………
Interviews
- permissions: to take photos, make sketches and measurements …+ guided visits.
- date of construction and shifts …@1900-1930-1950.
- identity of inhabitants (those who lived the compound)…Haji Yusof and descendants.
ethnic/geographic origins, religion …Cham, Indian Muslim.
social status/occupation …Sea captain, trader in iron ore, modern corporate businesses .Visits by
Sultan Suleiman.
- use of the plants as reported by the informant…decoration and medicinal.
Results:
- grounds and garden design, architecture, history, sociology. Haji Yusof curbing a kongsi revolt
received land in Kelang from the British. conclusion: type as deemed? Yes : Genealogy of the Clan
written in the group of buildings: link between houses 3 and 4 still exist at the top of the stair cas.e
- particular lessons from the considered compound: Clan style aristocratic; reproduces T”gnu village
lay out; for Terengganu,villages in general: Ecclectism in architecture.
Fig.4.4: Example of Field Surveys data sets, C1, continued.
(Pictures by author, 2004)
79
.Records
1. Pictures: Façade elevation Side elevation Details
2 .sketch plan of the general lay out: buildings and flora
3
4
5
2
1
6
Fig.4. 5: Example of Sketch Plan, “Clan Heritage Compound” C1, Kuala
Hiliran.
80
4.6.4
Collation of Data on structured Information Supports:
Information from the field inventory is recapitulated on sketch plans, tables,
and charts which constitute an analytic grid. These are:
4.6.4.1 House Compound Sketch Plans
As Raja Bahrin (1988) has found, the compound boundaries were often
imprecise, marked on one or two sides and unclear on other sides. The sides that
were visually obvious were counted in steps. One step is equivalent to about 50 cm
The approximate measurements of distance between ground elements, plant species,
main building(s) and ancillary sheds were reported on field sketches. The field
sketches were later copied on millimetre paper, and finally reproduced on tracing
paper to obtain the sketches plans.
The compound sketch plans collate the pictorial inventory of the features of
the four elements of the compounds, flora, architectures grounds and fauna. They
also provides details of lay out and spatial organisation. These sketches carry
information of cultural significance such as constants and patterns which would be
difficult to find out without referring to them: location of ground elements, house
entrances and compound access orientations etc.
They are not to scale as the distances have been only estimated. They also do
not follow a regular south-north orientation because the plant species names have
been written as seen on the field, viewed from the compound most usual access.
4.6.4.2 Recapitulative Tables of Features Occurrence
Four series of recapitulative inventory tables record the data collected from
the surveys on the four considered landscape elements: the flora, the grounds, the
81
architecture and the fauna. The total of most frequent features highlighted on the
tables provides the general characteristics of the house compounds landscapes. The
tables allow as well comparison between house compounds species density at one
glance.
4.6.4.3 Ethno-botanical Tables and Charts
A series of complementary data based on botanical sources and inhabitants’
interviews provide more information on the observed plant species and on the
present relationship of the inhabitants with them. Individual lists of plants species in
each house compounds are tabulated. They indicate: habit of the plants species,
geographical botanical origin, uses, location on the compound and horticultural data.
Charts are used to illustrate the proportional uses of the species in each
compound. These findings can then be analysed to derive more specific
characteristics.
4.7
Exploration of the surveyed House Compounds
4.7.1
Sample identification
The targeted traditional landscapes are expected to have been formed through
decades or even centuries of history. Therefore, areas known locally and from
literature as ancient settlements had been selected. Exploratory forays led to hills of
the Malaysian Main Range in Kampong Pasir Raja where people caught wild birds
with glue on the Erythrina trees or to the belacang shrimp paste makers in Kampong
Bari on the northern coast.
82
The original total of 25 compounds was down-sized to 16 quasi randomly
picked up (following opportunities), mostly the estuary of the Terengganu River.
This area is rich in settlements reputed for being the residence of famous religious
teachers, traders, sea captains and craftsmen. Such are the connected islands of
Pulau Duyung and Pulau Ketam ( 3 compounds), the villages of Kuala Hiliran,
Losong, Paluh (3 compounds), Sungei Rengas (1 compound) on the southern bank,
and Kampung Batin (1 compound) on the northern bank of the river.
The capital city of Kuala Terengganu is bordered by the estuary of the
Terengganu River on one side and the China Sea on the other. Some of its interior
villages are linked to episodes of Malaysian history such as the selected compound
in Lorong Haji Jamil. Until very recently, clusters of timbers houses such as the one
surveyed in Jalan Hiliran were frequently seen in the city and surroundings.
One compound is located in a fishing villages area on the northern coast in
Batu Rakit and one is a farm inland, up the Sungai Gawi river, close to the Kenyir
Dam Lake. Other farms are found at Padang Air in the north of Kuala Terenganu,
and Kampung Belara and on the south east in what was until a few years ago ”the
rice belt” of the city, and in Bukit Cempaka, a village known for its top spinning
champions.
Figure 4.6 shows a sketch of the locations of the surveyed house compounds
on the map of the State of Terengganu.
83
84
4.7. 2
House Compounds Classification and Code Identification
The Sixteen house compounds were selected following opportunities, within
the total of 25 house compounds gathered previously from villages known to have
been settled since more than three generation on the base that there was an apparent
compound unit, a residence and grounds. Potential “types” appeared during the first
surveys and were adjusted as described above. In the end, the “Aristocrat” category,
although conspicuous by the deliberate ordinance of its settings was elusive,
probably because wealthy inhabitants have modernised their ancestral home or have
moved away and the collection was limited at three samples. The “Rakyat” category
was more frequent (5 samples).
After having noted significant features relating to the socio-economic status
of the inhabitants and occupation, it was possible to classify temporarily the selected
compounds according to the proposed types and to give them an identification code
as shown in Tables 4.3, 4.4, 4.5 and 4.6.
Table 4.3: “Rakyat” House Compounds and Identification Code
House
Compound
Code
R1
Village or
street
District
Batu Rakit
Batu Rakit
Physical
area
Builder owner
Occupant*
Activity
Coast
Pak Su Yusof
Mak Su
Juruselam, food
seller
“Goreng pisang”
Past
Present
Passed away**
R2
Jalan
Kamarudin
Kuala
Terengganu
Town
En.Yusof
En.Mansur
House builder
R3
Pulau
Ketam
Kuala
Terengganu
Village on
island in
river
Wan Muda
Che Da
Wan The
Fishernan
Mengkuang
Weaver
As in the past
R4
Pulau Ketam
Kuala
Terengganu
En.Hamzah
Army
Entrepreneur
R5
Sungai
Rengas
Kuala
Terengganu
Village on
island in
river
Village,
riverside
Pak Su Man
“Castro” and
Wife
Miner,
traditional healer
Passed away
*The more prominent members of the family are named here, with their most commonly known “title”
Retired
policeman
Qoran teacher
85
**Are noted as such only those inhabitants that passed away during the time of the research
Table 4. 4: “Aristocrat” House Compounds and Identification code
House
Compound
Code
A1
Village or
street
District
Physical
area
Builder owner
Occupant
Kampung
Batin
A2
A3
Activity
Kuala Nerus
Village
riverside
Engku haji Long
Engku Maimunah
Schools
inspector
Pulau
Duyung
Kecil
Kuala
Terengganu
Village in
island in
river
Dato Biji Sura
Tok Hakim
(Judge)
Losong
Haji Mat
Kuala
Terengganu
Ancient
Village
Haji Embong
Businessman
Physical
area
Builder owner
Occupant*
Past
Present
Land owner
Land owner
House
Compound
Code
C1
Village
or street
District
Activity
Kuala
Hiliran
Kuala
Terengganu
Village,
river side
Haji Yusof
“Kelang”&
descendants
Businessmen
Iron ore
Land owners
C2
Pulau
Ketam
Kuala
Terengganu
Village in
river
island
Haji Ibrahim &
descendants
Nakhoda
Juragan
Academic
C3
Kpg
Paloh
Kuala
Terengganu
Village
riverside
Tokku Paloh &
descendants
Religious
teacher &
royal advisor
Teachers
C4
Lorong
Haji
Jamil
Kuala
Terengganu
Old town
Haji Awang
Besar &
descendants
Boat owner
Trader &
stockist
Property owner
Architect
Past
Present
Table 4.5: “Clan heritage” House Compounds and Identification Code
86
Table 4.6: “Farmer” house Compounds and Identification Code
House
Compound
Code
Village
District
Physical
area
Padang
Air
Kuala
Nerus
Village
F1
Bukit
Cempaka
Nerus
F2
Village,
padi &
orchards
Belara
Selat
Nerus
F3
Pasir Dule
Hulu
Telemong
F4
Builder
owner
Occupant*
Haji Da &
spouse
Activity
Past
Present
Healer, tops
maker
Healer
(bekam)
Haji Yusof
Farmer, land
owner
Passed away
Village,
padi &
orchards
Haji Wok &
Children
Farmer. Land
owner
Farmer, son
entrepreneur
Village
forest
Mek Senik
Midwife
Forest
collector
Midwife, plant
nursery
entrepreneur
4.8. Field Surveys and Informants Response
The surveys were conducted between January 2003 and February 2004,
complemented by verification visits in 2005 and January 2006. The exploration
surveys were made in three visits of two to four hours each. The time chosen were
early in the morning around 7 a.m. to 10 a.m., when the inhabitants are back from
the surau or the market, and are sweeping the ground or watering plants and in the
afternoons around 5 p.m. when they burn the rubbish and take some time to rest.
The first met respondents were third or fourth generation inhabitants,
encountered by chance during their free time (teachers, and other government
employees), entrepreneurs and gardeners just back home or retirees who quasi
permanently live on the compound. Some of these, after answering to a few
preliminary questions, re-directed the author towards an elder, a grand parent or a
parent who “knew about those things from the past”(Hajah Wok’daughter in law in
F3) and had the leisure to speak. The dean of the respondents was 85 year-old Haji
Da a jovial bomoh bekam traditional practitioner (Farmer house compound F1), then
came Haji Yusof, 82, the gasing top spinning specialist and Hajah Wok,80, the duku
87
lady . The young adult generation -around 40 of age, was knowledgeable as well and
would help explain a word embedded in local pronunciation of their elders. The
children would guide the author all around the compound, mentioning vernacular
names of plants species -and birds- which were later confirmed or identified on
samples by the elders. In most of the cases (Clan C4 in Lorong Haji Jamil,
Aristocrats in Losong and Seberang Kampong Batin), elderly adults above sixty of
age, born during or a few years before World War II had knowledge of the origins
of the family as well as of the approximate date of the compound settlement, the first
building of the house and the provenance of some decorative elements.
Concerning the three respondents who passed away during the three years
span of the research, the interviews were resumed with their children or their spouse
who took at heart to continue the dialogue.
During interviews, very rarely, some questions were uncomfortable for some
respondents because private aspects of the family history would surface such as
matters of rank between wives, or heritage division etc. On the other hand, historical
events (such as bombing of Pulau Kambing, Bintang Tiga communist brief episode)
family ties, ancestors activities related to the compound are willingly recalled.
Function of plants and ground elements, ancient accessories are volunteered as well
Measurements of the buildings (with a tape for stilts or posts height) and
land, even by simple means such as counting distances in steps, was perceived as
slightly infringing on inhabitants privacy by the author; so was taking pictures of
personal accessories (fish traps, jars, looms,). However, permissions were given by
the inhabitants willing to assist in the collection of information on a passing or past
way of life.
88
The interviews were conducted at the leisure of the respondents, letting them
reminisce of the past. At the same time, precisions would be obtained on date of
construction and modifications of the house and grounds, identity, origins and social
status/occupation of the inhabitants. The oral information from the interviewees was
compared to the status signals on the house and compound. Usually a good
consistency was observed.
CHAPTER 5
INVENTORY, ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS
5.0
Introduction
The findings presented in this chapter are derived from analysing the data on the
house compounds collated on supports introduced in the methodology chapter. These
finding are: -the most frequent features in the sample of 16, -particular features of
cultural significance, -space articulation and patterns and, finally, -details on the
relationship between the inhabitants and the plant species of the compounds.
5.1
Most Frequent features
The lists of the house compounds features obtained from the compound surveys
are available on the recapitulation tables gathered at the end of this chapter. The most
frequent of these features, which give their general character to the compounds have
been extracted and are reported in the following paragraphs.
5.1.1
Frequent Flora Features
The information on plants species is presented according to botanical habits:
trees, shrubs, herbs, climber and epiphytes and palms. Local and scientific names have
89
been recorded on the field using the author previous knowledge and the assistance of
the inhabitants, verified in Burkill (1966), Gimlette(1971), Dunn (1975) as well as,
occasionally, in Polunin (1988), Chin (1999) and Ismail Saidin (2000) for pictorial
comparisons..
i)
Tree Species:
The total of species of trees in the sample is 54 . 11 Species are most frequent.
These are: mempelam (Mangifera indica) (11 occurrences), jambu (Sizygium aquae)
(9), betek Carica papaya (8), asam jawa (Tamarindus indicus) (8) duku (Lansium
domesticum) (7), durian (Durio zibethinus) (7) semeta or mangis (Garcinia
mangostana), kuini Mangifera odorata, rambutan Nephelium lappaceum, nangka
Artocarpus heterophyllum, meninjau Gnetum gnemon (6) .
Confirming literature on Malaysia and Terengganu landscape , tree species bring
an overpowering visual contribution to the landscapes (Nor Atiah 2003, Hume, 1984).
Although not particularly grown for aesthetic reasons, trees still bring variety, shade
and add interest by their diversity of shapes and size and the colour of their foliage, the
texture of their bark, the shapes of their branching to the landscapes.
Amongst the 11 most frequent species of trees, towering rambutan (Nephelium
lappaceum) and slow growing manggis (Garcinia magoustana) rivals in height with the
fertile mangoes. The jambu rose apple carries its wiry, low and yellowish grey branches
at the level of the pale green papaya and of the dark waxy leaves of the meninjau
(Gnetum gnemon). The latter, a botanical primitive species (Hsuan Keng,1978) bears
small bright red fruit. Adding more visual variety in the farmers compounds, are the
lanky trunks of silvery old durian (Durio zibethinus) trees. Everywhere the nangka
Artocarpus is conspicuous with its enormous fruits wrapped in batik cloth.
Trees were planted originally sufficiently apart, but nowadays their crowns have
joined and create a canopy roof over the grounds of ancient compounds (C3, C1),
littering the ground with dead leaves, and in season, a superabundance of fruit Figure
5.2 shows some of the most frequently encountered tree species.
90
Mangifera indica
(Pulau Duyung)
Gnetum gnemon
(Kuala Terengganu)
Artocarpus heterophyllum with fruit
wrapped in batik cloth (P.Duyung)
Sizygium aquae
(Kampung Paloh )
Lansium domesticum
(Kampong Paloh)
Figure 5.1: Some of the most often encountered tree species: (:pictures by the author, 2005)
(ii) Shrubs species
A total of 31 species of shrubs is recorded in the whole sample. There are 5 most
frequently observed shrubs species: cekur manis (Sauropus androgynus) (8), bunga
raya (Hibiscus rosa-sinensis) (7), pecah periuk (Ixora coccinea) (6), limau kasturi
(Citrus microcarpa) (6), ubi kayu (Manihot utilissima).(5).
91
Flowering shrubs bring colours to the landscapes at eye level with the red or
white of the bunga raya Hibiscus and the sun loving red and yellow pecah periuk
Ixora, the dark leaves of the native cekur manis (Sauropus androgynus) vegetable and
aromatic green limes. The South American red twigged tapioca plant ubi kayu
(Manihot utilissima) which replaced rice in troubled times is successful to the point of
running wild in the belukar* .Figure 5.1 b) illustrate some of these species:
Sauropus androgynus (PDuyung)
Ixora coccinea (Bukit Cempaka)
Hibiscus rosa sinensis(P.Duyung)
Citrus microcarpa (Pulau Ketam)
Figure 5.2: Some most frequent shrubs species (Pictures by author 2005)
(iii) Herbs species:
72 species of herbs have been observed. 7 are most frequently encountered:
halia and lengkuas (Alpinia spp.) (11 occurences), banana (Musa parasidisa) kadok
(Piper sarmentosum) (9) serai (Cymbopogon citratus) (8), kunyit (Curcuma domestica)
(6), pandan (Pandanus odoratus) (6), bolai (Zingiber cassumar) (6)
92
Herbs are the realm of ornamental flowers, spices and flavours. Their number
heralds flavoured cooking. Feet in the water at the back of the houses, –except for the
lemon grass which likes drier soil, they thrive in patches of sun. The bananas Musa
parasidica long rectangular leaves provide their fruit as well as wrappers for numerous
kinds of dishes. Some of these are illustrated in Figure 5.4 .
Piper sarmentosum (P.Ketam)
Cymbopogon citrates (P.Duyung)
Alpinia languas (Sungai Rengas)
Curcuma domestica (P.Duyung)
Figure 5.4: Some of the most frequent herb species ( Pictures by author,2005)
(iv)
Palm species
The total number of palm species in the sample is 11.The most frequent palm
species is kelapa (Cocos nucifera) (10).followed by pinang (Areca catechu) (3). Palm
species are only a small number yet they often define the skyline. The trunks of the
coconuts trees draw vertical lines on the village landscapes and the shadow of their
93
fronds is projected on the ground. Here and there, the orange muff of the nuts of a
pinang Areca nut tree reminds of former betel chewing traditions.
(v) Climbers and epiphytes
The number of recorded epiphytes and climbers is 26. The most frequent species
of climbers and epiphytes encountered in the sample are: paku langsuyir (Asplenium
nidus) ( 9), bunga loceng (Allamanda cathartica (3), pitis pitis (Drymoglossum
piteseloides (3), and wild and cultivated Orchid species.(3 ).
Climbers and epiphytes confer to the landscapes an air of inextinguishable
energy of nature, climbing on other species. The South American poisonous Allamanda
is easy to grow. Its yellow colour reminds that the city of Kuala Terengganu is the seat
of the royal palace. In the sample, it is seen in fences and in pots in “Aristocrat” and
“Clan heritage” compounds as shown in Figure 4.5.
Orchid sp. on gate (C4)
Allamanda at entrance (A3)
Drymoglossum on Eugenia
Figure 5.5: Some of the most frequent epiphyte and climber species (pictures by
author, 2005)
5.1.1.1 Findings from the Inventory of Plant Species
The inventory of plants species evocates a picture of natural abundance and
illustrates the variety of a tropical landscape. The list of the most frequent species
94
further indicates constants preferences for some species and entails a level of
homogeneity in the landscapes as well as a particular physical character.
(i) Tropical Floral Variety
A total of 194 species have been inventoried, 54 trees, 31 shrubs, 72 herbs, 11
palms, 26 climbers and epiphytes. The average number of species by house compound
is 39, with 28 for the “Rakyat”, 49 for the “Aristocrat”, 40 for the “Clan Heritage” and
39 for the “Farmer’s” categories. The figures confirm botanists (Hsuang Keng 1978,
Hume 1984) evaluation of the richness in species of this area of the Malaysian
peninsula.
Exact comparison with the results from other researches is not readily possible
as the parameters chosen by various authors differ from the ones of this study. For
instance, only medicinal species are listed, or wild species are not part of the surveyed
samples (Ismail et al., 2000), or a whole village is taken as subject study or a
community (Dunn 1975) increasing the number of species sighting. With only 16
residential compounds surveyed, the sample total of 194 species is high considering
that Nor Atiah (2003) recapitulates total of 31 species for three selected house gardens
in one village in Perak and that a total of 101 compound species -42 trees, and 9 shrubs,
herbs, ferns and climbers- is a number of species observed in Malaysian villages over
the whole of Malaysia (Ismail et al., 2002, 71-73).
(ii)
Floral Homogeneity among the Compounds
In a hierarchic society, with a variety of species to choose from as in
Terengganu, one could expect some quantitative or qualitative difference between the
house compounds or at least between the socio-economic types, but the inventory
shows that this is not the case, as the most common species are found in the majority of
the compound. Some differences appear, due to individual preferences in horticulture
increasing the number of decorative plants irrespectively of the type such as in R2 and
R4, where owners are army and police retirees, and in A1 and C4 where the owners,
an aristocratic lady and a retired architect, are devoted amateur gardeners.
95
Charts analysis of the number of species are available in Appendix B .The
number of species does not always reflects the number of individual plants, so these
chart are only indicative of the variety. (The sketch plans, which indicate the location
of the floral features, give an idea of the plants distribution and visual density on the
ground.)
The number of 24 species occurring repetitively or most frequently (5 to 11
sightings within the sample) evocates a common pool of botanical species affording a
degree of qualitative uniformity to the landscape.
Taking in account individual variances, land surfaces and number of cases by
types, calculation in percentage of average occurrence of the number of species of trees
in each type of house compound were made. The obtained average number of tree
species in each type of house compounds ranged from 9 to 14 per house compound.
This indicates a certain quantitative uniformity in the number of tree species across the
sample whatever the type.
Further analysis of the recapitulative tables for other plants habits confirmed a
measure of floral homogeneity amidst the botanical variety. The quantitative similarity
across the types (similar relative density of species) associated to the uniform
occurrence of certain species indicates transmitted knowledge concerning nature
resources. That socio-cultural consensus based on common knowledge is part of the
“survival component” of the Terengganu cultural context.
