NRAC Publication No. 103-2008
University of Maryland, 2113 Animal Science Building
College Park, Maryland 20742-2317
Telephone: 301-405-6085, FAX: 301-314-9412
E-mail: nrac@umd.edu Web: http://www.nrac.umd.edu
Marine Aquaculture Species
for the Northeast
Joe Buttner, Salem State College
Gef Flimlin, Rutgers Cooperative Extension
Don Webster, Maryland Cooperative Extension
Introduction
Current Commercial Production
Many aquatic animals and plants are cultured commercially in the northeastern United States, while others have
been grown for restoration or for use in research. Finfish,
shellfish, aquatic plants, and other organisms are cultured
commercially and recreationally for food, bait, stocking,
research, bioassay tests, ornamental markets, and instructional aids. Table 1 lists 33 species or varieties of marine
animals and plants cultured in the region. No one species
dominates production: an animal or plant cultured successfully in one system or location may prove impractical
or unprofitable in another.
This fact sheet describes major species currently in
commercial production, those that have shown potential,
and others now under experimental investigation. The
descriptions summarize culture methods and regulatory
considerations. Applicable regulations for proposed operations, particularly those that would employ non-native
species or culture in public waters, can be obtained from
extension agents and specialists in your state. For a list of
aquaculture extension contacts by state and current State
Situation and Outlook Reports consult the NRAC website
(http://nrac.umd.edu).
1. Hard clam or
Northern quahog (Mercenaria mercenaria)
— The hard
clam is one of
the most widely
successful molluscs cultivated
in and outside Hard clams, from left: little neck, top neck,
the region, from cherry, and chowder (Photograph by Dale
Massachusetts to Leavitt, Roger Williams University)
Florida. Established markets exist and the product is recognized as a
moderate to high price item in the restaurant trade, where
the smallest, legally marketable clams bring the highest
prices. Though hardy, they have been vulnerable to QPX,
a major disease that has diminished their prevalence.
Adult clams are spawned under controlled conditions. Larvae are maintained in a hatchery, fed specially
prepared algal diets, and raised in land-based upwellers,
tanks, or raceways. The nursery phase occurs on land or
and either replanted on the bottom at much lower densities than found in natural beds, or placed in long mesh
sleeves suspended in the water column. Suspended culture
of mussels using long-lines is increasingly popular and
yields a superior product.
in the water. Spat or seed are stocked on the bottom in
coastal waters and grown to market size. Time to market
size is site specific and varies widely: typically it takes
two to five years to attain market-size, but improved
strains, good site selection, and proper management can
reduce culture time significantly.
4. Softshell clam or
steamer (Mya arenaria) — These
clams can be produced in large numbers using standard
hatchery techniques.
The market is strong
for steamed or fried
product. Prices for Softshell clams (Mya arenaria)
(Photograph by Joe Buttner)
steamers have risen:
coupled with the
absence of MSX and Dermo diseases that plague Eastern
oysters and QPX disease that has attacked hard clams,
there is renewed interest and expanded production of soft
clams from Maine to Massachusetts.
A modest but growing industry exists in New England where softshell clam spat or seed are stocked on
raked substrates and covered with predator exclusion netting. It takes approximately two years from stocking to
harvest.
2. Eastern oyster
(Crassostrea virginica) — Culture
techniques for oysters are well documented. Oysters
have been farmed
in the Northeast for
over 100 years and
are grown commercially throughout the eastern Eastern oysters (Crassostrea virginica)
United States and (Photograph by Sandy Rodgers, Marythe Gulf Coast. land Sea Grant)
Recent advances in
genetics have led to the production of selected lines and
triploids that survive better in areas where diseases have
depleted natural populations and have led to shorter production cycles.
Oyster seed or eyed larvae may be purchased and
“set” on appropriate substrates by the process known as
“remote setting.” “Set” oysters may be cultured directly
on the bottom or off bottom in racks. Essential management efforts include controlling predators, grading by
size, periodic cleaning, and ensuring good water quality
and flow. The greatest impediments to oyster culture are
disease, restrictive laws, and regulations (i.e., Federal,
state, local), and theft. Prospective culturists should thoroughly research potential sites.
5. Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) — Cultured commercially for nearly three decades, this species now constitutes the majority of all salmon consumed globally. While
most coastal waters in the Northeast are too warm to support net pen culture of salmon, a major salmon industry
exists in northern New England. Many coastal communities in Maine have benefited greatly from net pen culture
of salmon.
Typically, adult salmon are spawned, eggs incubated,
and resultant immature fish raised in land-based, freshwater systems. When salmon fingerlings smolt and transform
from a freshwater to marine fish, they are transferred to
3.
Blue
mussel
(Mytilus edulis) —
Through aggressive
marketing, the demand
and retail price for
mussels has improved
steadily. Most mussels
are cultured in Maine,
with offshore demonstration projects ongoing
in
New
Hampshire and Massa- Blue mussels (Mytilus edulis)
(Photograph by Joe Buttner)
chusetts.