(iii) Verticality
The rather large amount of tree species (54 occurrences) compared to the
shrubs (31 occurrences) results in a landscape drawn on the vertical plane, even at
times covering the sky corresponding to the mystery psychological variable (Kaplan,
Stephen, 1975). There is rarely a horizon line, but as Nor Atiah (2003) has observed in
the villages in Perak, visually enticing perspectives are framed by large shade-giving
trees evocating the Perspective-Refuge theory (Appleton, 1975)
96
5.1.2
Ground Features and Garden Accessories
A number of 82 “ground features” have been catalogued on the field. These
include hard -scape features, garden furniture and accessories. For convenience, they
have been listed in relation to their function: “water”, “daily life”, “rest and
entertainment”, “space articulation markers” and “trade and work structures”. These
features are closely related to the “survival component” of the common cultural
background. Information were gathered from the inhabitants and from the author
observations, as much as from the literature.
(i)
Water Features:
The most frequently observed water related features are: Slabs at the foot of the
main stairs (14 occurrences), wells (11) and accessories (11), bucket stands (7), kolah
basin (7), running water pipe (7).
Water related features introduce some hardscape elements on the grounds in the
form of step stones and masonry around the wells. Bottom of stairs slabs (made of
concrete12, of timber 2) were used to keep feet clean while pouring water over them.
A minor accessory, together with their former inseparable water jars, they are
significant remains of a society were people used to wear open sandals or walked
barefoot, and where visitors and inhabitants remain barefoot in the houses.
Wells (11) and accessories such as a round concrete base around the walls of the
well (11,) a table, a pail on a support (7), were an essential feature in the compound.
The well was a place of meeting, used by various groups of family members at
different times of the day. The sound of the timba pail and the splashing of the water on
bathing people are still part of the auditory landscape, although less regularly heard
nowadays.
“Kolah” basins made of brick and concrete of prescribed size (@ 75cm x 1m)
had replaced in the nineteen fifties the clay jar collecting rain water on the side of the
97
stairs. A tap would often be fixed over it. Taps and pipes are now as frequent as jars
were in the past, but the water is used to water the flowers pots and the garden.
(ii)
Daily life features
Besides water features, the most frequent features of the inhabitant’s daily
routine are related to fire, they are rubbish disposal fires (9 occurrences) and the
outdoor cooking tripods (8 occurrences).
The burning rubbish fire is omnipresent on the grounds. In the wet climate, with
rains and floods, rubbish never seems to be fully consumed. Vegetal and household
wastes are burned in small heaps. With them come rakes and short lidi brooms made of
coconut palm ribs (8 occurrences).
Iron cooking tripods of different size have also been sighted on the grounds of
even in the more aristocratic compound in Losong (A3). The smaller tripods are for an
occasional “ikan golek” fish in coconut sauce cooked over a slow fire of coconut husks
(R3), the larger ones for kenduri familial feasts.
(iii) Rest and enjoyment elements
The most frequent features in that category are the flower pots (15 occurrences)
and the “gerai” multipurpose platforms (7) which are called “pangkin” in standard
Malay. The total of 7 occurrences includes various styles, some high and table-like,
some with a back rest, other like low beds or round planking circling a tree.
Flower stands and pots are in every compound. The fashion today in potted
plants goes to strangely shaped cactus, Heliconia, Aloe vera, Portulacca and other
ornamentals. The plants are hanged below the bendul *at the foot of the façade of the
house in the “rakyat” compound in Kuala Terengganu (R1) and the “aristocrat” in
Kampong Batin (A1), or simply disposed on the stairs steps. In some areas as in Pulau
Ketam (R4), they are displayed on planks nailed on posts high above the ground out of
reach of floods and passing-by goats.
98
(v) Space articulation markers
The only frequent space markers in the sample are the fences -and these are
rather flimsy structures confirming. Except for the deliberately planned space
organisation of the aristocrat and clan compounds that include a wall (Kota Lama in
Pulau Duyung, A2) or some vegetal and chain-linked fence (A1 in Losong), the
compounds limits are marked only by trees or a few shrubs. At first sight, this gives an
impression of disorder as Munshi Abdullah remarked (Muhamad Saleh 1992).
The boundaries are immaterial or unobtrusive, with loose, interrupted fences (15
occurrences) made from various materials: branches, shrubs, metallic wire and, in two
occasions only, made of brick and stucco walls (A2, C1) as well as planks.
There are –however, definite zones around the house, as Nor Atiah (2003) has
found in Perak, but no material indication of these.Tthere appear to be a tacit agreement
on the “zones” respective uses, which are in continuation with the function of the part
of the house they are close to, a fact that will be further examined during the space
organisation analysis.
(v) Trade and work structures
Various types of cages (12 occurrences) serve as lodgings for the animals
inhabitants of the compound, which in the sample are mostly gallinaceans. These
shelters are individual ground cages made of wire mesh on a trapezoidal (for stability)
frame, “condos” on stilts, or compartments under the house. A monkey in the “farmer”
compound in Bukit Cempaka (F2) had well organized “apartments” arranged up in a
fruit tree and underneath its shade. There are also workshops, shelters and baluh rice
granaries looking like the houses in reduction (11 occurrences).
Accessories are found in the storage area under the house. The most frequently
occurring are sampan small boats (5) and jars (5).
Figure 5. 6 illustrates some of the frequent ground features found in the sample.
99
Well (A1)
Water Jar with Zingiber cassumar (A3)
Bench (with roof and flower pots in R1)
Resting platform with lidi broom (F3)
Figure 5. 5 : Most Frequent ground features (Pictures by author 2004 & 2005)
5.1.2.1 Findings from the Inventory of the most Frequent Ground Features
The inventory of the grounds most frequent features evocate landscapes made
for living in them as well as for living outdoors. They are full of ancillary buildings for
work and animals and many types of resting furniture.
100
(i)
Life outdoors
The numerous resting platforms are found under or around trees or underneath
the houses where elders particularly like to rest. The senior inhabitants’ “outdoor
couch” is so placed that they benefit from the coolness of the shade and enjoy a good
view of the activities around the compound (Hajah Wok in F3 , Haji Da in F1). .
The garden furniture reflects behaviour inside the house. Family communal
platforms illustrate a permanence of traditional seating cross legged on the floor and
half laying reclining postures. Some “garden furniture” is high as if on stilts like the
houses, (benches for example) because of the muddy ground, and because, sitting on
these, the feet are not meant to reach the floor. “Tables” (no chairs in front of these) for
outdoor washing and cooking preparation, can be occasionally sat upon as experienced
during an interview in Pulau Ketam (R4). However, in three compounds (F3, C3 and
R3) while the platforms were still in use, a set of concrete tables and chairs have been
introduced, reflecting outdoors the frequent adoption of western or modern ways of
seating inside the houses especially in the visitors areas.
(ii)
Religious compliance
Daily accessories show a preoccupation of following religious requirements.
Cleanliness, staying away from najis (religious impurities such as blood and others)
from animal or human origin is part of Islamic duties. .The preoccupation of cleanliness
is obvious in the omnipresence of water features, brooms, rakes and rubbish fires.
Noticing the author approach, some inhabitants would come down and sweep the floor
of some dry leaves in (C3, C4); (perhaps was it as well a polite way to enquire of the
author’s purpose)); some inhabitants would even apologize for not having yet cleared
the path (A1, A3).
Wells remain an omnipresent feature, still used, for a cool shower, for watering
plants (A1), or washing feet after work in the kebun vegetable garden . The kolah basin
of proper size for wuduh ritual cleanliness in brick and concrete, collecting rain water
was built to replaced the small jars at the foot of the main entrance stairs. Today a pipe
101
is placed over it (F 1, F3); but shoe-wearing has diminished the use of it the jars as well
as of the kolah.
The clan compound in Paluh (C 3) has three wells corresponding each to a group
of users. For the women the well is at the back of the row of houses, while for the men
of Tukku’s household or close disciples, it is on the left side in the front part in the
middle of the orchard part of the compound (it still has water but is not in use) and for
the public, a larger well is in front of the large kolah (ablutions basin) of the surau on
the eastern entrance.
(iii)
Differences between types
Some differences appear between the types of house compounds in the ground
features compound element. For example, gates are present in Aristocrats and Clan
heritage types; pangkin and workshops are not seen in the Aristocrat compounds, when
they are essential feature in Rakyat compounds and the granaries are present in the
Farmer house compounds.
5.1.3. Frequent Architectural Features and related Findings
54 Architectural features have been selected from the visual (landscape) point of
view. They are divided in: (i) house components, (ii) decorative elements and (iii)
materials.
The most frequent and conspicuous architectural feature are the stilts, or posts
(16 occurrences) and the multiple or additional roofs (16 occurrences). The findings
related to the cultural significance of the architectural landscape components, are
indicated after mention of the most frequently occurring features.
102
(i)
Stilts
Stilts contribute much to the visual character of the Terengganu house. The main
stilts or posts are part of the structure of the buildings (tiang). Some posts are added
timber supports below the houses (tongkat). The feature is seen from the hills of
Vietnam (Dalat) to the Malgaches highland dwellings of Madagascar (Longuet 1984).
It is reported (Sheppard 1959) that the posts were previously planted in the ground
(nineteen Century). Today, the posts are resting on from 100 mm to 300 mm high
concrete blocks (pelapik) which are buried 25 mm or 50 mm in the ground as described
in Killman et al. (1990).
The method allows the insertion of wedges between the posts and the concrete
blocks, in case of shift of the ground, or if strong winds have weakened the timber
structure causing the house to tilt. Moving houses without dismantling them as often
done in the past and, as late as 1991 for the Kota Lama Duyung, is facilitated as the
houses can be lifted from their ground base.
(ii)
Roofs
The abandon of the “planting method” of anchoring the house is an important
detail for the general appearance of the landscape from the point of view of the
architecture. It shifts the role of the actual support of the house from the posts to the
roof whose strength and weight holds the building. Culturally, the primacy of the roof
is known as a Chinese concept, perhaps related in Terengganu to the north eastern
origin of some of the influential Malay families in the state (Longuet 1991).
The tukang or carpenters have also developed great skills in roofs structures
especially at the delicate points of slopes junction and proper slope angle so as to avoid
rain water leaking, a feature essential during the monsoon. “Balek angin” was the term
used by traditional house builder Ibrahim Yusof (personal communication) referring to
the lowest limit of slope steepness beyond which the former Nipah palm roofing would
be lifted by the wind, showing how natural material could influence visual architectural
features such as the slope of the roofs.
103
The Terengganu multiple roofs over sprawling habitations such as those of the
aristocrats (A2, A3) seen in the sample are related to the organic character of the
habitations (open end concept), conceived to grow or diminish with the need of
families living in them (Wan Fadhilah, 2003).
The orientation of the roof ridge of the main building (rumah ibu), constant in
all the sample (toward the kiblat and the sunset, @ 285 degree north west) heralding the
Muslim faith of the inhabitants (Raja Bahrin,1988) may also serve as a compass
reference for travellers to find their way in the village landscape.
(iii)
Decorative house finishing elements
The most frequent finishing features are the “buah gutong*”, the roof ridge
skittle finials (10 occurrences). These skittles are also called “buah buton” in other
parts of Malaysia. In Pattani, they are called “wak mutong” (spelling given by Puetai et
al., 2002). In Java, the diamond shaped fruit of the Barringtonia is called “buah buton”
(Burkill,1966) . However, in Terengganu, the Barringtonia is common in riverside
mangroves and is called the “putat” tree. There are variations on the top part of the
buah gutong, the pointed ones apparently copied from Kedah, the flat square type being
found on a few buildings. In the sample, most are of the small round knob type. They
are not only decorative but functional as they hold the roof ridge and the barge boards
of the roofs in an atap Belanda* styled roof .
The buah gutong, a feature found in classic residences in China, may be related
to Hindu or Buddhism by its levels symbolising ascension from the underworld
towards the divinity or steps for the divinity to descend to the earth. Since, the feature
has probably been endowed of the same Islamic interpretation as the tunjuk langit,
(Muhamad Affendi, 1995), then, the symbolic significance has been hidden under the
common tree species name. The buah gutong, a major feature of the traditional
compound landscape is aesthetic, functional and symbolic.
The other important feature is the presence of the “bendul”, (16 occurrences) a
timber member that run at the bottom of a wall on the exterior, covering the joint of the
planks with the naga trussle. The bendul is straight (“lurus bendul” is proverbial for an
104
exceedingly honest person) is decorated with kumai carvings along the ridge. Both
elements are related to the craftsmen tradition of covering joints. It indicates the
importance of “propriety” in building (Ibrahim Yusof, personal communication) and
the concept of respectability in a residence.
Vertical planking is the most often observed (12 occurrences). It has a cultural
significance behind the elegance of the building method. It is a sign of financial means
as longer planks are more expensive. A favourite with the orang bandar (town people)
as it is less easily open than the vertical style type by marauders (Daud Mohamad,
personal communication).
(iv)
Integrated dish dryers
Frequent too are the prosaic dish dryers, integrated in the kitchen house wall and
overhanging (l3 occurrences), a functional feature made possible by the height of the
house. Dripping water runs with the waste waters streamlet among the gingers and
pandanus species at the back of the house.
(v)
Materials:
Glass windows (12 occurrences) became frequent right after World War II
(building or renovation dates of some houses in A1, C1, R1, and F2). There are thick
and/or tinted .for reasons of strength and privacy, as these more “modern” houses were
built lower on the ground.
Singhora tiles (11 occurrences) used for the roofs of the houses indicate links
with the Malay province of Pattani, Chinese and Malay clay makers and the boats that
carried the tiles (Wan Ahmad, personal communication). The tiles are both cool and
historical as they are extremely difficult to find nowadays. They are presently been
replaced by thicker, larger, glazed mechanical tiles as has been done in a few houses in
Kuala Hiliran (C1) during the time of the research..
105
Cengal (Neo-balanocarpus heimii) (10 occurrences) is used as construction
material in most of the houses, demonstrating a society that was had a sense of quality
and financial means.
Figure 5. 6 shows some examples of the architectural features the most often
encountered in the sample:
a) Buah Gutong, “Singhora” tiles (C4)
c) Buah Gutong and multiple roofs (A1)
b) Sprawling habitation (R5)
d) Stilts (+ tiered and berpeles roof) in C3
Figure 5.7: Most frequent Architectural Features encountered in the Sample
(Pictures by the author, 2005)
106
5.1.4. Fauna Features Inventory and Findings
.
The most frequently observed or heard animals in the sample are, for the
domestic species the chicken (8) and the cats (3).
Animals appear to be invested of status signal. No chicken (except trespassers)
nor Moscovy ducks are seen on the clean grounds of the aristocrat or clan compounds.
Noisy and aggressive geese are acceptable (observed in A2) because they act as
gardians. Goats poach on everyone garden around and in the Rakyat house compounds.
Probably due to timing, wild animals (they move early and out of human reach)
have not been especially noticed during the surveys except one flying fox in Kampong
Paloh. The fauna features were represented mostly by familiar birds that flew by, such
as the orioles, wood peckers and sterlings, contributing to the acoustic as much as to the
visual landscape such as a magpie robin perching on a buah gutong, bulbuls on a
Lansium domesticum tree and the loud and big Malkohas whisling in every corner of
the compounds (Glenister 1971).
5.2.
Particular features of Cultural Significance
Features less frequent than the ones catalogued above may hold a wealth of
meaning for the inhabitants as well as valuable anthropological or historical
information for the researcher. They may be the only remaining witnesses of a by- gone
era.
5.2.1
Particular botanical features
True endemic species to Terengganu have not been identified in the house
compounds and were not expected as these are found more in the unihabited forest hills
(Hsuan Keng 1978); but, evocative of ancient times where the forest was close and its
107
resources essential, are trees such as the jering (Pithecellium jiringi) and rambutan
(Nephelium Lappaceum). Culturally significant botanicals too are the Lansium
domesticum of the duku variety that is found in Vietnam as well (Burkill 1966)
(perhaps pointing to the Champa connections) and the bone setting, frothing, terajang
(Lepisanthes rubiginosum) (“Survival” cultural component). The medicinal sweetener
tebu gajah (Albizia myriophylla) (Longuet 1987) is found planted in the farmer’s
compound F2 but has been collected ‘from the now erased hills” said Haji Da, the
farmer cum traditional practitioner. The Durian trees in the half wild farmer compound
F4 by the forest edge in Pasir Dulang are said to be two hundred year old. Noticeable
too is the persistence of in the gardens the native mango species such as the kuini
(Mangifera odorata) and the pau (Mangifera pentandra).
Usually, wild areas around or sometimes penetrating in the villages compounds
are called “belukar”. The term is translated as “secondary growth”, evoking images of
bushes reclaiming the land, with small Malvacees, Mallotus, Ficus or even lalang
Imperata cylindrica. The belukar observed in the sample includes native species
characteristic of the area such as the Barringtonia racemosa (in R4), Justicia gandarussa
and the majestic Hopea odorata (in C3, and R3). This means that the primary
vegetation is present in its original habitat, on the villagers’ house compounds, or
introduced from the forest as the medicinal Ficus deltoidea in Figure 5.7.
a) Hopea odorata
b) Ficus deltoidea
Cengal kampong P. ketam Mas cotet, P.Ketam
c) Barringtonia racemosa
Putat ayam
Figure 5.7: Examples of Wild native Species favoured (a) and (c), or planted (b)
(Pictures by author, 2006)
108
Further information on the plants with a particular link with the life of the
villagers in the surveyed houses compounds is expended in the ethno-botanical analysis
further below in this chapter.
5.2.2
Particular architectural Features
Some house compound features, although rare nowadays, are part of the
architectural image of the state. They have been mentioned earlier in the literature
review (Raja Bahrin, 1988, Killman et al., 1994, Pusat Kajian Alam Bina Melayu,
2000) like the pemeles* roof end boards, the tunjuk langit* and the intricate carving of
the janda berhias ( or jendela hias) literally “decorative windows” (Abdul Razak,
1999) that have become “decorated widows”. There are also the “wave stairs”, which
have curved forms in harmony with the pemeles, so befitting to former sea traders
communities and reminders of a still little documented history.
5.2.3
Particular Ground Accessories
Humble daily accessories do not lack in significance: One interesting type of
gerai observed in the sample (A1, F3) are low (around 50cm above ground) 2 meter in
length, 60cm wide resting and working platforms. These are originally gerai bersalin
or confinement beds made of spaced planking letting heat from a brasero placed
underneath go through in order to warm up the mother during the traditional post
delivery treatment. Later, covered with a mengkuang Pandanus mat, they serve as an
outdoor day bed. The custom of “roasting the mother “(Gimlette, 1971) is apparently
not recorded anywhere else. Similar post-partum practices have been described in
Kelantan and in Cambodia, but after travels in remote areas of South East Asia, the
particular “gerai bersalin” has been noted by the author only in Terengganu.
.
109
The clothes lines used to be almost diagnostic views of the east coast of the
Peninsula. A few batik -the bright, light coloured, Medan or Cirebon inspired (Wan
Azahar, personal communicaiion), made locally, rectangular pieces of cloth almost
blown away by the monsoon winds were enough to evoke a coastal village in
Terengganu. As shown in chapter three, these views have even become a hallmark of
the state in artist’s paintings. Today, the hand-made charm of true batik is rare, so are
becoming the “kain” sarong as everyday clothing.
Another, rather private but characteristic feature of the clothes lines are the
mother and child similar post-partum garments in two sizes, (observed in Pulau Ketam,
C2): batik for the mother and white cotton for the child, with ribbons, related to the
forty days after delivery confinement (Longuet, 1984).
Jars (A3, R5, R1) of particular designs, now collectors objects, have been seen
often in the sample. The larger ones, made of unglazed clay, recall the times when the
perahu besar (the Terengganu schooners) carried them from Pattani. They had been
made there in Malay or Chinese cottage industry (Wan Ahmad personal
communication) and are particularly elegant in shape. According to one neighbour on
site in kampong Losong, some were filled on the way sailing down “from Siam” with
“tabelok” talcum made from rice powder. Once emptied, they were used as water
reservoirs. Having one of these marked a connection with the sea trade, schooner
captains and the Terengganu merchants community active during the 19th and early part
of the 20th centuries (Khoo, 1991, Mohd Taib, 1997) .
The others jars, each with the shape and the diameter of the opening related to
the contents were told to be used to keep mostly jeruk pinang (preserved areca nut), or
budu fish sauce (R1). They are found in the sample in the more rustic households.
One particular internal “boundary” feature is functional small fences (pagar)
that create gardens within the compound. This feature is not related to a deliberate
space organisation. Small (@1400mm x 2000mm) fences are erected to protect one or a
few young trees from animals. One compound, (C2 in Pulau Ketam) where the owner
breeds fighting cocks and other chicken, has even four of these protective fences.
110
Some particular, perhaps potentially idiosyncratic features are illustrated in
Figure 5.8.
a) “Jenda berhias” (C3)
b) Water Jar from Pattani (A3) c) “Wave stairs”on surau (C3)
Figure 5.8 a),b), and c): Particular ground and architectural features (Pictures
taken by the author 2005)
5.2.4
Particular Fauna features
The inventory of fauna features lists a working pig-tailed monkey that had been
seen in a farmer compound (F2 in Bukit Cempaka). Later, his owner being sick, the
coconut and petai (Parkia speciosa) plucking beruk had been adopted for a while by
someone else. Its lodgings were still in place.
In the clan house compound C2 in pulau Ketam, Pak Majid explained how he
treated his fighting cocks, showing the massaging oils and the vitamins that he kept in
his “clinic” below his house. He confided his sadness at having to send some of his
wards for combats “Anyway, they are fighters” he said. He carefully separate them in
siblings groups putting them by turns in cages and coops on stilts so that his grounds do
not become a battle field. Figure 5. 9 shows some of the features of that compound.
111
a) Pagar fishing net fence
b) Medicines in the “clinic”
c)Young Fighting cocks
Figure 5. 9 a), b) and c) Particular fauna and accessories in compound C2
( Pictures taken by author,2006)
5.3.
Measurements, Space Articulation and Patterns
The landscape inventory includes a brief study of the space organisation in the
surveyed house compounds.
(i)
Measurements and compounds boundaries
As mentioned earlier, from observations and from literature (Raja Bahrin 1975),
the compounds did not have precise continuous boundaries. Like the villages, they
appear to be delimited by the influence of the owners and their energy in claiming their
property as they plant trees, install a cloth line, or simply clean and sweep the area.
112
.
The Rakyat compounds tended to have boundaries made of neighbours’ fences
and building or communal paths. The boundaries of the farmer compounds were
blurred by informal orchards (F4, F3,) or meadows (F1) laid in continuity with the
residential grounds . The aristocrats had evident boundaries with bricks, chain kink
fences or hedges framing the gates on the front of the compound but the back garden
was bordered by a mangrove and a stream (A3) while a belukar cum fruit tree area on
the third side was shared with a relative. Even the brick and stucco wall in the
compound A2 was not built all around and only the continuity of the some masonry
work (colonnade, kolah basin and brick bathroom) indicated the compound limits.
Still, measuring internal distances between the most conspicuous ground
features trees and building(s), as well as measuring the lengths of the most clearly
delimited sides, it was possible to estimate the sizes of the compounds enough to draw
them on millimetre paper. The final sketches are not to exact scale, yet they represent
as faithfully as possible the sites proportions..
The smallest “Clan heritage” house compound with a length of 48 steps –
approximately 24 m- in Lorong Haji Jamil, in the heart of Kuala Terengganu is smaller
than the largest of the “Rakyat” in Sungei Rengas which has a length of 100 steps approximately 50 meters-. However, on average, the “Rakyat” were smaller than the
other types, with the “Clan heritage ” types such as Tokku Paluh’s compound (@ 123
meters long ) being normally the larger, as expected .from the number of houses on
their compounds.
(i)
Location of the main building
In all the cases, except in the particular circumstances of the “Clan heritage
compound”, the main building was located approximately in the middle of the grounds.
–a feature observed in other villages in Terengganu. In Kampung Jeram, Manir, Wan
Fadhilah Wan Hitam (2003) has found out that this was deliberate and related to the
modular or open end organic concept of the habitation as additional buildings can be
built following the family growth without intruding on neighbour’s land.
113
(ii)
The double Orientation of the House Compounds
Observations from field survey with a compass confirmed by the site sketches
and by photographs showed that the compounds and the buildings are not similarly
oriented.
The orientation of the roof ridge of the main building ( tulang rabung rumah
ibu) is, in all the samples, except for a variation of a few degree in Lorong Haji Jamil,
toward approximately 285.degree west which, in Terengganu is the direction of kiblat.
However, the compounds may be seen as oriented differently from the house. If one
considers the main or gated entrance, it happens that the direction of the ground area
varies at right angle from the direction of the house main roof (s).
The move may be determined by individual preferences, mostly the facility of
communication with a neighbouring relative or by the proximity of a road. The shift is
frequently towards the southern side as in R1, R3 and in the farm house compound in
Belara Selat (F 3) that has turned towards the main road, situated in the south of the
compound for transport of harvest. In two other instances, the compound access is from
the north. The aristocrat house compound in Pulau Duyung (A2) has an official access
from the sea (north) where the owner’s boats were moored. Access to one rakyat
compound (R4) is from the north because a road has been newly built along the river
on what was before the northern side of the house compound as shown on Figure 5.11.
a) Compound entrance from the south (F3)
b) Compound entrance from the north (R4)
Figure 5.10: Difference of orientation house/compound
The plan sketch in Figure 5.14 illustrates the shift.
114
Back garden
North
Left side
garden
Right
side garden
access
entrance
frontyard
Figure 5.11: Access to compound R4 from the road (north), entrance of the house,
on the south east side
The above pictured compound, wedged between a road and a stream, has
numerous domestic activities (chicken coops, food species, coconuts heaps) gathered
on the left part of the front of the house; yet a row of hanging plants in pots, sitting
platform and benches still evoke a welcoming front yard area.
Further observation of the houses entrances indicate a predilection for the south
location of the stairs of the house (climbing towards north) in the sample, confirming
Raja Bahrin (1988)’s sketches. Stairs inside the ground floor of the Kota Lama, (A2)
follow that orientation as well, opposing or turning at angle from three closest
115
compound gates. From the sample, it appears that the most preferred direction for a
house entrance as well as a compound access, when possible, is from the south.
5.5. 3 Zoning
Even with unclear boundaries, the “core” of the compound is overall readable.
There are definite zones around the house, as Nor Atiah (2003) has found in Perak..
The zones are not marked by any material indication, yet there appear to be a tacit
agreement on their respective function.
The front yard is a well swept delimited area, preserving from animals
droppings the paths of the visitors and inhabitants. Perhaps one or two trees mark the
entrance, giving a welcoming shade some flowering species by the staircase.
The two side gardens are busy areas, especially the southern side where
clothes are dried, filled with animal cages, a path, perhaps some useful shrubs and
small trees such as limes, henna, tapioca and papaya.
In the back garden, Gingers and Pandanus surround waste water streamlet.
Wild Alocasia grow at the limit of the Nipah on the side of the well. The well is often
located at the back of a few steps away from the main building kitchen area, which is,
when there is no shift, at the end of the left side southern garden. Toilets huts mostly in
disuse nowadays are still visible on the back of the right side (northern) of the house, in
the least busy area of the grounds.
A fifth zone would be the “kolong” in standard Malay. The term is not used
but the space it designs below the house (14 occurrences) is a busy area, part of the
ground, and part of the house. Vehicles, sampan, motorcycle and cars are put there.
Animals -chicken, roosters and ducks, share an area next to coconut husks and antique
timber screens. In Pulau Ketam, a table and chair, in Jalan Kamarudin, a small library
were installed. Also found below the houses are workshops, the “Fighting cocks clinic”
in C 4 and various accessories for household repairs or other activities.
116
The overall pattern of spatial organisation is constant throughout the sample.
Generally, even when there is a shift compound access/ house orientation, plants
species are located in the area assigned by their cultural role and value in the life of the
inhabitants as much as by their growth requirement.
The different parts of the ground are similar to those observed by other
researchers in the village houses, in their relation with each other, -especially the side
transition zones found by Nor Atiah (2003, p.83) and their relationship with the
functional design of the house as illustrated in Figure 5.12.
117
Private area, mystery ,
Complexity
waste water, rubbish fire,
toilets, small orchard
mangifera and Lansium
sp.,Nephelium,
gingers, Pandanus
North
Entrance
Back garden
Utilitarian area,
well,washing,
drying clothes
Tamarindus
indicus,
Papaya,
Lawsonia
inermis, Musa
paradisica
Left side
Garden
Entrance
Dapur
House
Right side
Garden
Dalam
Luar
Utilitarian area,
domestic
animals, sheds
Working or
resting platform
Under fruit tree
Sysyphus sp
Manihot
utilissima
Front courtyard
Entrance
Public and welcome area,
legibility, coherence,
fragrant , shade giving and
decorative species, empty
space allotted for visitors
Trees:
Ground feature (shed, platform):
Well:
Fig. 5.12: Analysis of a typical compound zones and main function in relation
with the use of neighbouring part of the house.
Typical well location is shown on the left side of the back garden (South west
corner of the typical compound. Much less frequently, it is on the front yard where it
had its use in the past for guests and returning worker to wash their feet.
118
Observation of the spatial organisation and distribution of plants and ground
accessories showed differences between the types: The above typical figure may then
be nuanced according to the different types.
5.5.3
(i)
Differences in Space organisation according to Type
The “rakyat” compound, although still “readable” (legibility) as it follows the
four zones pattern, gives an impression of being crowded: Plants species distribution
reflect individual fantasy of the inhabitants. Accessories and “garden furniture”
demonstrating life and work outside the house cover a good part of the space.
ii) The “farmer’s” compound is filled with utilitarian sheds, granaries and plant
nurseries. Trees are pushed back on the edge of the compound, except perhaps, for
shade, a lone tamarind close to the lambur of the house, or a jambu to provide shade to
monkey’s quarters and another tree close to the open air bathroom
(iii) Particular space markers and ground features have been noticed in
“aristocrat”:and “clan” compound:
a) One tree in front of the house entrance or porch.
b) Gate, and rules of circulation within the compound especially around the porch
(“Serong”or “anjung”) for the vehicles.
c) Focal point in Clan: Surau, cluster of small trees, path.
d) Fences or wall.
e) Drains from the water points to outside the compound and around the house(s)
The diagrams in Fig.5.16 indicates the different spatial organisations found in
the four types of compound
119
House
House
Rakyat
Aristocrat
H
H
House
H
H
H
H
House
House
Farmer’s
Clan heritage
Legend:
Tree:
Well:
Palm:
Circulation :
Ground accessories, sheds:
House:
Figure 5. 13: Spatial organisation according to the type of house compound
Four examples of sketch plans are gathered for reference in Figure 5.14 a)
“Rakyat, b) Aristocrat , c) Clan heritage and d) Farmer’. Remaining sketches are
available in Appendix B.
120
121
122
123
124
5.4.
Ethno-botanical Compounds Analysis
The architectural element in a house compounds survey based on visual features.
delivers a number of significant information on direct observation.
However, the ethno-botanic approach helps substantiating the relationship
between plants species and inhabitants. Plain lists of plants do not yield the plants
cultural significance in a place, unless inhabitants express, through their explanations,
an inherited knowledge and a cultural link.
Interviews supported by literature references, have led to record individual
ethno-botanical documentation for each of the 16 house compounds. The compilations
showed the habits, the uses, the husbandry, the location and the origins of the observed
species. They constitute a store of reference to elicit better the characteristics of the
landscapes as well as a complementary base for the assessment of cultural value.
Examples of theses tables and charts, are available in Appendix B, except for the
following example where one example of individual ethno-botanical study with
explanations and analysis of the selected variables, followed by brief interpretation of
the collated data is illustrated in Table 5.5 and charts in Figure 5.15
125
Table 5.3: Ethnobotanical Analysis of Plant Species in a “Rakyat” House
Compound (R4 in Pulau Ketam)
No
Botanical Name
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
Acalipha siamensis
Artocarpus integer
Alpinia sp.
Asplenum nidum
Bambusa
Barringtonia asiatica
Bougainvillea
Breynia reclinata
Cactus sp.
Capsicum minimum
Cicca acida
Citrus microcarpa
Citrus sp.
Cocos nucifera
Cymbopogon citrates
Cynometra cauliflora
Diffenbachia sp.
Durio zibethinus
Eugenia aqua
Euphorbia antiquarum
Flacourtia jangomas
Gnetum gnemon
Hibiscus tilliaceus
Jatropha curcas
Luffa cylindrical
Mangifera indica
Manihot utilissima
Morinda citrifolia
Musa paradisica
Portulacca grandiflora
Psophocarpus tetraglobulus
Sacharum officinale
Sagittaria sagitaefolia
Sauropus androginus
Tamarindus indicus
Tiphonium sp.
Vitex negundo
Zebrina pendulata
Vernacular
name
Ekur kucing
Nangka
Halia
Paku langsyuir
Buloh
Putat
Bunga kertas
Hujan panas
Lada api
Cermai
Limau nipis
Limau
Kelapa
Serai
Nam nam
Keladi
Durian
Jambu
Sesudu
Kerekup
Meninjau
Bebaru
Jarak pagar
Peria manis (?)
Mempelam
Ubi kayu
Mengkudu
Pisang
Kacang botol
Pokok tebu
Cekur manis
Asam Jawa
Leban
Habit
H
T
H
C
P
T
S
S
H
S
T
S
S
P
H
T
H
T
T
H
T
T
T
H
C
T
S
T
P
H
S
P
H
S
T
H
T
P
Origin
I
I
E
I
I
I
I
E
I
I
E
Location
Uses
Husbandry
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
3
3
1
2
1,2
1,2,3,4
1
2
3
1
1,2
3
1
1
1
3
4
2
2
1
3
3
1
1
3
1
1
3
1
3
D
F
F
D
D,T
F,D,S
D
M
D
F
F
F, R
F
F, S,T
F
M
D
F
F
D
F
F
S
D
F,D
F, S
F
M
F,T
D
F
F
D
F
F,S
D
S, M
D
P
P
P
P
W
F
P
F
P
P
P
P
P
P, F
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
W
P
P
P
P
F
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
Legend:
Habits: T: tree, S : shrub, H: herb, P: palm C: Climbers and epiphytes
Botanical origins: “I “: introduced; “E”: exotic.
Husbandry: “W: wild; “F”: favoured; “P”: planted
Uses: F: food, R: rituals, D: decors, M: medicine, S: shade, T: technique
126
a) Chart of plant habits in R4
15
10
5
0
Trees
Shrubs
Herbs
Palms
Climbers
b) Chart of Plant uses in R4
25
20
15
10
5
0
Food
Ritual
Décor
Medicine
Shade
Technique
c) Location of plant species in R4
25
20
15
10
5
0
2 leftside 3rightside
4
1
backyard
Frontyard
Figure 5.15: a) Plant Habits , b) Plant Uses and c) Plant Location in R4.
Vertical numbers in example in Figure 5.15 indicate the species occurrence or
sightings.(The sketch plan of this compound appeared in Figure 5.1.)
127
5.4.1 Plant species habits
Plant habits give clues on the visual arrangement on the vertical and horizontal
planes as well as volumes distribution of the vegetal landscape in the house compound:
They also indicate the height of the floral background, evocating the ambiance of the
compound, a shaded overgrown orchard or a sunny nursery. The numbers in the
example chart in the above figure show, as in the rest of the compounds, the
predominance of the trees species (13 species on a total of 38). This feature evokes
ensuing shade in the house compounds (“Refuge” criteria) and fruiting season
enjoyment, sharing and exchanges between the inhabitants (“social use of space”).
5.4.2 Geographical Origins of the plants species
Villagers have long ago transplanted or simply kept native species from the
formerly nearby forest and swamps for daily use. Native gingers and other herbs such
as the Clerodendrons, shrubs and trees Mangifera (other than M.indica) Garcinia and
Nephelium contribute today to the floral wealth of the compounds. The native species
are valuable witnesses of ancient times when survival depended on knowledge of the
natural environment. They represent an early stage of the vernacular culture (Historical
criteria) and an original closeness with environing nature.(“survival component”)
“Introduced” plants species are from foreign but rather similarly warm climates
that have been settled in Terengganu since long ago. These introduced plants evocate
ancient travels and widespread civilisations and influences, surprisingly, from all over
the globe, from South America to Africa, the Middle East, India, China, the Pacific
islands
Villagers are not aware that very familiar plants have been long ago introduced
by their ancestor or by traders such as papaya and tapioca species from South America,
tamarind from Africa through India and Mangifera indica from India (Burkill, 1966).
They know that cultural influences expressed in religious rites have brought the cotton,
128
the jujube and the henna trees from the Middle East (“Collective psyche” and beliefs
cultural components) .
Mostly decorative, “Exotic” species are foreign species from dryer or colder
climates. Their presence in the sample demonstrates a willingness to experiment and
beautify the compound. Exotic species have been acclimatised during the last fifty
years together with an increased taste for horticulture. Successful species from other
tropical countries are grown as ornamentals and have even acquired vernacular names.
For example, the Allamanda is bunga loceng the bell flower, Heliconias (both from
South America) are kepek udang or shrimps pincers.
Referring further to botanical information on plant geographical origin given in
Burkill (1966) and Polunin (1992 ), a percentage of around 1/4 (54 species out of the
total of 194) of the usual “traditional” species in the sample, come from elsewhere.
They have come to the Terengganu compounds by way natural dispersion by winds,
birds, bats and other animals or trade and human travels. Foreign species, such as the
delima ( Punica granatum) inai (Lawsonia inermis) or lidah buaya Aloe vera, suited to
transport and often with valorising attached connotations (religion, glamour or wealth)
have been well received by the villagers, demonstrating versatility within the traditional
structures due to cultural acquisitions. These species particularly are connected to each
of the components of the cultural landscape, the collective psyche (beliefs, links to
other civilisations), “group survival” (medicinal and practical uses of these species) and
the “state history”.
5.4. 3 Husbandry
“Husbandry”, refers to the amount of care given to the plants species, an
indication of the value attributed to a species (irrespective of its origin). The same type
of information is also found significant by anthropologist Dunn (1975) in his study on
an aborigines Temuan community in Selangor. It is abbreviated as follows:
129
“P” (planted) means a species deliberately introduced in the compound and
grown for a purpose. For instance, taking the trouble to plant bidara Zizyphus jujuba
for funeral washing rites instead of the native and readily available Lepisanthes, the
leaves of which froth as well, reveals a culturally influenced choice.
“W” (wild), means a weed or a wild tree present in the compound not destroyed
because it is useful such as the teja (Cinnamonum sp.) or is harmless like the Hibiscus
tilliaceus . The welcome settlement or growth of species from the indigenous belukar is
indicated as “F” (favoured), for instance Zingiber cassumar, Justicia gandarussa or
Sauropus androgynus and Lepisanthes kunstleri are welcome squatters inside the
compounds.(“Survival” component)
It has been found as well that inhabitants would also plant medicinal species ,
because they find them interesting to look at such as the jarak Euporbiace (F2) and
lidah buaya (Aloe vera,) or the attractive white flowered Hibiscus species (C1) and
setawar (Briophyllum).or they just enjoy their reputed beneficiary presence (Ficus
deltoides in 4), although they do not use them. This behaviour, due to the availability
of manufactured pharmaceutical products, demonstrates a loss of traditional phytotherapeutic practice parallel to a persisting attachment to its memory.
5.4.4 Function of the plants species
The functions of the species in the sample, collected from the individual
ethnobotanical tables are abreviated in the charts as “D” (decoration) “F” (food)
“M”(medicine) “R” (rituals) “S” (shade and space markers) “T” Technical (tools and,
construction materials).
The species functions priority in the sample at the time of the study and as
reported by respondents inhabitants is summarized in the chart in Figure 5.16
130
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Food
Ritual
Medicinal
Decors
Shade
Technical
Figure 5.16: Functions of plants species in the sample
The vertical figures indicate the frequency of occurrence of the species. The
charts reports the present inhabitants expressed knowledge. The number of functions
attributed to plants species recorded from the inhabitants in the sample appears lower
than the ones previously listed in the literature on Malaysian ethnobotanical
knowledge. This is especially noticeable for medicinal uses compared to results from
Nor Atiah (2003), Gimlette (1971) , A.Samad (1982). The medicinal species are still
present, but their uses less readily remembered.
The number of culinary adjuvants (classed as “Food”) remains important, a
sign of the selective taste of the inhabitants; of their inventiveness in assorting their
staple food with many additions for taste, colour, and flavour, but, mostly as reported in
interviews, of knowledge transmitted through generations..
However, the link between the vegetal kingdom and the life of the inhabitant is
still quite intimate. For instance, the fruit baskets seen under the house of the “ Haji
Wok” farmer house (F 4, Appendix B) signals the harvest of duku (Lansium
domesticum) which allowed the elderly lady to perform the haj six times, (sekali duku
sekali Haji, “once the duku season, once the Haj” were her words). In Pulau Ketam, the
pandanus weaver told how poultices made with the bark of the terajang tree
(Lepisanthes rubiginosum) have cured her of a handicapping wrist sprain.
The centenarian cengal pasir (Hopea odorata) at the far end of the clan
compound in Pulau Ketam (C3) was said by the grand son of the clan founder to have
131
been left to grow there by his grand father the sea captain Haji Ibrahim. Tall, branching
high, the cengal pasir trees were used as masts for the perahu besar –the sailing
cargoes for which Terengganu is famous. Their winged fruit that whirl in the air like
miniature badminton shuttlecocks still entertain children today.
A Barringtonia racemosa, growing in pulau Ketam (R 4) was in flower and fruit
during a visit. Although the fruit were small compared to those of the Barringtonia
asiatica , it made sense that the buah gutong roof finials would get their name after the
genus as mentioned earlier: They are knob lozenges from which emerges a long
persistant style, exactly like the baton of the finials skittles emerges from the lozenge
knob located below the junction of the roof fascia boards of an atap belanda* styled
house.
5.4.5
Location of Plant species on the grounds
Data on the location of plants species confirms the visual observation of the
compounds. However, except for tree species where individual are more easily
determined, the number of individuals is only indicated (sketched) in this general
description.
The division in four zones observed by Nor Atiah (2003) was retained in
tracing a location matrix. A diagonal division of space was made to record the locations
of the species in the four zones as shown in Figure 5.17.