There is no hatchery phase for commercial cultivation. Recently “set” wild spat are collected from nature
Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) (Photograph by Chris Bartlett,
Maine Sea Grant College Program/University of Maine
Cooperative Extension)
2
ing of blue crabs in a
hatchery and rearing them
to juvenile stages. The
resulting production has
been used for restocking
and population studies.
Profitable commercial production of hard crabs has Blue crabs (Callinectes sapidus)
(Photograph from www.ag.
not been demonstrated, auburn.edu/fish)
largely due to the cannibalistic nature of the animal. A high-value market does exist
for “soft shell” crabs — the soft shell stage occurs immediately after molting. Crabs with body signs indicating an
impending molt (peeler crabs) are collected from the wild
and held in shallow tanks until they emerge from their
shell — the shedding systems are fairly simple and the
potential for commercial success is good, provided an
adequate supply of high quality and reasonably priced
peeler crabs is readily available.
net pens in coastal waters and grown to market-size. The
industry is heavily regulated and considerable capital is
needed to setup and operate a commercial scale farm.
6.
Macroalgae,
most notably nori
seaweed (Porphyra
sp.) — Cultured in
Maine, microalgae
are under study for
use as a finishing
biofilter
around
net pens and as a
lipid substitute in
fish feeds. While
the potential of Nori seaweed (Porphyra sp.)
macroalgae in inte- (Photograph by Joe Buttner)
grated aquaculture is strong, commercial viability for production of algae as a single crop throughout the Northeast
remains to be demonstrated.
3. European oyster (Ostrea edulis)
— Cultured in the
Northeast,
this
species is tricky to
produce in the
hatchery and vulnerable to Bonamia disease in the
field. No commercial
production
occurs at this time.
Investigations to
define and refine
hatchery, nursery, European oysters (Ostrea edulis)
and growout tech- (Photograph by Joe Buttner)
niques are ongoing.
Potential Commercial Species
1. Bay scallop
(Argopecten irradians)
—
These scallops
can be cultured
in the hatchery
or obtained from
the wild. Relatively little attention has been
directed to their
culture. Overwinter survival Bay scallops (Argopecten irradians) (Photocan be problem- graph by Rick Karney, Martha’s Vineyard
atic in the North- Shellfish Group)
east; in addition,
scallops can move, so containing them is a challenge.
Lantern nets have been used to culture scallops in Asia,
though similar efforts in the United States have proven too
labor intensive for commercial success. Some production
in lantern nets and bags occurs in Massachusetts and New
York for enhancing wild populations. Subtidal culture in
racks and use of a predator fence to restrict dispersal are
being investigated. Prospective culturists should carefully
assess the management and economics of scallop culture
before proceeding.
4. Marine fishes and invertebrates for the pet industry
— As with freshwater ornamental fish, much production
is diffuse and occurs in basements and garages. Commer-
2. Blue crab (Callinectes sapidus) — Long popular in the
marketplace, recent research has led to successful spawn-
Clownfish (Premnas sp.) (Photograph by Bud Borque, Roger
Williams University)
3
been defined. At this time, it is unclear how or whether
culture techniques can be pursued commercially.
cial operations exist in Maine and Maryland. Considerable potential exists for expanded production of these and
other marine organisms for aquarium hobbyists, particularly in modest-size recirculating systems. However,
because culture procedures are established for only a few
species, culture of ornamentals must be viewed as
experimental.
2. American lobster
(Homarus
americanus) —
This species is
regarded as an animal with potential
for aquaculture
because of high
economic value.
Key problems are
its cannibalistic
nature and rela- American lobster (Homarus americanus)
tively long grow- (Photograph courtesy of the New Engout time of five to land Lobster Research and Rearing
seven years. Pub- Facility)
lic hatcheries have
cultured lobsters to a juvenile stage for stock enhancement
and for population studies. Private attempts at culture cannot be recommended at this time.
5. Mummichog
(Fundulus heteroclitus)
—
This species is
an
extremely
hardy fish with
established markets as a live bait
and for use in
research labora- Mummichogs (Fundulus heteroclitus)
tories. Recently, (Photograph by Joe Buttner)
several northeastern states have expressed interest in growing the
mummichog. Culture procedures should be relatively
easy to define, though competition with abundant, wild
harvested fish could prove problematic.
3. Marine finfish traditionally pursued by
commercial fishers:
American
halibut
(Hippoglossus hippoglossus), Atlantic cod
(Gadus morhua), cobia
(Rachycentron canaFlounder (Paralichthyes dentatus)
dum), summer floun- (Photograph from www.ag.
der
(Paralichthyes auburn.edu/fish)
dentatus), American
shad (Alosa sapidissima) — American shad has been cultured for enhancing wild populations. Research on culture techniques, nutrition, and genetics is required before
these fish can be considered for commercial aquaculture.