132
4
3
2
1
1::Front garden
2: Left side garden
3: Right side garden
4. Back garden
Figure 5.17: Example of matrix applied to house compounds (F2, Bukit
Cempaka).The corresponding ethnobotanical table is given in Appendix B.
The location of a plant is usually closely related to the function attributed to
that species. Still, confirming the overall lay out differences noted earlier there are
some differences between the four proposed types of house compounds particularly in
the tree distribution around the grounds.
The Rakyat has trees all over the compound in the four areas, with an open
space in front of the entrance of the house and another around the well, which are
however often planted with one or two a shade giving fruit trees.
The Aristocrat compound, on the contrary, has very few trees close to the house,
but the entrance is marked by an alley (A1), decorated with plants or an obviously
133
planned planting composition around the entrance (A3). Visual perspectives “prospect”
and “status”are a priority there.
The Clan compound, usually the most ancient settlement among the types has
tall trees gathered in an orchard, or various species gathered in available areas around
the compound. habitations, or confined to a side garden as in the Lorong Haji Jamil
rather crowded compound (C4) of old Kuala Terengganu city.
The Farmer house compound such as in the prosperous farmer house of Belara
Selat (F4) has an area devoted to a Lansium domesticum orchard while the rest of the
compound has few trees. The farmer house compound has relatively less variety in
trees species (average 9 found earlier) on its ground compared to the size of the land as
the inhabitants own orchards and other plantations in land further away.
5. 5 Summary of Findings
In preparation for the next chapter which intend to establish a first
characterisation of the landscape as well as to proceed to a preliminary cultural
assessment, the diagram in Figure 5.18 summarizes the findings at this point.
134
:
Data Collection
Reference
Recapitulative
Tables
by element of
landscape
Most frequent features
Findings
Flora
Tropical variety, homogeneity,
richness in density, shapes .Trees
abundance. Verticality.
Grounds
Landscape for living in it,
compliance to religious requirements,
differences between socio-economic
categories or “types”
Architecture
Organic: in materials, modular
concept and climate adaptation;
symbolic and heritage witness
Fauna
animals: domestic -free and caged-.
wild and tamed
Map
. .
Field Observation
Particular features
(some potentially
idiosyncratic)
Peles barge end gable, tunjuk langit,
wave stairs
Siamese jars, gerai bersalin
confinement platforms.
Communal worshipping places
(surau) within the compound
grounds
Social and religious significance of
animals..
Ethnobotanical
data
Relationship habitants/
Nature
Search for relative darkness and
coolness (trees)
Long established and new cultural
influences in implantation of foreign
species.
Patterns in location and arrangement
of species
Uses wide ranging:: food, rites,
decoration. Shade etc.
Integration of wild species.
Field Observation
Compounds Lay Out
and Space Articulation
Symbolic orientation, shifts
residence/grounds
Zoning in four areas
Social role of space
Variations according to socio
economic categories or types.
House compounds
list, types
and code
Sketch plans
Figure 5.17: Summary of Findings
135
5. 6 Recapitulative Tables of the Features Inventory
For reference, the inventory lists of features covering the four landscape elements
of the 16 house compounds are given below in Tables 5. 2 to 5. 4 . The most frequent
features are highlighted in grey. Comparative charts are available in Appendix B. As
the number of units is small and varies in each type, statistic analysis is not attempted
in this preliminary study.
CHAPTER 6
EVALUATION
Introduction
This chapter presents an evaluation of the cultural significance of the selected
16 house compound landscapes in Terengganu. It is made through a in a preliminary
characterisation of the landscapes based on the findings reported in the precedent
chapter. The sample is then screened to the criteria for cultural value briefly
established from literature. The results are a preliminary positive assessment of
cultural value and an outline of the compounds inhabitant’s cultural priorities. These
results are submitted to empirical verification.
6.1
Characterisation
Recapitulating the findings in chapter five, some main characteristics or
attributes of the surveyed house compounds, tangible as well as intangible, may be
identified. They include the existence of (i) types, (ii) variety, (iii) symbiosis, (iv)
homogeneity and (v) ethical norms.
152
i) Existence of Types
The validity of the heuristic typology found adequate for survey purposes
materialised on the field as differences between the proposed types emerged
progressively during the surveys.
a) Clues for Types identification
Borders between “types” may seem not strict. The inhabitants may share
activities and tastes beyond the social barriers. However, during interviews,
respondents explained variations or referred to family history and social rank so that
the heuristic landscape classification was still found appropriate.
Some compounds could appear almost to fit in two categories, such as the
prosperous farm in Belara Selat that boasts of a gate and carvings which are Aristocrat
or Clan features, yet the baluh padi granary, the handle barrels and the harvest baskets
point definitively to a farmer’s compound. In fact, during the survey, some features
have emerged as “clue” features for each type.
Figures 6.1 illustrate some of the features that have surfaced on site as clues
helping classify the house compounds.
153
Resting/working platforms and benches (R3), (R2)
a)
b)
Accessories for crafts (former songket weaving)(R5) and activities: Fried banana shop (R2)
c)
Figure 6.1 Clues for “Rakyat house compounds”
d)
154
Spacious front yard and grand entrance (A3) or alley (A1)
Wall (A2),.Tall & large structure, Serong (anjung) porch and tree in front of entrance (A2)
a)
b)
Elaborated decorative elements capitals, colonnade, verandah with wood carvings (A3)
c)
d)
Figure 6.2: Clues for “Aristocrat house compounds”
Note : Ground accessories such as lesong pounding devices for kerupuk or
padi have been found stored below the house of an aristocratic compound, but, as
explained one owner (Haji Ghani Mohamad in Losong , A3), in the past, these were
155
used by hired servants The weaving made by ladies in the Kota Lama was mainly for
family members (Hajah Khatijah Nik, personal communication, 1991).
Gate (urban) or entrance framed by vegetation (rural).
a)
Linked buildings and common wells
c)
b)
Center pieces: surau in C1
d)
Figure 6.1: Clues for Types Identification: “Clan” House Compounds
156
Baluh padi (F1)
Baluh padi (F3)
a)
Bakul for duku harvest (F3)
c)
b)
Domestic animal in orchard (F3)
Large veranda (F1)
d)
e)
Figure 6.4 : Clues for “Farmer house compound”
b) “Portraits” of the four types of house compound landscape
With the data gathered (from features observed on site, individual
compounds sketch plans and tables of frequency,), it is possible to draft a visual and
conceptual “portrait-robot” or recapitulative model of each type of house compound,
with priorities, prominent feature(s) and particular lay out for each of them: These
models are presented in the Figures 6.5 to 6.8.
157
Type: “Rakyat”
Priority: Household activities
(5 examples)
•
No “garden”, but grounds in
prolongation of the house, then
boundaries loosely indicated by
plant species.
•
Lay out: Plants (trees, shrubs)
in a circle around the house, by
the entrance, on side spaces,
interspaced with ground
furniture signalling activities.
•
Main Feature: pangkin platforms
(“gerai”).
Figure .6.5; Recapitulative portrait. Type: Rakyat house compound
Type: “Aristocrat”
Priority; Status symbols
(3 examples)
Lay out: A group of roofs or one large
residence on well swept ground
surrounded by a semi circle of tall trees.
There is usually a gate and a path
leading to the entrance of the residence.
Features: artistic decorative elements
Ex.: sobek carving
Figure 6.6: Recapitulative portrait. Type: Aristocrat house compound
158
Type: “Clan heritage”
Priority: Family Ties
(3 examples)
Lay out: a group of houses
around a centre piece, a path,
a cluster of trees or a surau
.
Some houses are connected
An “enclosure feeling” (visible
or intangible boundaries)
Tall –old trees around the compound,
at entrance and exit.
Feature: “titian” passage between
habitations
Figure 6.7: recapitulative “portrait”. Type: Clan heritage house compound.
Type:
“farmer”
Priority: harvest, storage
(4 examples)
Lay out: a thin circle of trees
around a house standing on
clean floor with a rustic fence. .
Inside the compound, sheds of
various sizes for tools and harvest
storage and animals lodgings
Features: large veranda “lambur”
and baluh padi granary.
Figure 6.8: Recapitulative Portrait. Type: Farmer house compound
159
(ii) Variety in Features
The abundance of natural features especially the flora, was expected. With a
total of 194 plant species recorded in the inventory tables for 16 compounds, the
sample amply confirms the reputation of botanical richness of the Terengganu region
Besides nature, culture has largely contributed to the variety in number of plant
species. The individual charts, illustrated in one example in Table 5.3, Chapter five,
have indicated under “geographical origins” of the plants species 54 foreign species
(introduced and exotic are found) on a total of 194 in the sample of 16 surveyed house
compounds. The species were acclimatised in the past for religious and ritual
purposes. They indicated inter ethnic knowledge transfers. For example, the bidara
jujube found in A1 belonging to Indian and Chinese Materia medica are planted in the
Terengganu compounds (A1) as well as ornamentals like Allamanda, cactus and roses
for decoration of the front garden.
The lists of ground features, based as usual in traditional rural settlements, on
supporting livelihood (“Survival component”), demonstrate eclectic resourcefulness
on the part of the inhabitants, especially in accessories such as ancient looms, jars,
pounding devices, floats, traps and ground structures like resting platforms, animal
lodgings and workshops.
Architectural variety is obvious also in the different styles of houses
encountered in the sample. Variety in materials, from brick walls with stucco
decoration to panels of jungle tree bark; in the range of expression of socio
economical status, from the juruselam (traditional diver) shelter by the sea side to the
row of carved palaces in the orchard cum fiefdom of Tukku Paloh upriver.
The variety in types of buildings reflects the history of the people. In the
sample, the main styles of Terengganu architecture berpeles (A2, C2), atap belanda
(C2) and lima bungkus (A2), have been seen, plus some variations such as the cross
roof version of the classic twin roof (R1), and the European influenced box window
(A1). Long decades of peace in the state had bred a race of dedicated craftsmen, able
160
to interpret the wishes of the often well-travelled and wealthy house owners within
the traditional frame of their skills in wood working.
The variety of features within one compound or between the house compounds
is surprising for a traditional community. It reflects the importance of the historical
and technical components in the Terengganu culture. “Cosmopolitan” is not
mentioned as one of the 123 attributes of traditionality listed by anthropologists
(Rapoport, 2004). The formation of the Terengganu house compound landscape has
been constantly influenced by local economic developments and historical events,
such as the settlements of the last waves of the diaspora of the kingdom of Champa
and the arrival of British administrators and other foreigners bringing ideas and
techniques (Technosphere components). Meeting these circumstances was the
creativity and the current of energy that permeated the people of Terengganu at the
time the house were built and the gardens were planted.
(iii)
Linkage or symbiotic relationships:
The fact, reported in numerous studies (Windsted, 1961, Mohd Taib, 1997),
that the Malay villager lives in symbiosis with his social and natural environment is
confirmed by the survey. The dynamic circle of organic closeness (“Biosphere”
components) that is “nature-inhabitants-houses-neighbours-community” is verified in
the lay out, cyclic paths of circulation and exchanges inside the surveyed compounds,
and between these and their environment.
The uniformity of main building orientation (16 occurrences) previously
mentioned means that the houses receive the sun light at the same hour of the day.
Life inside the houses and around the houses will be influenced by a similar rhythm
animated by a similar pattern of exposure to light and heat from the sun.
Permanence of communication between the inhabitants of a village is
expressed by a general openness of the space and the flimsiness or inexistence of
fences. Links with neighbours are illustrated by in the side entrances to the
compound, family relationships by connected houses. Even the “wall” of the Kota
161
Lama (A2) is fitted with no less than six entrances. In the past, one titian bridge used
to cross over the wall (kota) from the kitchen area of the “Kota Lama” to the back of a
relative’s house
Another factor contributes to the lack of apparent boundaries: The cadastre was
introduced in 1919 (Muhamad Saleh, 1992). However, to prevent dispersion of the
family heritage, many lots remained undivided (no tarikah division) until today.
Interviews of the compounds inhabitants have confirmed that orally transmitted
wasiat wills are well respected and that erecting a fence on a land collectively owned
would be improper.
Social consensus is expressed as well in the thoughtful distinction of private
and public zones within the residential compound. Space is allotted for proper
welcome of relatives and neighbours in prevision of kenduri festivities or tahlil
communal prayer reciting. Community physical ties are materialised by exchanges of
“buah tangan”, presents of fruit from the compounds trees, home made cakes and
dishes.
The habitations are in continuity nature. During investigations, when the
inhabitants were in their house, or around, entrance doors of house were not closed, as
if letting the outdoors in. (The height of the stilts or a veranda at the top of the stair
providing ventilation and privacy). If they were gates, these were open.
Plant species from the compound or a neighbour’s or from the belukar are
brought inside the kitchen and the bathroom. During a survey in a house in Pulau
Ketam, herbs just collected from the surrounding bushes were spicing up a porridge
bubor lambak cooked on a wood fire. The fragrance of herbs, spices, medicinal and
cosmetic plants species often permeates the interior of a house.
A permanent movement is created in and out of the house. Curcuma leaves
taken from the back of the house flavour a coconut based gulai, the remains of which
are thrown away to the chicken together with tamarind seeds that will grow to be a
large tree providing shadow and attracting yellow orioles. Children dye their finger
162
with a paste of henna leaves. The next day, orange stained bed sheets are bleached in
the sun. The water from the sink and the overhanging dish dryer flow in a rivulet at
the back of the house, irrigating a cortege of gingers, kesum (Poligonus hydropiper)
and pandan that will in turn be found in the plates of the inhabitants for their biting
taste or sweet smell... .
Inversely, accessories move from the house to the ground. Food may be
cooked on the ground on tripods (A3, R2). Furniture, when not in use, particularly the
confinement beds, is placed on the ground, illustrating of a spatial continuity, the
garden being a prolongation of the house. The green of the garden is visible from one
side to the other of the “open ground floor” of the houses on stilts. Compound and
house merge in the well ventilated areas below the house where residents rest or
work. From afar, the house may be seen as floating over the vegetation
Another expression of the relationship with nature is the family history written
as it were on the landscape on a vertical plane. As Nor Atiah observed in Perak, the
village house landscape can be read “in time”. Trees heights tell of the successive
generations that planted them. In the sample, ancient trees in house compounds in
Losong (A3) and Paloh (C3) show the various strata of vegetation, with the trees
planted by the ancestors composing an overpowering background. It is the visually
impressive presence of the past. For the visitor, the aging landscapes in untouched
villages make for a grandiose scenery evocating the ancientness of the places.
In the sample, the buildings are always lower than surrounding floral
background, a trait that is essential to the “cocoon atmosphere” of the house
compound, part of its psychological appeal. This was also noted as a characteristic by
Nor Attiah in Perak.
The prevalent “nature-smart” and symbiotic way of living in one’s
environment that is central to the vernacular architecture has been previously
enlightened as the features were found. These symbiotic features contribute to another
characteristic of the Terengganu landscape which is its homogeneity within the
diversity in each of the four elements of landscape.
163
(iv)
Homogeneity
With a pool of 24 frequently encountered plant species and a total of 54 trees
of which 11 species are very frequent, the floral element contributes because the
repetition of many of its features, to a general impression of similarity. The constant
lay out of the garden, the main roofs orientation, reinforce the image.
Apart from the similarity of floral features, the conceptual and structural
constants of the architectural element provide an enhanced feeling of harmony. The
structural basic concepts present throughout the sample reflect a culturally transmitted
skill to adapt to the climate, the material at hand, and the land physical features. That
skill puts the house compound landscapes in harmony with the environment as well as
it creates and impression of internal unity throughout the various styles of buildings
and beyond the socio-economic and period differences.
Uniform adaptation to the climatic environment is reflected in the high slopes
and large overhangs of the roofs, narrowness of windows and doors. Comfort
preoccupation integrated in the house design has however progressively and generally
been reduced with the introduction of new architectural styles after the Second World
War.
The slope of the roofs is dictated by the balek angin or “wind lift” limit. The
words comes probably from the time when the roofs were mostly covered with nipah
leaves that, if the roof inclination was too mild, would be pulled back by the wind,
exposing the interior of the building. The design of the thin Singhora tiles seems to be
copied after the leaves these tiles replaced. It imposes the same slope constraint of
inclination limit after which the roof will leak under the tropical rainfalls.
The houses are all built on stilts (16 occurrences), a characteristic that has been
shown functional from many aspects (safety, ventilation, protection from the floods
etc.) It is seen in quite a few countries inhabited by Malay peoples from the hills of
Madagascar and to the mountains of Vietnam, in area where floods are not to be
164
feared. Apart from the visual uniformity, this links the Terengganu houses found in
the sample with the Malay world at large.
Another and essential source of harmony throughout the vernacular Terengganu
architecture is, whatever the style adopted, the traditional use of the human body as
measurement for buildings elements. The often respected rule was confirmed through
personal communication by house owners. This internal anthropomorphic feature has
positive effect even on foreign visitors who have expressed a sense of connection with
the (otherwise exotic for them) buildings.
(v)
Ethical principles and tacit Rules
A review of the findings from the field investigation indicates that the
compounds landscape itself provides guidance for proper social behaviour to the
inhabitants and visitors as well as they express the community religious beliefs.
This was observed in the function of the flora elements recorded in the
ethnobotanical charts: Some trees would remind (didactic role) the inhabitants of the
stages of life: Bamboo (sembilu blade) and banana are associated with birth and
circumcision. A fruit tree is planted above the place where the placenta of a new born
child is buried. Henna is synonym with betrothal, is planted. The bidara (Zyzyphus
jujube) and the cotton tree accompany funerary rituals. Villagers would asks for the
seeds from a religious teacher’s garden (Dato’Purba from the Kota lama A2) to plant
them in their own garden to benefit from the pious aura (berkat).
It was reported that the “Syed” residences had always a jambu or a rambutan
tree planted in front of the façade or of the entrance of their house. Wealthy traders
houses like the one in the sample (A3) has the same feature, a jambu planted in front
of the porch from where the stairs climb to the house. The location suggests that it
was probably a protective feature, practical or symbolic.
165
Similarly, a slab of stone or concrete at the foot of the stairs of the timber
houses has a double role as a stand to wash the feet and a precaution against buried
charms.
The deliberate absence of some normally easily grown particular trees is
significant of cultural taboo. The kerekup Flacourtia is banned from the proximity of
the house (the sprawling low branches obstruct “rezeki”earnings), or the fragrant
kemboja (Plumeria) associated with the flora of cemeteries are not seen inside the
compounds.
As observed, the omnipresence of water sources and rubbish fires on the
grounds correspond to the religious requirement of cleanliness. Ensure cleanliness of
the paths especially is considered as a good deed. Rakes and brooms are useful in the
gardens where domestic animals run freely around. The earth in the main areas of the
compound is devoid of turf or grasses to ensure efficient sweeping.
The lay out of the ground space, if not always its orientation, is similar to the
one of the house, and in continuity with it, confirming Raja Bahrin’s (1988)
descriptions and Nor Atiah’s (2003) in Perak . The ground space is marked with a
functional gender separation, the back garden with its dapur area entrance, for
cooking and other household private activities is the women domain, the front being
more for men .Occupations having changed, the gender separation is less functional
nowadays, however when a kenduri gathers crowds, the women would walk through
the side garden to head for the back entrance, so as to avoid crossing the assembly of
male visitors gathering in the front part of the house.
The gender separation is not absolute. Close relatives qualified as murhim may
move and mix independently of their gender, so that the gender-based separation rules
of circulation are blurred to the casual visitor.
The location of the entrances is not in alignment with the house entrance door
or stairs in any of the compounds. This has a double culturally significant role. First it
refers to the ancient Asian belief that ghosts, or bad spirit, follow a straight path and
166
can’t take turns. Second, as seen particularly in A 1 (Seberang Takir) it reflects the
Muslim preoccupation of privacy particularly for the women inhabitants.
In the sample larger compounds (A1, A3), the residence main entrance is even
located at a distance from the compound main access or gate, restricting the view of
the interior. The “grand approach” perspective preserves privacy, adding to the effect
of the height of the buildings and the village houses lay out in quincunx.
The “proper” use of ground features and space organisation is further
illustrated for instance by the location of wells in three separate area according to the
group of users in Tukku Paloh’s compound.
Spatial organisation is designed to guide the inhabitants in their life and daily
routine, and visitors in their demeanour; so are ground accessories and plants species
which follow a general pattern of compliance to the tacit rules of the prevalent
culture. Space is vested with values. In holistic terms, the surveyed house compounds
are examples of spatial hierarchy.
To summarize, there are plant species linked to ceremonies or beliefs, religionconscious patterns of ground lay out and circulation and even some “protective”
devices. Parallel to the mystical and esoteric reading of the architecture of the house,
it is possible to say that an ethical or spiritual garden is hidden beyond the appearance
of a spontaneous and unsophisticated compound.
6.1.1 Characterisation Limits and Bearing
Identifying Terengganu landscape attributes or actual idiosyncratic features or
markers would be premature at this stage of research and is beyond the scope of the
study. An increase in sample numbers and comparisons would be necessary. Perhaps
at the present stage, clusters of features from a combination of landscape elements are
more “signaletic” of Terengganu than isolated individual features.
167
Such examples of characteristic landscape obtainable at the present stage would
be: a gerai bersalin platform with sampan under a house on high stilts; a cengal
(Hopea odorata) towering in the background of a bujang berpeles roof, a jambu tree
over a high bench, by a well or offering its shade to monkey lodgings with, in the
background, a buah gutong decorating a Singhora tiled roof.
However, with the number of features and characteristics linked with the
inhabitants cultural background identified in the sample it is possible to assess the
cultural value of the house compounds that contains these features using the criteria
previously derived from the literature.
6.2
Cultural Value Assessment through Screening to Criteria
The criteria are understood in a straightforward manner. The quotations in
inverted coma below refer to the preferential parameters, taken from Nor Atiah’s
(2003) explanations of the Informational processing Model (Kaplan and Kaplan,
1982)
(i) “Coherence” means that the sites are not chaotic. They “represent a degree of
order”.
(ii) “Legibility” means that a visitor understands them. There is a “perceived
ability to find one’s way in the environment”
(iii) “Complexity” means that a certain degree of organisation exist but may not
be grasped at once. “It refers to the number of visual elements in a scene”
(iv) “Mystery” invites explorations; it is obvious in the dark ancient “clan
heritage” atmosphere and the elderly Tok Bidan house by the forest edge.
The other criteria, extracted from the theories reviewed in the literature
are self explanatory: “Relaxation” is considered as signalled on site by resting
platforms, “entertainment” by flower arrangement, swings, even children “tree-
168
houses”, “benefit” means food, cosmetics, tools material etc. “Art” refers to actual
creative artistic work –not the usual good craftsmanship of house builders, “antiquity”
to at least three generations. “Events” and “persons” refer to those which are
indirectly or indirectly linked to the local or national history. The four “historical”
criteria refer to the US National Parks Registry criteria for conservation. They are
reproduced in Appendix A.
To be considered qualifying under a criteria, in this preliminary evaluation, a
house compound is only required to present one feature corresponding specifically to
the criteria. For example, the aristocratic compound in Kampung Batin has one bidara
or Zyziphus tree, and the Kota Lama one kapas or Gossipum tree, both used for
funeral rites, so the compounds receive each one mark in the “rite” category.
The preliminary cultural assessment of the sample series of 16 compounds,
with the priorities enlightened in grey, is shown in Table 6.1.
Table 6.1 Screening of the Sample of House Compounds to Criteria for Cultural
Value
"Types"
Rakyat
House Compounds 1 2 3 4
Criteria
Perceptual &Experiential
Coherance
legibiliy
/ /
Complexity
/ / / /
Mystery
Benefit
/ / / /
Entertainment
/ / /
Relaxation
/
/
Holistic & Behavioural
Space social role / / / /
Beliefs
/ / / /
Rites
Status
/ /
Activity
/
/
Historical
Antiquity
/ / / /
Events
Persons
Art
Information
/
/
5
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
T Aristocrat T
Clan T
Farmer
T T spleComponent
5 1 2 3 3 1 2 3 4 4 1 2 3 4 4
16
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
1
5/
0/
2/
3
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
2/
3/
2
3/
5/
0
0
0
3/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
3
2
2
2
3
0
3
4
0
5
3
2
/
2
3
1
0
3
3
1
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
2
3
4
2
4
2
1
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
1
3
3
1
4
3
1
5
12
12
3
16
11
5
2
4
1
3
4
8
16 Noosphere
3 Symbolism
13
7
16 Techno3 sphere
8 State history
7
14
/
/
/
/
/
3/
4/
0
4
1/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
3
/
/
/
/
2
2
4
5
2
4
3
4
/
/
/
/
Noosphere
Psyche
Biosphere
Function
169
6.3.
Results from the screening
The screening provides results on the general cultural value of the surveyed
compounds as well as it expresses the cultural priorities of the inhabitants.
6.3.1
Sample Cultural value and priorities
The landscapes may be considered as cultural. They answer to 17 criteria
corresponding to various approaches to the cultural landscape phenomenon.
According to the above table, the cultural values of most importance for the
inhabitants are: “beliefs”: 16, “benefit”: 16, “status”: 13 and “entertainment”: 11.
Other values are present, but are more important for national heritage supporters,
scholars from various disciplines or conservation professionals. These are:
“antiquity”: 16, “information”: 14, “complexity”: 12 and legibility: 12.
Three main cultural accents (highest figures in the landscapes emergent from
the range of fulfilled criteria: The landscapes are religious, functional and
documentary:
•
The landscapes are “religious” (Beliefs: 16), meaning that they are educative and
normative.
•
The inhabitants privilege “function” (Benefit: 16). Food is an apparent priority. In
reality, fruit trees and spices are not a permanent nor essential (staple) source of
alimentation. They correspond to a degree of diet sophistication on the part of the
inhabitants and to the custom of offering buah tangan literally “fruit of the hand”
to visitors on the compounds or while visiting other villagers. Companionship of
plants and animals maybe another reason for the presence of food, providing floral
or animal features (“Entertainment” criteria) .
170
•
The landscape are “documents”: (Antiquity: 16. information: 14) Some of the
surveyed house compounds warrant a cultural report or an action to preserve
and/or document them because of their historical or architectural value. The US
National Park Registry criteria apply to C3, C4 and A3. One should also note the
botanical value of species density, instant records or time capsule, the vertical
landscape or all enveloping vegetation not being something that can be captured
“at a glance”.
6.3.2
Summary of the results
Before further examination, Figure 6.9 summarizes the acquired results:
Synthesis
identity
Characteristics:
1. Types
2. Variety
3. Symbiosis
4. Homogeneity
5. Ethical Norms
Screening to Cultural value criteria based on identification & characteristics
Result: Cultural value
of the sample
Priorities:
1.Religion
2.Function
3.Document
Figure 6.9 : Research Results
171
The following section present a discussion of the results, and to confirm them,
submit them to an empirical verification.
6. 3. 3
Discussion
Progress was achieved as a systematic approach of a dynamic and multifaceted
cultural phenomenon was made. However, to be valid, the obtained results should be
examined.
6.3.3.1 Validity and argumentative Scope of the Sample
Referring to premises mentioned in Chapter four (Methodology), the following
remarks are made, after the survey has been conducted:
(i) Traditional house compounds
The scope of validity of the study is applied to compounds that are
“traditional” in the sense that they were (i) established in a time where vernacular
traditions ruled and (ii) they still present a degree of “integrity*” reflecting the
vernacular traditions.
(ii) Participant researcher
It had been mentioned that, in matter of landscape appreciation by inhabitants
or researchers, especially from the cultural point of view, previous knowledge,
underlying philosophical or other interests may influence the conclusions. The
opportunistic quasi random sampling selection method was followed to keep in check
the subjectivity of the author as a “participant observer” who refrained to interfere
with the selection. Only travel and time opportunities determined the choice of house
compound.
172
Features previously known by the author to be cultural features of the
vernacular landscape such as twin roofs (bumbung kembar) with a saluran air water
gutter in the middle or the medicinal patarwali (Tinospora crispa) were not
deliberately searched for and were not met in the field. The sample of 16 units is
small compared to the great variety of features in Terengganu. If the sample was less
random or larger, some of the “missing” features would probably be found.
(iii) Typology
Although the typology classification had proved useful and reflected the
reality, it is feasible to consider other descriptive approaches where there would be
other types based for example on the dates of first occupation or construction or, to
simplify only one type –with variations, of Terengganu village landscape.
There are two ways to correct and consolidate the findings (Babbie 1975)
These are:
(i) To resort to “inter-subjectivity” corroboration. It is hoped that other researchers as
well decide to continue the study in Terengganu. Their findings will be essential especially if a good measure of consensus is obtained. ii) To proceed to an empirical
verification by returning to the field and further comparing photographs of features
from the sites to the grid of components and criteria previously established in the
study.
6.4
Empirical verification
The “on site” empirical verification is based on the culture components as
deducted from the literature previously summarized in Figure1of Chapter 4
(Methodology). It is divided in two parts. First, Table 6.2 recapitulates the link
between the theoretical cultural components and the features observed in the house
compounds.
173
Table 6.2: From cultural components to examples in surveyed house compound
Group of
components
or realm of
reality
Collective
Psyche
Number &
identification
of component
Contribution to
house compounds
landscapes
Expression
in the
landscapes
Some examples
in the surveyed
House
compounds
1. First
settlements &
Indianised
civilisations
Cosmic awareness
Land perception
and interpretation
Roofs and
entrances
orientation
colours
significance
14/16 hse cpnds
main orientation//
sun &-->Islamic
kiblat
2. World view
and beliefs
Nature “inhabited”
Symbols significance
in art
Religion & Revealed
knowledge
16 cpds: zoning
obvious, even if
shifted.
Bidara, Kapas in
A1 and A2
3. Ethnic groups
ways of life
& accessories
Food & material
processing tools
Daily life accessories
Taboos
Zoning for
Islamic
privacy
Plant species
preferences
Pounding
devices
(lesong),
granaries
Stilts, titian
walkways,
pointed roofs,
padi fields,
orchards
Plant material
for building,
tools, food,
medicine, etc..
Particular
shape of
carved barge
boards
(mempeles)
Sheds and
platforms for
work, rest and
trade
Walls,
“sorong”
gates.
Innovative
architectural
details &
decoration
16 house on stilts,
fruits trees preeminence
“
&
observation
Tebu gajah in front
of F1
Bark in F4
“
& observation
Group
survival
State
history
4. Natural
environment
Challenges &
resources
Floods, monsoon,
luxuriance and
variety of vegetation
and wild life
5. Practical
knowledge &
experience
Uses of the
environment
resources
6. Construction
techniques &
Principles,
timber
architecture
7. Economic
activities
Style of buildings,
villages, and towns
layout
8. Social
organisation
Status symbols, level
of compound
complexity
Settlement existence
& location
Foreign influence,
new trends
9. Political &
historical events
Crafts, trading,
agriculture and
fishing
Baluh padi in
F1,F2, F3.
Sampan under
houses.
confinement beds
Sources
Weatley
Raja Bahrin
Tajul Muluk
Nor Affendi Yahya
“
Massart, Cheng,
Endicott, Lye
Dunn,
Burkill, Gimlette
Unpublished thesis
& Interviews
2 full examples of
rumah berpeles, 16
bendul, 14 buah
gutong
Mohamad Yusof
Halim, Lim,
KALAM
“Clinics” in F1 and
R5, mat making in
R3
Clifford,
Khoo Kay Kim
Kota wall in A2,
gates in C4 and A2.
Complex &
wealthy residences
in A and C
“ & Shaharil
Sheppard,
Muhamad Salleh
174
For the second part of the verification, the following Figures 6.9 to 6.12 show
photographs of features taken from the surveyed house compounds and refers these to
the corresponding particular cultural component (s).
Figure 6.9: In C3, components: 4 “natural
environment challenges & resources “:
orchard of rambutan and jambu; 9
“political & historical events”:
described by British visitor in 1896.
Figure 6.11: A1, components 6
“construction and principles”:
buah gutong and 9 “Political &
historical events & techniques”:
Foreign influence: box windows.
Figure 6.10: F1, components: 5 “practical
knowledge & experience”: medicinal Albizia
(tebu gajah); 7 “economic activities”: bench
for “clinic bekam*”.
Figure 6.12: C1, components 6: buah gutong
and 9: “Art nouveau” on posts and
windows.
(Figures 6. 9 to 6.12 : Pictures taken by author, 2004)
175
Figure 6.13: C1, components 1& 2:
“cosmic orientation” & “Islamic
culture”: morning façade
receiving sun from the east.
Figure 6.14: F2, components 3 “nature
challenges”: granary and 4
“way of life”: Tamarindus
with decorative Platiceps.
Figure 6. 15: A3, components 2 “beliefs”:
Eugenia in front of entrance and 8 “status”
marked by elaborated porch and
buildings.
Figure 6.16: F4, components 5
“Practical knowledge & experience”:
bark for walls and 6, “construction
principles”: buah gutong.
(Figures 6. 15 to 6. 16, pictures taken by author)
The objective of the research is obtained: The assumption that the studied
landscapes can be considered as cultural landscapes appears verified.
176
This verification has practical and theoretical results and implications. Practical
results are those can be used directly in various disciplines such as landscape
architecture, architecture, conservation or history. The theoretical results are discussed
in chapter 7.
6. 5. Practical use of the Results
6.5.1
Conservation
First and foremost, a progress has been achieved in the study of these house
compounds: As the cultural significance of the sample was demonstrated, the first
stage in the Burra Charter “understand significance” of the landscapes has been
obtained. The second stage, “technical assessment” of some of the individual house
compounds, may begin.
The data gathered for the preliminary assessment of the sample may be used
for further classification as to the merits of individual compounds. Measures to be
taken toward the registration for preservation or documentation of some of the sites,
particularly those with historical and architectural value can be undertaken.
Second, a beginning of characterisation and identification of the Terengganu
house compound landscapes has been obtained. As landscape architecture
professionals have indicated previously, this could help provide a source of
inspiration for material features for modern Malaysian landscapes.
177
6.5.2
Modern use of traditional accessories and plants species
Observation in new housing, magazines and literature (Ismail Said et al.,
2000) shows that modern uses of traditional features is now part of landscaping in
modern habitat building. Of the listed 82 ground features, jars, wooden walkways,
“pangkin” platforms and other features present in the sample have been seen used as
“garden furniture” from Kuala Lumpur to Kampong Batin in Terengganu. Perhaps the
interesting bangku (high benches) have not been re-used yet.
The most decorative plant species found in the sample have been used already
such as Asplenium nidus ferns, gingers and Jasminun.. Further inspiration may still be
found in the modest but useful belukar trees such as the medicinal and cosmetic
Lepisanthes, Glycosmis, Neo-litsea zeylanica , Justicia gandarussa, and the pretty
vegetable Sauropus androgynus. In the first bare years of the new modern gardens of
terrace housing, fast growing screening species such as the Morinda spp., Hibiscus
tilliaceus and Premna could be useful in the rather exposed (to public view) grounds
of the recent housing estates.
Landscape design may be inspired by the tri-dimensional or spheric landscape
obtained in the ancient compounds where the sky is framed by tree crowns.
To animate space, “sets” of function-related features can be reproduced even if
their functionality is no longer essential. One set would comprise of a ground feature
together with plants species and related accessories. For instance,
•
“Well set”: well or water source, timba bucket on its stand, table, tree,
streamlet with titi timber walkway.
•
“Gerai set”: resting platform, shade tree, pandanus or sedge mats, lidi
broom..
•
“Stairs set”: jar, with ceduk, or kolah, fragrant shrubs, flower pots, water
source.
178
To confer a regional identity to a garden, “signature clusters” may be, after
some research, carefully composed. From the sample, Terengganu could be
represented by a cluster including wood carvings or wave stairs, cengal planks
footwalk, Lansium domesticum, Zizyphus jujuba or Gnetom gnemon trees with
brown pinang jeruk or budu preserves jar or orange coloured water jar from Pattani
and perhaps a few wild species such as Clerodendron or a climbing Tetracera, some
batik cloth and fishing nets hammocks. The problem in the reconstitution is that space
may be lacking, forcing new arrangement and disrupting the spatial hierarchy of the
features observed in the study.
6.5.3
Re-use of ancient lay out and space organisation
Because of economic and spatial constraints, lay out and space organisation
features from the past are less reproduced. Yet some of them deserve continued
attention, especially those reflecting an adaptation to the climate, such as the stilts and
the orientation of the houses with less surface exposure to the sun. Construction on
stilts not only provides ventilation but also allows the house to be set above the level
of the circulation. Nowadays, the flood of motor vehicles replaces the water of ancient
times.
With the stilts come the elevated walkways, a feature seen in modern public
buildings where the importance of communication between departments is
recognised. It could be more used in private clusters of housings projects where -as
Terengganu inhabitants sometimes do- members of a family would buy in the same
housing estate to facilitate the continuation of their close relationship, food exchange
(especially during Ramadan), reciprocal assistance and safety.
The house compounds design with trees, water features, ventilation, high roofs
produces a cooling habitat/environment, a “microclimate” that create a sense of
privacy and protection as well as results in economy of expenses on energy. It is a
model often referred to for second (holiday) residences.
179
6.5.4 Contribution to and collaboration with other disciplines
Through the wide spectrum of data collection necessary for their completion,
cultural landscape studies contribute as a source of information for other fields of
research in the context of interdisciplinary researches. Much of the history of
Terengganu is still to be documented and “provides excellent scope for research”
(Khoo 2002, 160). It is still possible to read it through its material remains contained
in the house compounds. During this study, interviews have yield witness memories
bringing new information and precisions on events sporadically reported in literature
or local traditions but the brink of being forgotten as expended below.
6.5.4.1
Historical value
Three of the house compounds answer in full to the National Park Registry
criteria D for historical preservation referring to “Places related to events, or persons
in history”. It also transpired through the interviews that quite a few of the compound
sites are connected to each other one way or another, illustrating the closeness of the
Terengganu society and the intercommunication between households.
The “Clan house compound” (C4) located in Lorong Haji Jamil – an area
earmarked for modern development of “kampong Tiong”- is often noted by visitors in
the capital for its gate with a roof decorated by two buah gutong, its carving on the
sorong porch balustrades and its rich garden with orchids climbing on an picturesque
Syzyphus aquae. It is part of the former clusters of bujang berpeles houses belonging
to Haji Awang Besar and his family: They still own a row of six shops in Jalan
Kampung Cina. Because of his close business ties with the Japanese, Haji Awang
was arrested and executed during Bintang Tiga short lived rule in Terengganu (Yusof,
1995).
Haji Awang beautiful “Nadja” was the last of the perahu pinis gober
traditional schooners with a carved prow. One of the successive nakhoda of the same
180
boat was Haji Ibrahim, founder of the compound (C2) in Pulau Ketam. A present
inhabitant, Pak Majid, son of Haji Ibrahim, told how “Nadja” sank by accident in
Singapore in the fifties.
The Tokku Paluh “Clan house compound” (C3) is mentionned by Hugh
Cifford who visited the place during an expedition on the east Coast of Malaysia
in1895 in the pursuit of Dato’Bahaman and Tok Jangut.
“The saint lives secluded in the retirement of a shady-steeped village. He is
rich in flocks and herds, loves his fruit groves and his flowers...”.
(Clifford,1961)
Pak Man “Castro”, the owner of the house compound in Sungei Rengas (R5) is
the grand son of a trusted guard of Tukku Paluh and told stories of training with a
sword in Tokku’s compound.
In Pulau Duyung, the historical and architectural value of Dato’Biji Sura
walled compound has been officially recognised. After first researches on the place by
this author and Badan Warisan of Malaysia, it was partially reconstructed, based on
speculative drawings commissioned to the Department of Architecture of the
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia. One of the Dato’s grand-daughter married a grand-son
of Haji Yusof Kelang, founder of the “clan house compound” in Kuala Hiliran (C1).
6.5.4.2
Architectural Value
The style and building methods of the houses in the Terengganu compounds
(as well in Kelantan and in Kedah) are an example of a particular South East Asian
style of building with some affinities with Chinese timber architecture. However, they
have their particular interpretation of the decorative common elements (upward-lifted
181
eaves, high roofs, rectangular buildings on high stilt etc.) and follow a Muslim way of
life whereas the other traditional buildings of the same type in the region (Laos,
Cambodia, Thailand Vietnam) are built mostly for Buddhist inhabitants, except in
Champa Muslim enclaves.
Besides the Hiliran clan, the Aristocrat house in A3 belonging to descendants
of the wealthy patron of music and architecture that was Haji Mat “Kaya “of Losong,
is also potentially worthy of preservation under the criteria of the National Park
Registry.
6.5.4.3
Anthropology and Ethnobotanics
Traditional medicine is no longer commonly practiced, yet three compounds
houses belonged to traditional healers, (i) a bekam practioner still in activity in
Padang Air, (ii) a midwife in Pasir Dule , and (iii) a masseur- herbalist in Sungei
Rengas. Knowledge and uses of plants species still leaves a mark on the landscape
that can be interpreted.
Plants species presence and cooking recipes may be useful as markers, for
instance to trace the paths of the Cham diaspora. It is said that the builder of the Kota
Lama compound was the first entrepreneur to plant commercially Lansium
domesticum orchards in the state. This may be related to the Datuk Biji Sura family
origins in Champa in present day Vietnam, which is the northern limit of the species
much prized by the Chinese (Burkill, 1958) The ulam greens seen in the sample
(also recorded by Laderman (1978) in Marang, Terengganu) enter into salad dishes
prepared in the North eastern regions of Pattani and Vietnam.
182
6.5.4.4
Botanical documentation and history
The “aging” landscapes of Terengganu are a living record of the growth and
vigour of some traditional centenarian species: The Syzygiun aquea (jambu) normally
known as small tree, reaches surprising heights and covers the floor of a large area
with its fluffy white flowers while the fruit remain delectable. Family members recall
how and why their ancestor planted the species and sometimes even from where they
collected them. They explain as well how relatives gave them the plant, thus
spreading the species. The ethno-botanical value of these house compounds
“cosmopolitan” landscapes may be exploited for better knowledge of the plant species
and of their propagation.
6.5.4.5 Sociology:
The study confirmed that social status and beliefs were “written” in the fabric
of the residences. Further studies and interviews on material features of ancient
habitat may help understand better a society based on hierarchy, community, pride
and religion. Sociologists may observe that for socio-economical reasons, the same
society could now be redirected towards individualism, hedonism and secularism
through a new habitat ruled by these principles.
.