6. Sandworm (e.g.,
Nereis virens) —
Cultured on a limited
basis in Maine as a
live bait and food for
fish, worms are
grown intensively in
tanks. While markets exist, further
analysis is needed to
assess depth and Sandworm (Nereis virens)
(Photograph by Joe Buttner)
breadth of demand.
Experimental Species
4. Sea scallop (Placopecten magellanicus) —
Extremely popular in the
Northeast, the sea scallop
commands a premium
price. In addition to sharing many of the same
challenges to culture as
the bay scallop, it takes
two to three times longer
to attain market size.
While potentially attractive because of consumer
1. Atlantic clam or
Surf clam (Spisula
solidissimia) — Grown
occasionally in the
Northeast, surf clams
are being farmed experimentally in Maine,
where they have been
successfully cultured Atlantic clam (Spisula solidissimia)
(Photograph by Joe Buttner)
through hatchery and
nursery phases. Growout requires cold water and culture procedures have not
4
Sea scallops (Placopecten magellanicus) (Photograph by Dana
Morse, Maine Sea Grant College
Program, University of Maine
Cooperative Extension)
References
demand, the sea scallop cannot be recommended for commercial aquaculture at this time.
Several relevant fact sheets are available on the culture of
different species from the North Central Regional Aquaculture Center (www.ncrac.org) and Southern Regional
Aquaculture Center (www.msstate.edu/dept/srac). The
fact sheets are accessible and may be downloaded from
Center websites. The Aquaculture Network Information
Center (http://aquanic. org) provides access to many aquaculture resources.
5.
Green sea
urchin (Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis)
—
With the overexploitation of wild
sea urchins for
export to oriental
markets, interest in
their culture has
expanded. InvestiGreen sea urchin (Strongylocentrotus
gations on the droebackiensis) (Photograph by Ted
aquaculture poten- Maney, Northeastern University)
tial have been initiated in Maine and at least three hatcheries are producing
urchins for biological experiments and stock enhancement. Commercial production is problematic and not likely in the near future.
Acknowledgments
This work was conducted with the support
of the Northeastern Regional Aquaculture
Center, through grant number 2004-3850014589 from the Cooperative State Research, Education, and Extension Service,
U.S. Department of Agriculture. Any opinions, findings,
conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this publication are those of the authors and do not necessarily
reflect the view of the U.S. Department of Agriculture.
This fact sheet was prepared with assistance from the
Maryland Sea Grant College.
5
Table 1. Marine animals and plants cultured in the Northeastern United States. Importance in northeast (M=major species, S=secondary species, D=demonstration species, E=experimental species) and systems used (I=in substrate, O=on substrate, R=in rafts, bags or
lantern nets, LL=long-line, N=net pens, L=land-based recirculating systems) are indicated.
Common Name
Molluscs
Eastern oyster
European oyster
Northern quahog (hard clam)
Softshell clam
Bay scallop
Sea scallop
Blue mussel
Atlantic (or Surf) clam
Fish
Atlantic salmon
American shad
Atlantic cod
Atlantic halibut
Summer flounder
Cobia
Mummichog
Clownfish
Clarkii clownfish
Tomato clownfish
Percula clownfish
Cinnamon clownfish
Neon dottyback
Sunrise dottyback
Orchid dottyback
Splendid dottyback
Common seahorse
Angelfish
Crustaceans
Penaeid shrimp
Blue crab
American Lobster
Annelids
Sandworm
Echinoderms
Green sea urchin
Cnidarians
Soft coral
Algae
Nori seaweed
Scientific Name
Crassostrea virginica
Ostrea edulis
Mercenaria mercenaria
Mya arenaria
Argopecten irradians
Placopecten magellanicus
Mytilus edulis
Spisula solidissimia
Importance
System
M
S
M
S
E
E
M
E
O,R
O,R
I,O
I
R,LL
O
O,LL
O
M
E
D
E
D
D
D/S
D/S
D/S
D/S
D/S
D/S
D/S
D/S
D/S
D/S
D/S
D/S
N
L
L,N
L,N
L,N
L,N
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
Penaeidae
Callinectes sapidus
Homarus americanus
D
D
D
L
L
L
Nereis virens
S
T
Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis
D
T
Alcyonacea sp.
E
L
Porphyra sp.
S
R
Salmo salar
Alosa sapidissima
Gadus morhua
Hippoglossus hippoglossus
Paralichthyes dentatus
Rachycentron canadum
Fundulus heteroclitus
Premnas sp.
Amphiprion clarkia
Amphiprion frenatus
Amphiprion percula
Amphiprion melanopus
Pseudochromis aldabraensis
Pseudochromis flavivertex
Pseudochromis fridmani
Pseudochromis splendens
Hippocampus kuda
Pterophyllum scalare