These considerations bring to the chapter seven where the more theoretical
results and implications of the findings are further considered.
CHAPTER 7
PERSPECTIVES AND CONCLUSION
“We shape ourselves by decisions which shape our environment”
Rene Dubos (1969)
The positive assessment of cultural value deducted in the preceding chapters
has theoretical implications and consequences. This chapter proposes the
generalisation of the results to other house compounds in Terengganu, points out the
contributions of the study in methodological approach and conceptualisation of the
studied landscape and finally suggests directions for future use of these results.
7.1
Generalisation:
One of the most beneficial results of this study for Terengganu is that an
extrapolation of the findings of this study to other house compounds in Terengganu is
possible. House compounds presenting the same features in similar quality and
quantity may be considered worthy of the same assessment of potential cultural value.
Further case studies would be justified. Some examples are shown in the pictures in
Figures 7.1 to 7.8.
184
Figure 7.1: component 9
“History”: Jar from Pattani,
sailingTrade. (P.Ketam)
Figure 7.3: component 3:
jar & bottom of stairs
slab. (Merang).
Figure 7.2: component 3 “Way of life”:
open“fence”. (P.Ketam),
Figure 7.4: components1&2: cosmic
orientation & Islamic culture;
Component 6 : architecture (mempeles);
Component 3: gerai bersalin on the right.
(Kuala Terengganu).
Figures 7.1 to7.4 : (pictures by author, 2005)
185
Figure 7.5: component 3, way of life:
gerai platform under a kapok tree
curtain of palms (P.Duyung)
Figure 7.7: Component 3,
Way of life: gerai (Kpg Batin)
Figure 7.6: component 4, nature challenges:
and component 3, way of life: batik&
pelikat clothes line (Kampung Bahri)
Figure 7. 8: component 6, architecture:
“wave stairs” (Kuala Hiliran)
Figures 7. 5 to 7.8: (Pictures taken by author 2005)
7. 2
Contribution of the Study
Progress was achieved as a systematic approach of a dynamic and multifaceted
cultural phenomenon was made. The study contributes to cultural landscape
theorisation in two directions, methodology and landscape conceptualisation.
186
7.2.1 Investigation Method and further Research
As an investigative approach, the research procedure has been tailored on the
subject studied as it was evolving with the findings. It may be of use in similar
circumstances where vernacular environments have to be assessed for cultural value
while their particular identity still needs to be substantiated and conceptualised.
The study of cultural significance was based on multidisciplinary information..
Because of this holistic approach, large amounts of data were gathered and check
lists, tables and charts were designed to enable the extraction of the culturally
significant features.
The selection of types of house compound and the identification of
characteristics (types, variety, symbiosis, homogeneity and ethical norms.) sprang on
the field from the features themselves as they were catalogued in relation to the
cultural significance they were found to encapsulate (from literature and interviews).
The process remained based on the research sequence: (i) Acquisition of
knowledge on the vernacular cultural background (ii) Field inventory of features and
qualitative and quantitative Analysis and (iii) Screening to scientific/academic
criteria.
When data from qualitative or observation surveys were conclusive enough,
further elicitation from collected quantitative data was not sought.
Ideally, a multidisciplinary study should be conducted through the
collaboration of a team of researchers with various backgrounds. The trend,
broadening the effectiveness of the specialisation of the past decades, is now growing.
The research remained preliminary. In the case of Terengganu, further in depth
investigation on the individual compounds in view of a registration for their historical
or architectural value can begin from there. More inventories and cultural
187
investigation of each of the landscape elements, -flora, architecture, ground
accessories and fauna in specific geographical areas would help substantiate the
vernacular paradigms of man-nature cohabitation in the state.
It is agreed with Nor Atiah (2003) that the case study method is not the only
one that should be pursued in the future. From the base of field inventories, it is
possible to conduct more general or thematic studies using the newly found
parameters in Terengganu, focusing on the different elements of the landscapes or on
function of the plants, or their origin, on the architectural characters, on space
hierarchy and others.
7.2.2 Brief Reference to other Studies
..
Comparative studies could be done as well between the various regions of
Malaysia. Field differences would be significant of various cultural identities. For
instance, “Coherence” was leading the experiential factors in Nor Atiah (2003)’s
analysis in Perak whereas “complexity” and “legibility” were found more frequently
in the Terengganu sample.
The difference in complexity between the rural Perak agricultural
communities and the Terengganu eclectic society is due probably in part to the fact
that in the agriculture based villages of the western state, inhabitants go to work in the
field outside of their house compound. This results in uncluttered grounds, decorated
with plants in pots. Nor Atiah (2003) was also considering only the floral element of
the landscapes
In the sample from Terengganu, the ground and the kolong space under the
house are filled with signs of present or past activity, transforming a visit in the
compound into an exploration of an active way of life. The functions of the grounds
are different, so is their appearance.
188
One common finding that has been obtained in Perak and in Terengganu is
the cosmopolitan aspect surprising for traditional communities, of the landscapes. It is
due to the interest of the inhabitants for experimenting in gardening (Nor Atiah, 2003)
denoting an open-mindedness as well to the location of the Malay peninsula at a cross
road between oceans and continents.
Another feature that appears to be common to ancient Malaysian villages
landscapes is the possibility to “decipher” them beyond the appearances, a fact that
denotes places with cultural background. Researchers in Malaysia today in the process
of identifying the features of the Malay villages landscape, record cultural meaning of
plants species and ground accessories in villages over the country (Abdullah Sani,
personal communication). They find out that, although neither Balinese Hinduism nor
Fen Shui designed, the features found in Malay gardens do demonstrate a spiritual as
well as a functional role.
There may be differences of interpretations between the inhabitants and a
relative outsider such as the author. Haji Mohamad Yusof Abdullah, director of the
Terengganu State Museum is from Pulau Duyung/Pulau Ketam (where 3 compounds
are surveyed). His thesis on the Terengganu house shows how the houses and their
gardens are functional (Mohamad Yusof 1990). Mohamad Yusof warned the author of
the risk of over-emphasising cultural significance over straightforward functional
value. However, for him, “functional” applied to a Malay residence includes “adapted
to the requirements of Islam”. Furthermore, cultivating a sense of beauty is part of the
Islamic way of living. He concluded by saying: “the traditional Terengganu house
compounds are equally useful and beautiful”, which for him, means quite Islamic and
functional (Mohamad Yusof, personal communication). That renders the compounds
normative and cultural as much as functional for the author.
189
7.2.3 Theoretical Aspects of the traditional Terengganu Landscapes
The field investigations in the house compounds in Terengganu and the
following interpretation, although not exhaustive, has already allowed to elicit a few
of the principles and concepts underlying the landscapes toward their more esoteric or
tacit aspects.
7.2.3.1 Beginning of a Conceptualisation
The five cultural characteristics that have been identified are connected to
concepts and ideas. (i) ‘types” refers to the concept of social organisation, (ii)
“variety” refers to material features, but includes individual psychological versatility
and antiquity which involve to a notion of time; (iii) “homogeneity” refers to the
concept of cultural consensus - “architectural harmony” in homogeneity refers partly
to material features and partly to the concept of structural principles-; (iv)“symbiosis”
refers to a way of living concept and to a long nurtured world view, and (v) “ethical
norms” refers to beliefs. All of this point towards an underlying philosophy.
Perhaps the most original finding made in the Terengganu sample is the
emphasis on the normative and didactic character of the considered landscapes.
According to Rapoport (2004), religious and or normative contents are a characteristic
associated with traditional cultures. However, in the case of Terengganu house
compounds, the inbuilt didactic features had not been previously specifically pointed
out. The fact that space in the compounds is vested with significance and value is
experienced in daily life, even taken for granted by the inhabitants, but not often
recorded. The positioning of the well on the left side of the back garden explained in
chapter five, is an excellent example.
Through the centuries, features -often functional, symbolic and aesthetic at the
same time- have accumulated overlapping semantic layers. A number of these
features are noted in the sample of sixteen house compounds such as: the omnipresent
190
and enigmatic buah gutong, rites-associated species like the henna tree, “travelling”
fruit and spices, Asplenium nidus (now loosing its magic connotations), the uniform
zoning as well as the location of house stairs and compound access and the practice
of sweeping carefully paths, entrances and halaman front courtyard.
These features refer to various realms of reality as well as to layers of
individual and collective levels of consciousness of a people. In terms of holistic
ecology or Total Human Ecology analysis, the interpreted features signal an allencompassing “supersystem” (Naveh 2000) within which move the lives of the
villagers. To the eyes of the villagers, the layers of significance embedded in the
features are little noticed while the normative aspect is not felt. They are merely tales
of sometimes past ways of life (albeit fondly remembered as noted during the
interviews). To the historian, anthropologist and sociologist, the meanings embodied
in the compound landscapes are an irreplaceable source of knowledge. To the author,
the cultural values found there do not only indicate a sense of “place and time” but
also, literally, a sense of moral direction.
7. 2.3.2 Role of Cultural Conceptualisation in planning built Environments
(i)
Biodiversity
Beyond the re-use of traditional accessories and species, the surveyed house
compound point to a different option in design: Native species from the area were left
to grow and were used in the villages. Today, when planning a landscape, it would be
beneficial to the ecology to include the preoccupation of restoring original species, to,
for example, the pre-palm oil natural floral composition.. Wherever original botanical
patches remain, newly planned estates could connect their environment to local nature
features by planting or preserving the native species. The fauna too, would thrive
again, contributing to the survival of wildlife species.
191
(ii)
Global Trends Awareness
Today, reproduction and introduction in modern settings of traditional
landscape features for their decorative and entertainment value is a fashionable trend
(so, perhaps ephemeral). It is also, for the inhabitants, a symbol of fidelity towards
their heritage (Ismail et al, 2000).
However, understanding the heritage at the conceptual level of the landscape is
less frequent although it is essential in addressing modern paradigms in man’s habitat
and natural environment management in a co-evolutionary perspective (Marcucci
2000).
By recognising the ancient patterns and principles as has been attempted in this
work, more awareness of the principles behind the new material global features which are similarly didactic and carry rules and implicit values such as, for example,
secularity, a notion previously alien to the Malay villagers- may be created.
Once awareness of the dynamic multilevel pattern of a vernacular Malay
ecologic system is created, it will easier to identify the multiple levels of interventions
from other super-systems.
That ethnic diversity re-surfaces in terrace housing (Ismail et al. 2000) is a sign
that culture is not obliterated by globalisation. Yet, will the study find the same results
in the second or third generation?
7. 3
Recommendation: Urgency of Documentation
Built environments were a most stable form of material support for a culture.
Now these material supports like the Terengganu house compounds are considered as
obsolete. They are erased even before they are recorded.
192
It has been found that some of the residences described technical records
such as those kept for example at the Faculty of Built Environment of the Universiti
Teknologi Malaysia (KALAM) have disappeared: Dato’Biji Sura’s stately house in
Tanjung in Kuala Terengganu and half of Tukku Paloh’s have been demolished.
“Wan Su’s house” in Pulau Duyung has been half sold away and half modernised.
Just recently in May 2006), wishing to confirm the identity of some species of trees
in the ancient orchard of Tukku Paloh, the author found only the freshly cut stumps
and the compound divided.
This evolution makes documentation of what remains the more urgent.
Recording of the philosophy of life behind these landscapes can be undertaken from
surveys conducted in villages still preserving some significant features.
Whatever happens to the actual “traditional house compounds” in Terengganu
and Malaysia, with suitable documentation, a people’s life experience and the
principles embodied in the vernacular landscapes can be remembered and be used in
designing environments relevant to the places and to the people. As mentioned at the
beginning of this thesis, the evolution towards disappearance is fast and global;
however Rapoport (2004) declares::
“Traditional environments, considered globally,[…] provide a “laboratory “ as it
were, a repository of a great deal of knowledge from which one could learn very
important, possibly essential lessons. It is, therefore, essential not to loose this
“cultural gene pool” and lessons it can provide through research. […]“In this way, it
may be well possible to reconcile globalization with the variability of local cultural
landscapes, with all the advantages this implies”. .
Rapoport (2004, 11)
Conclusion
The study was started out of regret for the increasing disappearance of the
architectural and botanical features of the Terengganu village landscapes. It was
193
found during the study that the surveyed landscapes were the results of a singular
historical context, including the fact that the State of Terengganu had enjoyed a long
period of prosperity and artistic creativity.
A field inventory has elicited a wealth of features in the four elements of the
house compounds landscapes. Five characteristics have been identified in this
preliminary survey: existence of types, variety, symbiosis, homogeneity and ethical
norms. The sixteen surveyed compounds were found to be “cultural” as they
answered to 17 criteria for cultural value derived from numerous academic
perspectives. They are, in priority, functional and religiously compliant for the
inhabitants and of documentary value for scholars.
Perhaps, because of their strong and cohesive cultural roots, the village
residential units have been able to outlast the context that gave birth to them.
Today the house compounds are confronted in abstract with the forces of
globalisation and in practice with the rarity and the costs of timber and land. They
face a “disorganisation” (Naveh 2000) brought about by the energetic omnipresence
of combustible fuel-powered present day “technosphere”. Despite the nostalgia, many
of the features from the past vernacular landscape found in the study may not be
reproduced as such in the modern world context.
However, in a holistic ecology perspective, the principles embodied in the
disappearing landscapes such as those elicited from this study in Terengganu are far
from obsolete. On the contrary, symbiosis with nature and neighbours, appreciation of
species diversity, breeding of wild and domestic animals and understanding their
personality, advantages of visual harmony in a region, pooling of traditional
knowledge, space organisation conducive to desired behaviour, are all part of
ecological global survival.
Learning from the past as has been done in this work may help imagining
designs that take into account the tacit principles behind the vernacular landscapes at
least as much as they re-cycle their material features. What is now mostly academic
194
record, symbolic decoration in modern houses or promises of convivial social life in
gated communities, may then become part of truly landscaping the future.
There were two sets of objectives for this thesis; one, scientific, was to
demonstrate the cultural value of the traditional Terengganu house compounds and at
the same time, showing the relationship between a landscape and a cultural
background. Those objectives were obtained.
The other set of objectives were related to the theoretical and ethical
significance of the thesis. The first objective was to contribute to more awareness of
the consequences of the loss of the features of a culture; the second was to provide a
platform for some form of action to retain the identified heritage. Pursuing these
objectives, as is done in part in this work, still remain a good challenge.
195
REFERENCES
Abdul Halim Bashah (1994) Raja Campa & Dinasti Jembal dalam Patani Besar,
Pustaka Reka, Kuban Kerian.
Abdul Halim Nasir (1986) Rumah Melayu Tradisi, Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka,
Kuala Lumpur.
Abdul Halim Nasir, Wan Hashim Wan Teh (1994) Rumah Melayu Tradisi, Fajar
Bakti, Kuala Lumpur.
Abdul Rahman Al-Ahmadi (1988) Sejarah Kebudayan Campa, Kementerian
Kebudayaan dan Pelancongan/Ecole Francaise d’Extreme Orient, Kuala Lumpur.
Abdul Razak Abdul Rahman (1999) The traditional Malay Architectural World
View (With emphasis on the Role of the Tukang), Journal Alam Bina, Jilid 02 no 01
Mei !999, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Skudai.
Anwuar Ridhwan (1979) Hari Hari terakhir Seorang Seniman, Dewan Bahasa dan
Pustaka, Kuala Lumpur.
Antrop, M. (1997) The Concept of traditional Landscapes as a base for landscape
evaluation and Planning.The example of Flanders Region. Landscape and Urban
planning 38 (1997) 105-117.
Appleton, J. (1975) The Experience of Landscape, John Wiley and Sons Ltd.,
London.
Arifin bin Mohamad (1997) Forest ranger, Lata belatang, Terengganu, personal
communication
Arnesen, Tor (1998) Landscapes Lost, Landscape Research, Vol.23, no1.1998.
A.Samad Ahmad (1982) Warisan Perubatan Melayu, Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka,
Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur.
Badan Warisan Malaysia and Penny Gunstein (1990) Malaysian Architectural
Heritage Survey: A Handbook, Kuala Lumpur.
Babbie R. Earl (1975) The practice of Social research, Wadsworth Publishing
Company, Belmont.
Bancroft, Anne (1979) Zen, Thames and Hudson, London.
196
BBC World (2005) http://www.bbc./co.uk./bbcafrica/africa05
Biot, Yvan (1984) Expert in pedology, Terengganu Agricultural Department, Kuala
Terengganu, personnal communication.
Birnbaum, Charles A. (2002) Protecting Cultural landscapes, National Park
Service, Technical Preservation Services, Bull. No 36.Washington DC.
Booth, N. (1983) Basic Elements of Landscape Architecture, Waveland Press, USA.
Boulle P. (1951) Le Sacrilege malais, Paris
Bruhnes, J. (1960) Geographie humaine, Presses Universitaires de la Cite, Paris.
Burkill, H. (1966) A Dictionary of the Economic Products of Peninsular Malaya,
Vol. I & II, Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives, Kuala Lumpur.
Chang Fee Ming (2002) The Visible Trail of Chang Fee Ming, Teratai Publishing,
Kuala Terengganu.
Chen Voon Fee (1998) The Encyclopedia of Malaysia, Archipelago Press,
Singapore.
Chin, H.F. (1999) Malaysian Vegetables in Colour, Tropical Press, Kuala Lumpur.
Clifford, H. (1961) “Expedition to Terengganu and Kelantan 1896”, Journal of the
Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society Vol.XXXIV, Pt.1, Kuala Lumpur.
Clifford, H. (1966) At the Court of Pelesu and other Malaysian Stories, (1897),
Oxford University Press, Kuala Lumpur.
Coatalen, P.J.(1982), The decorated Boats of Kelantan, University of Sciences
Malaysia, Penang.
Colin, Nicholas (1996), Indigenous Politics, Development and Identity in Peninsular
Malaysia: the Orang Asli and the Contest for Resources, COAC, Center for Orang
Asli Concerns, Kuala Lumpur.
Corner,E.J.H. (1952), Wayside Trees of Malaysia, 2 vol. Singapore Government
Printer. Singapore.
.
Crawford J. (1856) A Dictionary of the Indian Islands and Adjacent Countries,
reprinted (1992), Oxford University Press, London.
Daud Mohamed (1989), Terengganu cultural activist, personal communication,
Pulau Duyung.
Dellios, P. (2002),”The Museumification of the Village”, Bulletin of the Center for
East West Cultural and Economic studies, No.5, Bond University, Queensland.
197
Deverre,J R.(1985), Contribution a l’Etude de la Flore Malaisienne; Recherche de
Substances naturelles d’Origine vegetale et d’Interet biologique, These de Doctorat,
Universite de Paris XI. Unpublished.
Direktorat Pemetaan Malaysia (1988) Semenanjung Malaysia, Terengganu. Kuala
Lumpur.
Dubos, Rene (1986) Man and his Environment, the Quality of Man’s Environment,
Smithsonian Institution Symposium, Voice of America Forum Lectures.
Dunn, F.L.(1975) Rain forest Collectors and Traders: A Study of Resource
Utilization in Modern and Ancient Malaya, Monographs of the Malaysian Branch of
the Royal Asiatic Society No.5.Kuala Lumpur.
Fauconnier, H. (1930) Malaisie, Stock, Paris.
Gibbs, Philip (1987) Building a Malay House, Oxford University Press, Singapore
Gibson-Hill, C.A.(1949), Cargo Boats of the East Coast of Malaysia, Journal of the
Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, Vol.XXII, prt 3, Kuala Lumpur.
Gimlette J. D & Thomson H.W. (1971) A Dictionary of Malayan Medicine, Oxford
University Press, Kuala Lumpur.
Gimlette, D.J. (1971) Malay Poisons and Charm cures, Oxford University Press,
London.
Glenister A.G. (1971) The Birds of the Malay Peninsula, Singapore and Penang,
Oxford University Press, London.
Green, B. and W.Vos (2002) “Threatened Landscapes: Conserving Cultural
Environments”, London New York Spoon Press, in Sibernagel J., “Book review”,
Landscape and Urban Planning 62 (2002) 53-54.
Guide du Routard, Malaisie et Singapour (2003) Hachette Livre, Paris.
Gullick J.M. (1987) Malay Society in the Nineteenth Century, Oxford University
Press, London.
Henderson, M.R. (1954) Malaysian Wild Flowers, Monocotyledons, Malayan
Nature Society, Kuala Lumpur.
Henderson, M.R. (1959) Malaysian Wild Flowers, Dicotyledons, Malaysian Nature
Society, Kuala Lumpur and Singapore.
Hsuan Keng (1978) Orders and families of Malayan Seed Plants, Singapore
University Press, Singapore.
Hume L.M (1984) The Useful Plants of Terengganu, Senior thesis, Friends of the
World University, New York, unpublished.
198
Ibrahim Yusof (2001), Timber house builder, Seberang Baruh, personal
communication.
Ingerson, Alice E. (2000) What are Cultural Landscapes? Institute for Cultural
Landscapes Studies, Harvard University.
Ingerson, Alice E. (2000) Changing Approaches to Cultural Landscapes, Institute
for Cultural Landscape Studies, Harvard University.
International Council of Monuments & Sites Documents (1981) Australia ICOMOS
Charter for Conservation of Places of Cultural Significance. Burra Charter
http://life.csu.edu.au/dspennem/virtpast/icomos/burra2.htm.
International Council of Monuments & Sites Documents (1984) Australia ICOMOS
Guidelines to the Burra Charter: Cultural Significance,
http://life.csu.edu.au/dspennem/virtpast/icomos/burra2.htm.
International Council on Monuments and Sites Documents (1999) ICOMOS Charter
on the built vernacular Heritage, Mexico.
http://www.international.icomos.org/charters/vernacular_e.htm.
Ismail Hussein, Lafont P-B, Po Dharma, (1995) Dunia Melayu dan Dunia Indocina,
Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Kuala Lumpur
Ismail Ngah (1997-1999) “Landscape Negara”, in Ke Arah Negara Taman, Institut
Arkitek Landscape Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur.
Ismail Said (2001) Visual Composition of Malay Woodcarving of Traditional
Houses in Peninsular Malaysia, Research Management Center, Universiti Teknologi
Malaysia, Skudai
Ismail Said, Sharulnizam Abd.Rashid, Ezeti Kamariah Azman and Mahanum Dol
(2000), Determining Cultural –Ethnic Landscape in Terrace Housing Community in
Peninsular Malaysia, Research Management Center, Universiti Technology
Malaysia, Skudai..
Ismail Saidin (1977) Bunga Bungaan Malaysia, Kementerian Pelajaran Dewan
Bahasa dan Pustaka , Kuala Lumpur.
Ismail Saidin (2000) Sayuran Tradisional Ulam dan Penyedap Rasa, Penerbit
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi.
Ismail Said, Sharulnizam Abd.Rashid, Ezeti Kamariah Azman and Mahanum Dol
(2000), Determining Cultural –Ethnic Landscape in Terrace Housing Community in
Peninsular Malaysia, Research Management Center, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia,
Skudai..
Jackson, J.B. (1984) Discovering the Vernacular Landscape. New Haven, CT, Yale
University Press.
199
J.M.Aziz (1988) Kembang Selaut, Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Kuala Lumpur.
Kamariyah Kamsiah (1997), Enhancing the natural and Cultural Landscape through
Research and Education Collaborations, in Ke Arah Negara Taman, Seminar
Proceedings, Institut Akitek Landskap Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur.
Kaplan, Rachel (1975) Some methods and Strategies in the Prediction of
Preference”, Landscape Assessment: Values, perceptions and Resources in Zube
Ervin, , Hutchington and Ross Inc., Pennsylvania.
Kaplan, Stephen (1975) “An Information Model for the Prediction of Preference”:
Landscape Assessment: Values, perceptions and Resources in Zube Ervin Brush,
Robert, Fabos, Julius and Dowden, Hutchington and Ross Inc.,Pennsylvania.
Kaplan Rachel and Kaplan Stephen (1982) Cognition and Environment:
Functionning in an Uncertain World, Prayer Publishers, New York
Karim Raslan (2002) Journeys through Southeast Asia: Ceritalah 2, Times Books
International, Singapore.
Kee Hua Chee (1996) A Royal retreat, Wings of Gold, October, Malaysian Airline
Inflight Magazine, Kuala Lumpur.
Khoo Kay Kim (1991) Malay Society, Tranformation & Democratisation, Pelanduk
Publication, Kuala Lumpur
Killmann, W., Sickinger, T. & Hong Lay Thong (1994) Restoring & Reconstruction
the Malay Timber House, Forest Research Institute of Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur.
Kuchiba, M., Tsubouchi Y. Maeda, F. (1979) Three Malay villages : A Sociology
of Paddy Growers in West Malaysia, the University Press of Hawaii, Honolulu
Laderman, Carol. (1982), “Wild Vegetable Consumption on the East Coast of
Peninsular Malaysia”, The Malayan Nature Journal, vol.35. pp.165-171
Larousse ed. (1982) Petit Larousse illustre, Librairie Larousse, Paris.
Lee, Alex (2003), Ping Anchorage, Personal Communication Kuala Terengganu
Lim Jee Yuan (1987) The Malay House, Institut Masyarakat, Pulau Pinang.
.
Lim, Josuah (2002). Tanjung Jara Hotel, personal communication, Dungun.
Longuet, C.R.(1984), Etudes de Terrain et Documentation ethnobotanique en
Malaisie, Societe de Recherches Ethnopharmaceutiques SREP, Paris, unpublished
reports
Longuet, C.R. (1984) Cheng Ho legend thrives in Jeram, New Straits Times 15
January, Kuala Lumpur.
200
Longuet, C.R.(1987) Nuralam Institut for Applied research on Plants, in Spirit of
Enterprise, Rolex Award for Enterprise, Wokingham.
Longuet, C.R. (1991) Historical and Botanical Documentation for the Restoration of
the Kota Lama Dato’Biji Sura, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia Skudai, unpublished
reports..
Longuet, C.R. (2002) Ethnobotanical Research, LMD Pharmacognosie, unpublished
reports.
McClelland, F.L.,.Keller, J.T. ,Keller, G.P. , Melnick, R.Z. (1990) Guidelines for
Evaluating and Documenting Rural Historic Landscapes, National Park Service and
Land an Community Associates, National Register Bulletin 30,Washington DC.
Marcucci Daniel .J. (2000) “Landscape History as a Planning Tool”, Landscape and
Urban Planning, Vol.49, pp. 67-81.
Marzuki Ali, Longuet R. and Chang Fee Ming (1999) Puisi Duyung Puisi Rakyat,
Dewan bahasa dan Pustaka, Kuala Lumpur.
Mohammad Abu Bakar (1987) Wan Abdullah bin Wan Mohd Amin (Tok Sheikh
Duyung), Pesaka IV, Lembaga Muzium Negeri Terengganu, Terengganu.
Mohamad Hanif Hassan et al. (1987) Kota Lama Duyung, Pulau Duyung, Kuala
Terengganu, Kajiang Lukisan terukur, KALAM, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia,
Skudai. Unpublished.
Mohamad Hazriq Mohamed Din (1998-1999) Rumah Haji Muhammad Kaya,
Losong, Kuala Terengganu, Kajian Lukisan Terukur, KALAM, Universiti
Teknologi Malaysia, Skudai. Unpublished.
Mohd Ghouse Nasurudin (1995) The Malay Dance, Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka,
Kuala Lumpur.
Mohd Sarhil Mohd Yusof (2003) Kajian Landskap Budaya Kamping Paloh Kuala
Terengganu, Universiti Institut Teknologi Malaysia UiTM, Shah Alam, unpublished
Mohd Taib Osman, (1997) Islamic Civilisation in the Malay World , Dewan Bahasa
dan Pustaka, Kulala Lumpur.
Mohd Yusof Abdullah (1997) Bangunan Traditional Melayu di Terengganu, Master
Thesis, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur. Unpublished.
Mohd Yusof Abdullah (2004) Personal Communication, Losong Museum.
Morten Strang, Allen Jeyarajasingam (1993) Birds: A Photographic Guide to the
Birds of Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore Sun Tree Publishing, Singapore.
201
Muhammad Affandi Yahya (1995) Simbolisme dalam Seni Bina Rumah Melayu
Kelantan, Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia, Kuala
Lumpur.
Muhammad Saleh Haji Awang (1992) Sejarah Darul Iman , Edisi Baru, Dewan
Bahasa Dan Pustaka, Kuala Lumpur.
Naveh, Z (1995) “Interactions of landscapes and cultures”, Landscape and Urban
Planning, Vol. 32, pp. 43-54.
Naveh, Z. (2000) “What is Holistic Landscape Ecology? A conceptual
Introduction”, Landscape and Urban planning, Vol. 50, pp. 7-26.
Noone, R.O. (1948) Notes on the Kampung, Compound and Houses of the Pattani
Malay village of Banggul Ara, in the Mukim of Batu Kurau, Northern Perak,
Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, Vol. XXI, Part 1, pp.
124-147.
Nor Atiah Ismail (2003) Cultural responsive Landscape: Planting Composition in
rural Perak Malay Residential garden. Master thesis, Faculty of Built Environment,
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Skudai. Unpublished
Norizam binti Abdul Rahim et al..(1993/94) Rumah Wan Embong, Kajian Lukisan
Terukur, KALAM, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Skudai.Unpublished
Norizan bti Mustaffa 1990, Sejarah Kuala Terengganu 1900-1957 Thesis, Fakulti
Sains Kemasyarakatn dan Kemanusiaan, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia,
Bangi.Unpublished.
Po Dharma (1998 ) Personal Communications, French Embassy, Kuala Lumpur and
P.Duyung, Kuala Terengganu.
Polunin, I.(1988)Plants and Flowers of Malaysia,Times Editions Pte Ltd.Singapore.
Puethai Chaichonggrat et al. (2002) The Thai House, History and Evolution, River
Books Co. Ltd., Bangkok
Proudhon, P-J (1926), Qu’est-ce que la Propriete?, Ed.Riviere , Paris.
Pusat Kajian Alam Bina Melayu (KALAM) (2000), Senarai Rumah Kajian terukur,
Fakulti Alam Bina, Universiti teknologi Malaysia, Skudai. Unpublished.
Raja Bahrin Shah Raja Ahmad Shah (1988 ) The Terengganu Timber Malay House,
Badan Warisan Malaysia & Petronas, Kulala Lumpur.
Rapoport, Amos (2004) Local Environments in a Global Context, EBRA
International Symposium.
Roberts G. (1994) The Cultural Landscape, Landscape Research 19 (3) pp.133-136.
202
Rousseau,J-J (1768) La Nouvelle Heloise, Ed. La Pleiade, (1966) Paris.
Rukayah Aman (2001) Buah Buahaan Malaysia, Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka Kuala
Lumpur.
Sauer, C. (1925) The Morphology of the Landscape. University of California
Publications in Geography 2, no.2, pp.19-53.
Sevigne (de), C. (1959) Lettres a Madame de Grignan, (1648-1685) , Ed.La Pleiade,
Paris.
Shaharil Talib R. (1977) “The Terengganu Ruling Class in the late Nineteenth
Century”, Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, Vol 50, pt
2, pp 25-47.
Shaharil Talib R. (1984) After its own image: The Terengganu Experience18811941.: Oxford University Press. Singapore.
Sheppard, M.C. (1949) “A Short History of Terengganu” Journal of the Malaysian
Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, Vol. XXII, Pt.3.
Sheppard, M.C. (1959), Traditional Malay House Forms, Journal of the Malaysian
Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, Vol. XXXXII, Pt 2, pp.1-9.
Sheppard, M.C. (1978) The living Crafts of Malaysia, Times Books International,
Singapore.
Skeat, W. W. (1900,) Malay Magic Macmillan, London, reprinted by Dover
Publications, New-York, 1967.
Sorensen, P (2002), The Dong Son Culture and tradition in South East Asia,
International Seminar on Dong Son Culture and Tradition on South East Asia.
Terengganu State Museum, Kuala Terengganu.
Stamps III, A.E. (2003) Mystery, complexity, legibility and coherence: A metaanalysis, Journal of Environmental Psychology , Elsevier Ltd (2003) .
Syed Ahmad Jamal (1994) Rupa dan Jiwa, Dewan bahasa dan Pustaka, Kuala
Lumpur.
Syed Muhammad Naguib Al- Attas (1989) Islam and the Philosophy of Science,
International Institute of Islamic Thought and Civilisation, Kuala Lumpur.
Taylor, P.D. (2002) “Fragmentation and Cultural landscapes: Tightening the
Relationship between Human Beings and the Environment”, Landscape and Urban
Planning Vol. 58, issues 2-4, pp. 93-99.
Tress, B., Tress G., Decamp, H., d’Hauteserre A-M. (2001) “Bridging human and
natural Sciences in Landscape research” Landscape and Urban Planning Vol.57, pp
137-143.
203
Three Gorges Probe (2002) Series of articles
http://www.threegorgesprobe.org/tgp/Index
Unit perancang Ekonomi Negeri Terengganu UPEN, (2004) Data Asas 2004, Kuala
Terengganu
Unit perancang Ekonomi Negeri Terengganu UPEN (2004), Rancangan
Pembangunan Negeri Terengganu 2004- 2008 Jabatan Setiausaha Kerajaan, Kuala
Terengganu
United Nations Conference on Environment and Development UNICED (1992) Rio
bDeclaration on Environment and Development, United Nation general Assembly.
Rio de Janeiro.
Vidal de la Blache (1903) Tableau de la Geographie de la France, Paris.
Von Haaren, C.(2002) “Landscape Planning facing the Challenge of the
Development of cultural Landscapes”, Landscape and Urban Planning, Vol. 60,
Issue 2, pp. 73-80.
Vos, W. and H. Meekes (1999) “Trends in European cultural Landscape
Development: Perspectives for a sustainable Future”. Landscape and Urban
Planning, Vol. 46, Issues 1-3, pp. 3-14
Wan Ahmad Wan Cik (1984), Nakhoda , Terengganu schooner captain, personal
communication, Pulau Duyung.
Wan Azahar Wan Ibrahim (1991), Batik entrepreneur, personal communication,
Seberang Takir.
Wan Endut Wan Embong (1984) Nakhoda, Terengganu schooner captain Personal
Communication, Pulau Duyung.
Wan Fadhilah bin Wan Hitam, (2003) Kajian landskap Budaya di Kampung Jeram
Manir Kuala Terengganu ,Terengganu, Universiti institut Teknologi Malaysia
UiTM, Shah Alam, unpublished.
Wan Hashim (1978) A Malay Peasant Community in Upper Perak”: Integration and
Transformation, Penerbit Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Selangor. …
Wan Khadijah Wan Cik (1981), Personal Communication, Pulau Duyung
Wan Salleh Ibrahim (1991) “Cultural Enclave of Kampung Baru, Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia” IASTE Volume XXXI 47-42, UiTM Shah Alam.
Watson (1927) Malayan Plant Names, Malaysian Forest Research Records, no 5,
Forest Research Institute of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur.
204
Weatley Paul (1966) The Golden Khersonese, University of Malaya Press, Kuala
Lumpur.
Webster‘s New Collegiate Dictionary (1977), G& C. Merriam Co., Springfield.
Wiart Christophe (2000) Medicinal Plants of South East Asia, Pelanduk
Publications, Subang Jaya.
Windsted, Richard (1961 rev. 1981) The Malays - a Cultural History, Graham Bash
Pte.Ltd. Singapore.
Wilson, Peter J. (1968) A Malay Village in Malaysia: Social Values and rural
development, Hraf Press New Haven
Wok bin Abdul Rahman (1984) personal communication, Pulau Duyung.
Yahner, Thomas, Nadenicek, Daniel Joseph (1997) Community by Design:
Contemporary Problems – Historic resolve, Landscape and Urban Planning, 39, pp.
137-151.
Yong,.M. (1997) The Pura Sabtu Cultural Center, Island & Inland, Issue No 2,
March 1997. Visit Terengganu Year, Terengganu State Secretariat.
Yusof Abu Bakar, 1995, Sejarah Bintang Tiga di Terengganu, Berita Darul Iman,
Januari, Kuala Terengganu
Zakaria Ali (1990) Empangan, (1996) Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Kuala Lumpur.
.
APPENDICES
APPENDIX A
APPENDIX B
Field survey check list
Proposed category: “Rakyat house compound” (R3)
Pulau Ketam, Kuala Terengganu
South view with pandanus weaving shed
Location
Main resident usual Name: “Che Da Wan Teh”
Features
The compound
- neighbourhood … next to Pulau Duyung, tucked between a “clan compound “,other
houses close by and an overgrown Lansium domesticum orchard.
- general setting atmosphere orientation…an attractive sight from the south side access, a
few buildings in a clearing.
- boundaries & gates …none but the paths, in front & on the northern sidesome
wooden posts and a chainlinked fence from neighbours.
- size (1 ekar = 7 lots) @ ¼ ekar.
- access……from three sides by footpaths.
- proportion flora and built elements within the compound …………………………
- one house with a garden … a house with utilitarian area around…………………
- group sharing a delimited ground or a………………………………………………
- house with ancillary buildings in a compound,………………………………………
The buildings:
- style of the main building… former twin roofs, original tile replaced by asbestos
cover, with additions and concrete bathroom; vertical planking.
- orientation of “rumah ibu”main roof…”kiblat”.
- proportions roofs, walls, stilts……4’/8’/5’.
- length, width…… 35 x 17steps.
- number of roofs…2 + extentions.
- materials and colours …painted timber, mix colours asbestos and grey and white
plastered concrete.
- number of buildings attached: 1, the kichen area.
- transition areas …1, pelantar corridor.
- verandahs …1 “lambur, at the top of main entrance stairs.
- stairs and entrances…2, main and kitchen area.
- kitchen overhanging drying rack, double roof.
- windows : shutters, glass, shapes and colours…
- status signals: verandah, balconies, fences and gates, carvings and kumai………
- ancillary buildings …simple wooden working shed for pandanus weaving, rows of
chicken huts on stilts
- contents of the space below the house: chicken compartment and storage
Field Survey check list and sketches, R3 Pulau Ketam
The grounds
- category: courtyard garden, plantation …open compound.
- lay out, various parts…. south and west gardens are more in use than
the two other
zones. (recent changes in availability of space).
- well, drains, , kolah concrete basin…
- soil & floor …turf and earth.
- communal bathroon around a well ……………………………
- toilets hut…………
- outdoors indicators of activity…low sitting stool, fire places wire
Well, “timba” pail,
firewood
mesh tempora y cages
cloth lines with batiq, baskets, flat baskets for dry fish, coconut dehusker
pounding devices for rice and fish.
- garden furniture: resting bed, bench, swing, hammok
- movable accessories cooking tripod, wheel barrel, brooms , traps etc.
Flora (see individual compound ethnobotanical check list)
- plants organisation (systematic or not, harmony, symmetry or not) little.
- planted species in pot:……………………………………
- on the ground list…………………………………………
- wild species quite a few and weeds.
- function of the plants (apparent & inhabitants knowledge)
decorative (deliberate gardening and horticulture)…………
food. …………………………………………………………
medicine & cosmetic ………………………………
boundary marker ………………………………
.
accent: entrance, center………………………
shade.. not deliberate, yet appreciated.
religion & rites……………………………………………………
others (game, seat, building and tools material).
- habit: trees, shrubs, climbers, creepers, herbs, palms……………
- colours, foliage branching trunks flowers and fruit………………
- seasonal variations fruiting seasons Mangifera indica first in the year.
kitchen herbs
Preparing a lidi
broom
Fauna
- domestic: peacock, turkey, geese, pigeons and doves or (social markers!) goats,
monkeys, moscovi ducks, chicken, roosters, cats.
- wild animals: birds, foxes, mice, otters, monitor lizard; related to the species of trees and foodstuff
attraction.
Interviews - permissions: to take photos, make sketches and measurements .given.
- date of construction and shifts ..parts of the house date back to @1900.
- identity of inhabitants (those who lived the compound).
ethnic/geographic origins, religion… Pattani & Champa,Muslim.
social status/occupation ..grand father coconut climber, specialist of “nira”palm drink,
allowed to reside on the orchard probably in exchange of looking after the trees. The
owner’s husband, a fisherman, part owner of a trawler died a few years ago.
Wan Teh, 61, now a diabetic widow, continues her trade of weaving pandanus bags
for the market in Kuala Terengganu. Her children visit her quite often.
- use of the plants as reported by the respondant…”When I broke my wrist and could
not work, I used “pokok terajang” ( Lepisantes rubiginosus) the one you see here”
She collects the herbs noticed in the firewood kitchen for “sayur air” -a vegetable dish.
Results
- documentation for grounds and garden design, architecture, history, sociology,
ethnobotanics, culture.
- conclusion: type as deemed? Yes..
- particular lessons from the consaiidered compound; characteristics and attributes
for that type? For Terengganu, in general?
Field Survey check list and sketches, R3, continued
Notes: The absence of fence, besides symbiotoc openness, may also be due to the lack of formal rights
on the land, as here, it has been put long ago to the disposal of the occupant by the owners family in
exchange for labour .Because of lack of space, the usual lay out is disturbed. Yet the remnant parts are
in accordance with the attributed type. The grounds and the house may seem a bit derelict; still, the
house is large and play its role; so does the “garden”:(“empty space for the grand children to play”)
The family comes back to it. The ancient roots of the compound help. About the combat cocks: “not so
many now as people don’t buy them during the fasting month.”
Characteristics: “rakyat”: some vertical planking, boundaries informal, activities on the grounds
immediately around the house.“ Terengganu” : Kiblat, stilts, roosters breeding (tradition related to
sailing “/perahu besar” the animals were coming from from Thailand and Kelantan) Lansium
domesticum, high bench, pandanus (mengkuang) craft.
Records
- 1 Pictures: Façade elevation ; Side elevation; Details
- 2 sketch plan of the general lay out: buildings and flora
Sketch Plan:“Rakyat House Compound” R3
Sketch Plan:“Rakyat House Compound” R3
Field survey check list
Proposed category: “Aristocrat house compound”
Pulau Duyung Kecil, Kuala Terengganu
North view
Location: Pulau
Duyung Kecil
Kuala
Terengganu
Main resident(s) usual Name: Dato’Biji Sura & Dato Purba.
:
Features
The compound
- neighbourhood … Island of Duyung, in the estuary of the Terengganu River. Formerly religious
teachers, gbovernment officials, sailors and boat builders residential area.
- general setting atmosphere orientation; now a museum lone witness to obsolescent past.
- boundaries ..on 3/5 of the perimeter, marked by brick and stucco wall.
- size (1 ekar = 7 lots) @ 6 lots.
- access…2 main gates , 2 secondary arched doors, and 3 more entrances on the southern side.
- one house with a garden or………………………………
- group sharing a delimited ground or a……………………………
- house with ancillary buildings in a compound.
- proportion flora and built elements within the compound on 10…flora:2, built : 8.
The buildings:
- style of the main building 2 “lima bungkus”, 1 “bujang berpeles” with a columnade and
a porch.
- orientation of “rumah ibu”: kiblat
- proportions roofs, walls, stilts…@ 8’/9’/7’.
- length, width, ……………………………………………………………
- number of roofs,……nine + extensions.
- materials and colours, …timber cengal, tiles Sighora, cly bricks, stucco
plaster, blue, yellow, orange and black pigments (porch arches).
- number of buildings linked .. formerly two within the compounds + one
over the south wall.
- transition areas… pelantar corridors, colonnades.
- verandahs …running around most of the buildings.
Columns
capitals under verandah
- stairs and entrances,…1 main stair case (internal), 2 in domestic areas, 2 on south building.
- windows : shutters movable timber louvers, glass, shapes and colours.
- ancillary buildings bathroom with well up to first floor.
- movable accessories……………………
- contents of the space below the house .. rice and other storage.
- kitchen drying rack double roof…not recorded.
- status signals: verandah, balconies, fences and gates, carvings and others “kumai” and
“sobek”………
The grounds
- category: courtyard garden, plantation…courtyard with gardens at the back.
- lay out, various parts…. shift in orientation of the ground/house, yet clear zones: men officials/ women
common visitors.
- hard features…kolah ablutions basins(2) visitors bathroom.
- soil….swept sand and grass.,
- well (2), drains ..2 one for waste waters, one for rain/floods around the wall.
- communal bathroon around a well… visitors facilities on eastern side.
- toilets hut .
- outdoors indicators of activity….
(cloth lines with batiq, lesong,,baskets, platforms for dry fish, coconut dehusker, pounding devices.)
- garden furniture: resting beds and benches…
- special cages for chicken and roosters…
Flora (see individual compounds check lists)
- plants organisation (systematic or not, harmony, symetry or not)…
- planted species in pots … in wooden boxes : Jasminum and Gardenia.
- on the ground list……
- wild species… none reported.
- function of the plants (apparent & inhabitants knowledge)… vegetable and spices.
decorative (deliberate gardening and horticulture)…entrance porch ornament.
food… small fruit trees
medicine & cosmetic …
boundary marker …
accent: entrance, center…Baringtonia in front of “sorong” porch.
shade………………………………………………………………
religion & rites…gossipum braziliensis.
Bathroom
and Datura sp
others (game, seat, building and tools material)………
- habit: trees, shrubs, climbers, creepers, herbs, palms……
- colours, foliage branching trunks flowers and fruit……
- seasonal variations……………………………………………………
Fauna
- domestic: peacock, turkey, geese, pigeons and doves or goats, monkeys, Moscovi ducks
(social markers!)
- wild : more related to the species of trees and foodstuff attraction ……………
Interviews
- respondants ….(1991) formers residents of the “Kota” relatives & neightbours(2005)..
- permissions: to take photos, make sketches and measurements …free entrance, warden.
- date of construction and shifts …first house @ 1850, others @ 1910, wall 1919-1920
- identity of inhabitants (those who lived the compound)…Dato’Biji Sura, Toh Puan Aisha & Dato’
Purba
ethnic/geographic origins, religion …Champa & Pattani, Muslims.
social status/occupation ..judge & daughter, ulama, nakhoda (sons in law)
- use of the plants as reported by the informant…vegetables & medicine…………………………
- use of accessories……………………………………………
Results:
- grounds and garden design, architecture, history, sociology, family history…
- conclusion: type as deemed? Could be a clan as other buildings were linked to it; a few generations
lived sometimes in it. Yet altogether, one vast structure, the work and the inspiration of one man –
helped by Chinese brick and stucco artists and Malay wood carvers. Characteristics: status marked by
balconies, decoration and rules of circulation on the ground as well as in the house according to rank,
gender and fonction.
- particular lessons from the considered compound;What can we deduce as attributes for that type? For
Terengganu, in general?
Records
1 Pictures: Façade elevation, Side elevation Details.
2 sketch plan of the general lay out: buildings and flora
Sketch Plan, Aristocrat House compound A2
Field Surveys Check Lists and Sketch Plans, A2, end.
Field survey check list and Plan Sketch
Proposed category: “Farmer house Compound”F2.
South view
Main resident usual Name:
Location
Haji Yusof Bukit Cempaka
Features
The compound
- neighbourhood low density village of country compounds with old/tall fruit trees
- general setting atmosphere orientation…compound faces north but official entrance on the east side.
- boundaries …corners marked by coconut trees, vegetal fences with wooden or solid branch “gates”.
- size (1 ekar = 7 lots)…1 ekar.
- access…(2) by a bitumen small road(east) or through a relative land by the south entrance.
- one house with a garden or……………………………………………………………
- group sharing a delimited ground or a………………………………………………
- house with ancillary buildings in a compound,…and a relative house on the north side.
- proportion flora and built elements within the compound on 10: 5 and 5.
The buildings:
- style of the main building …twin cantilevered roofs …
- orientation of “rumah ibu”…”Kiblat”…………
- proportions roofs, walls, stilts…………………
- length, width, ………………………………
- number of roofs,………
- materials and colours, ………………………
- number of buildings attached ……………………………………
- transition areas, ………………………………………………
- verandahs a large one (lambur)on the south side
- stairs and entrances,………………………………………………
- windows : shutters, glass, shapes and colours……………………
- contents of the space below the house …Fertiliser bags
- kitchen drying rack jack roof………
- status signals: verandah, balconies, fences and gates, carvings
The grounds
- category: courtyard garden, plantation…farmer homestead
- hard features…. Well.
- soil clean grey sand.
Buying tamarind seeds
- lay out, various parts .,well delimited compound coconuts and edges
Field Surveys Check Lists and Sketch Plans, Farmer, F2
- fire places for fallen leavess.
- drains ..slab and water jar for feet washing at the bottom of the stairs.
- communal bathroon around a well…still in use, with table.
- toilets hut… a zinc enclosure in near the well.
- ancillary buildings …numerous sheds, for tools, animals and storage, two granaries.
- outdoors indicators of activity…………………………………………
(cloth lines with batiq, baskets, platform for drying food, coconut dehusker, pounding devices.
- garden furniture: resting beds and benches.
- special floor cages for chicken and roosters.
- movable structures… climbing vegetable supports, monkeys and chicken“appartments”,
Flora (see individual compounds check lists)
- plants organisation (systematic or not, harmony, symetry or not)……………………
- planted species in pot:list… 3 plant “nurseries”…vegetables and ornamental.s
- on the ground list…decorative and medicinal species (ixora, jatropha)
- wild species…
- function of the plants (apparent & inhabitants knowledge)
decorative (deliberate gardening and horticulture)………
food. ………………………………………………………
medicine & cosmetic …………………………………
boundary marker ………………………………………….
accent: entrance, center……………………………………
shade……………………………………………………
religion & rites………………………………………
others (games, seat, building and tools material)…………
- habit: trees, shrubs, climbers, creepers, herbs, palms………
- colours, foliage branching trunks flowers and fruit………
- seasonal variations…
Fauna
- domestic:, ch icken, roosters, cats, geese, pigeons and doves or (social
Well, table, in use
markers!) goats, monkey, moscovi ducks, peacock, turkey.
- wild animals: birds, foxes, mice, otters, monitor lizards; related to
the species of trees and food attraction.
.Interviews
- permissions: to take photos, make sketches and measurements .given.
- date of construction and shifts ..parts of the house date back to @1900.
- identity of inhabitants (those who lived the compound).
ethnic/geographic origins, religion… Malay Muslim.,
social status/occupation …aged 85, Haji Yusof is a land owner and wealthy farmer.
- use of the plants as reported by the informant just supplementary to main activity.
Results:
- documentation for grounds and garden design, architecture, history, sociology,
ethnobotanics, culture.
- conclusion: type as deemed? Yes, revenue source is the orchards, rice fields and vegetable gardens
located in the country and the hills in the area. The owne’sr children look after the gardens and the
fields ,the monkey ,the old tools shed and the grand father’s bicycle. For the Festival of “Raya
Enam”.a bamboo with wicks is alighted at the entrance of the compound. Two of the former three
granaries are still standing. Haji Yusof used to be a “bomoh gasing”a top spinning specialist.
People
gathered for the night before the contests in his house and a white cock was slaughtered…
- particular lessons from the considered compound; characteristics and attributes for that type? The
large
veranda, with two levels, is for harvests, transactions and games.
For Terengganu in general? This compound –and the other one in Belara (F3) confirm
the reputation of the farmers in Terengganu of being well off compared to those in Kelantan
The compound is also kept very clean and decorated by the children of the ailing patriarch. Respect
for
the elders, role of the residence and its surroundings in the extended family life and traditions..
Field Surveys Check Lists and Sketch Plans, Farmer F2, continued.
Records
- 1 Pictures: Façade elevation ; Side elevation; Details
- 2 sketch plan of the general lay out: buildings and flora
Sketch Plan of F2 “Farmer House compound”
Features in R5, Pak Su Man Sugai Rengas
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
Botanical Name
Alpinia officinale
Brassica
Briophyllum pinnatum
Cana orientalis
Carica papaya
Curcuma longa
Dioscorea sp.
Durio zibethinus
Elaeis guinensis
Eugenia aqua
Garcinia mangostana
Ipomea
Ixora javanica
Lansium domesticum
Licuala sp.
Mangifera odorata
Manihot utilississimum
Musa parasidica
Premna cordifolia
Quisqualis indica
Raphanus caudatus
Sacharum officinale
Sonneratia acida
Tetracera indica
Malay Name
Halia
Sawi
Setawar
Bunga tasbeh
Betek
Kunyit
Ubi gadong
Durian
Kelapa sawit
Jambu air
Semeta, mangis
kangkong
B.Pecah periuk
Duku
Pala
Kuini
Ubi kayu
Pisang
Bebuas
Akar dani
Lobak puteh
Tebu
Berembang
Mempelas
habit
H
H
H
H
T
H
H
T
P
T
T
H
S
T
H
T
T
P
T
S
H
P
T
C
Origin
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
Location
3
2
3
3
4
3
2
2
4
4
1,4
4
4
3,4
4
3,4
2
2,3,4
4
3
2
2
4
4
Uses
F
F
D
D
F
F
F
F
T
F
T
F
T
F
D
F
F
F
F
D
F
F
D
T,D
Husbandry
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P(?)
W
P
P
P
W
P
W
P
P
P
W
W
P
P
W
W
Plant species habit in R5
15
10
5
0
Trees
Shrubs
Herbs
Palms
Climbers
Geographic Origins of the Species: Introduced: 8; Exotic:0Æ foreign: 8; native: 7
The number of “foreign species” is increased because of a vegetable garden patch
on the left side of the house (zone 2)
Plant species uses in R5
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Food
Ritual
Décor
Medicine
Shade
Technique
Location of the species
Access to the compound and main perspective on the house is from the Northern
side, probably because a road along a field drain passes by. However the main
building faces the kiblat. Stairs on its façade climb to a lambur verandah and to the
main entrance. Rooms are built on the right side. The kitchen is at the back, and a
well too, on the right side of the compound (zone 4)
Zone 1, Front garden : 1 sp.
Zone 2, left side garden : 7 sp.
Zone 3, right side garden : 7 sp.
Zone 4, Backyard garden: 15 sp.
Compound lay out
Again, there was a shift in the location of the front halaman or area empty of plants
for guests and life activities. Perhaps because of the access on the right side, the
compound lay out is then modified just as in other “rakyat” cases. The habitation
still faces north west.
.
Analysis of Plant Species in A1, Kampong Batin, Engku Zahima
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
Botanical Name
Acalypha siamensis
Allamanda carthartica
Allocasia sp.
Alpinia purpurea
Anarcadiun
Asplenum nidum
Begonia sp.
Bouea macrophylla
Bougainvillea spp.
Caladium hortulanum
Canna sp.
Capsicum piper
Centella asiatica
Chrysanthenum sp.
Citrus macrophyllum
Clitorea ternate
Cocos nucifera
Cosmos caudatus
Cymbopogon citratus
Duranta repens
Euphorbia neriifolia
Euphorbia tirucalli
Gnetum gnemon
Gossypium
brasiliense
Heliconia sp.
Hemigraphis colorata
Hibiscus rosa sinensis
Hopea odorata
Imperata cilyndrica
Ixora coccinea
Kajanus
Lansium domesticum
Lantana camara
Mangifera foetida
Mangifera indica
Manihot utilissima
Melastoma
malabathrica
Mussaenda philippica
Morinda citrifolia
Neo-litsea zeylanica
Nephellium
Lappaceum
Portulaca grandiflora
Punica granatum
Psidium guajava
Rhapis excelsa
Rheo discolour
Rosa sp.
Sacharum
officinarium
Sesbania grandiflora
Solanum torvum
Malay Name
Ekur kucing
Bunga loceng
Keladi
Halia merah
Jambu golok
Paku langsuyir
Gemia
Bunga kertas
Ubi sp.
Bunga tasbeh
Lada
Pegaga
Pokok mata
hari
Limau nipis
Bunga biru
Kelapa
Ulam raja
Serai
Habit
H
C
H
H
T
C
H
T
S
H
H
S
H
H
Origin
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
E
Location
1
1
1
1
3
1
1
3
1
1,4
1
4
3
1
Uses
D
D
D
D
F
D
D
F
D
D
D
F
F, M
D
Husbandry
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
W
P
4
1
4
3
3
1
1
1
2
3
F, M
F, T
F, T
F
F
D
D
D
F
R
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
1,3
1
1
4
2
1
1
4
1
2
2
3
2
D
D
D, M
T
M
D
F
D
F
F
F
D
P
P
P
P
W
P
h
P
P
F
P
P
W
Se sudu
Tulang tulang
meninjau
Kapas
S
C
P
H
H
S
S
S
T
T
Kepek Hudang
Ekur kucing
Bunga raya
Cengal pasir
lalang
Peca periok
Kacang
Duku
Tahi ayam
Macsm
Mempelam
Ubi kayu
Kedudok
H
H
S
T
H
S
C
T
S
T
T
S
S
Balek adap sp.
Mengkudu
Teja
Rambutan
H
T
S
T
E
2
3
4
2
D
M
M,R
F, S
P
W
W
P
Getang
Delima
Jambu batu
Rotan
I
I
Mawar
Tebu
H
S
T
S
H
S
H
1
2
1
1
1
1
1,3
D
F,D
F
D
D
D
F
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
Turi
Terun pipit
T
S
2
3
F
F
P
W
I
I
E
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
E
I
50
Vinca rosea
Kemunting
Cina
51
52
53
Zebrina pendula
Zingiber cassumar
Zizyphus jujube
Bonglai
Bidara
H
H
H
T
3
D, M
F
I
1
3
3
D
M
R
P
F
P
Shade
Technique
E
Chart of plants species habit
20
15
10
5
0
Trees
Shrubs
Palms
Herbs Climbers
Chart of the uses of plant species
25
20
15
10
5
0
Food
Ritual
Décor
Medicine
Origins of the plants: Introduced: 22 Exotic: 5, Æ foreign: 27 native: 26
Note on lay out:
The alley leading to the house, however welcoming, does not lead directly to the
stairs and the entrance, but to a location on the right of the stairs, where visitors will
traditionally wait for an answer to their salam and for an invitation to “naik” to
climb up the stairs to the verandah on which opens the actual entrance door..
Analysis of plant species in C4, Lorong Haji Jamil, “Haji Awang Besar”
Malay name
Habit
Halia
H
H
H
S
H,
H
H
T
H
H
H
C
C
T
T
H
S
H
S
S
H
T
P
H
H
H
T
T
H
S
P
H
T
C
Origin
Use(s)
Location
Husbandry
F
D
D
D
D
D, M
F, M
F
D
F
D
D
D
F. S
F
1
1
1
2
4
1,2
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
4`
P
P
P
P
P
P
F
P
P
P
P
W
P
P
P
D
D
D
D
D
F
F
F
F
D
F
D
D
D
F
D
F,T
D
2
2
2
2
2,1
2,1,3
2,1
2
2
2
2
2
1
2,1
2
2,1
1
1
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
W
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
F
P
Botanical name
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
Alpinia sp
Adiantum cuneatum
Aglaomena griffithii
Allamanda
Begonia
Briophylum sp.
Centella asiatica
Cicca acida
Cordyline
Cosmos caudatus
Diffenbackia picta.
.Dryoglossimum
Dydymocarpus
Eugenia malaccensis
Flacourtia jangomas
Ficus sp.
Hibiscus rosa sinensis
Heliconia
Ixora coccinea
Ixora javanica
Jasminum sambac
Mangifera indica
Musa paradisica
Pandanus odoratus
Piper sarmentosum
Portulaca grandiflora
Muraya koenigii
Podocarpus polystachys
Cactus sp.
Rhapis exelcia
Salacca
Sanseveria trifasciata
Tamarindus indicus
Vanda sp.
Bunga loceng
Setawar
pegaga
Cermai
Jenjuang
Ulam raia
Keladi
Pitis pitis
angerik
Jambu air
Kerekup Siam
Ara burong
Bunga Raya
Kepek udang
Pecah periuk
Jejarun
Melor
Mempelam
Pisang
Pandan
Kaduk
Kari
Buluh Siam
Salak
Lidah buaya
Asam Jawa
Angerik
E
I
I
I
E
E
I
I
E
I
E
E
E
E
I
Plant species origins: introduced: 7, exotic: 8 Æ foreign: 15, Native: 19.
Chart of plant species habits in C4
20
15
10
5
0
Trees
Shrubs
Palms
Herbs
Climbers
Chart of plant species uses in C4
20
15
10
5
0
Food
Rites
Medicine
Décor
Shade
technique
The present occupant, an architect, is responsible for having created (only two wild
species conscupicuous) the garden pleasant atmosphere with a cohort of decorative
plants encasing a path leading to the exit and downstairs entrances. A modern
interpretation of the compound, with a number of exotic species. (8sp.)
Location of species: Species density by area on the grounds
Zone 1 front garden: 15 species
Zone 2, left side garden : 21 sp.
Zone 3, left side garden ; 2 sp.
Zone 4, backyard garden : 2 sp.
Ground features: Ref. Table of ground features occurrence. Drains, Fence Gate
with roof
decorated by two buah gutong. Passage way between houses. Shared open air well,
octagonal
concrete jar and traditional jar. High and low flower pots stands. Slab path.
Details charts from the inventory table lists
Average number of plant species in each house by type of house compound
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Rakyat
Aristocrat
Clan
Farmer
Number of plant species, by habit, for each type of house compound
Trees
Shrubs
25
40
20
30
15
20
10
10
5
0
0
Rakyat
Aristocrat
Clan
Rakyat
Farmer
Herbs
Aristocrat
Clan
Farmer
Climbers and epiphytes
40
14
35
12
30
10
25
8
20
6
15
4
10
2
5
0
0
Rakyat
Aristocrat
Clan
Farmer
Palms
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
Rakyat
Aristocrat
Clan
Farmer
Rakyat
Aristocrat
Clan
Farmer
APPENDIX C
GLOSSARY
Atap Belanda: “Dutch roof”, in a Malay house, a hipped, gabled, cantilevered roof.
Atap lima bungkus: in a Malay house, a five ridge roof.
Bekam: a traditional therapeutic procedure involving blood letting on the head.
Belukar: flora secondary growth, wild area around villages.
Bendul: in a Malay house, a horizontal piece covering the bottom plank of a wall.
Biosphere: realm of the life processes.
Bomoh: a traditional medicinal practioneer.
Buah gutong: a prolonged skittle finial on an atap Belanda roof in a Malay house,
holding the fascia boards.
Dua Kalimah: the Muslim profession of Faith.
Holarchic: of a system of a hierarchised holons.
Holon: a part to a whole, a whole to its parts in a holistic system.
Integrity: in conservation, level of closeness to the original conditions.
Inter-subjectivities: in sociology, multiple researchers’ involvement in a cross
control study.
Involution: an inward evolution.
Kiblat: the direction of Mecca
Mantera: a magic formula or summon.
Mempeles or pemeles and peles,: in a Malay house, the barge boards of the roof,
with up-turned ends.
Noossphere: realm of the Mind and consciousness.
Rakyat biasa: a commoner without particular title.
Ontological: participating of the essence of a being.
Rumah bujang: a Malay house composed of a single building.
Rumah ibu: the main or first constructed building in a Malay residence.
Rumah kembar: A Malay house with twin roofs.
Rumah tiang dua belas: A Malay house on twelve posts, a measure of its size.
Sorong: in standard Malay “anjung”, a porch or building element usually protruding
from the facade
Surau: a minor communal Muslim praying building.
Technosphere: Realm of the technical developments.
Titian: plank connection, small bridge.
Tukang: Malay krafstman.
Tunjuk langit: Litteraly “showing the sky”: in a Malay house, carved roof ridge
truss.
Urat: Channels, lines.
Wakaf : roofed communal resting platform, usually donated.