THE EFFECTIVENESS OF NATURAL VENTILATION
DESIGN IN LOW COST HOUSING
MD HANAFIAH AMIN B. ABDULLAH @ ABU BAKAR
UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA
2005
PSZ 19 : 16 (Pind. 1/97)
UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA
BORANG PENGESAHAN STATUS TESIS
JUDUL : THE EFFECTIVENESS OF NATURAL VENTILATION DESIGN IN
LOW COST HOUSING
SESI PENGAJIAN : 2004/ 2005
Saya MD HANAFIAH AMIN B. ABDULLAH @ ABU BAKAR
mengaku membenarkan tesis (PSM/ Sarjana/ Doktor Falsafah)* ini disimpan di perpustakaan
universiti teknologi Malaysia dengan syarat-syarat kegunaan sperti berikut:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Tesis adalah hak milik universiti teknologi Malaysia
Perpustakaan universiti teknologi Malaysia dibenarkan membuat salinan untuk tujuan
pengajian sahaja.
Perpustakaan dibenarkan membuat salinan tesis ini sebagai bahan pertukaran antara institusi
pengajian tinggi.
*Sila tandakan (!)
!
SULIT
(Mengandungi maklumat yang berdarjah keselamatan atau
kepentingan Malaysia seperti yang termaktub di dalam AKTA
RAHSIA RASMI 1972)
TERHAD
(Mengandungi maklumat TERHAD yang telah ditentukan oleh
organisasi/ badan di mana penyelidikan dijalankan)
TIDAK TERHAD
__________________________________
(TANDATANGAN PENULIS)
________________________________
(TANDATANGAN PENYELIA)
Alamat Tetap :
141-C Kampung Sura Tengah,
23000 Dungun
Terengganu
Dr. Shaiful Amri b. Mansur
Tarikh : 14 Mac 2005
Tarikh : _________________________
CATATAN : *
**
"
Potong yang tidak berkenaan
Jika tesis ini SULIT atau TERHAD, sila lampirkan surat daripada surat daripada
pihak berkuasa/ organisasi berkenaan dengan menyatakan sekali sebab dan tempoh
tesis ini perlu dikelaskan SULIT atau TERHAD.
Tesis dimaksudkan sebagai tesis bagi Ijazah Doktor Falsafah dan Sarjana secara
penyelidikan, atau serasi bagi pengajian secara kerja kursus dan penyelidikan, atau
laporan projek Sarjana Muda (PSM).
SUPERVISOR’S DECLARATION
“I/ We * hereby declare that I/ We have read this thesis and in my/ our*
opinion this thesis is sufficient in terms of scope and quality for the
award of the Master of Engineering (Construction Management)”
Signature
: ………………………………….
Name of Supervisor I
: Dr. Shaiful Amri B. Mansur
Date
: ………………………………….
* Delete as necessary
BAHAGIAN A – Pengesahan Kerjasama*
Adalah disahkan bahawa projek penyelidikan tesis ini telah dilaksanakan
melalui kerjasama antara _______________dengan ____________________.
Disahkan oleh :
Tandatangan : ………………………………
Nama
: ………………………………
Jawatan
(Cop rasmi)
: ………………………………
*
Tarikh : ………………...
Jika penyertaan tesis/ projek melibatkan kerjasama
BAHAGIAN B – Untuk Kegunaan Pejabat Sekolah Pengajian Siswazah
Tesis ini telah diperiksa dan diakui oleh:
Nama dan Alamat
Pemeriksa Luar
: ………………………………..
: ………………………………..
………………………………..
………………………………..
………………………………..
Nama dan Alamat
Pemeriksa Dalam I
: Dr. Shaiful Amri B. Mansur
: Fakulti Kejuruteraan Awam
UTM, Skudai
Pemeriksa Dalam II
:
Nama Penyelian Lain :
(Jika ada)
Disahkan oleh Penolong Pendaftar di Sekolah Pengajian Siswazah:
Tandatangan : ………………………………
Nama
: ………………………………
Tarikh : ………………...
THE EFFECTIVENESS OF NATURAL VENTILATION DESIGN
IN LOW COST HOUSING
MD. HANAFIAH AMIN B. ABDULLAH
A thesis submitted in fulfillment of the
requirements for the award of the degree of
Masters of Engineering (Construction Management)
Faculty of Civil Engineering
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
MARCH 2005
ii
DECLARATION
I declare that this thesis entitled ‘The Effectiveness of Natural Ventilation Design in
Low Cost Housing’ is the result of my own research except as cited in reference. The
thesis has not been accepted for any degree and is not concurrently submitted in
candidature of any other degree.
Signature
: ………………………………….
Name of Candidate
: Md. Hanafiah Amin B. Abdullah @ Abu Bakar
Date
: March, 2005
iii
DEDICATION
To my beloved wife and family
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
In preparing this project, I was contact with many people, researchers,
acedemians and practioners. They have contributed towards my understanding and
thoughts. In particular, I wish to express my sincere appreciation to my main project
supervisor, Dr. Shaiful Amri Mansur, for encouragement, guidance, critics and
friendship. Also, I wish to thank the following individuals who are En. Razaman bin
Udin and Puan Norizan from the Ministry of Housing and Local Government for
their valuable information, En. Shukri B. Shuib from Perbadanan Kemajuan Negeri
Selangor (PKNS) and Assc. Prof. Seti Mariam Bt. Ayop from Universiti Teknologi
Mara. I am grateful for their cooperation and willingness to assist me in this matter.
My thanks also go to the residents of Section 18, 20 and 24, who took part in
the study especially, Mohd. Najib, Norzila, Haslinda and Nurul Huda for their
assistance.
Last but not least, I wish to thank my beloved parents, Tuan Haji Abdullah @
Abu Bakar B. Che’ Min and Hajjah Wan Meriam Binti Wan Sulaiman, my wife
Nurhasyimah Ishak and not forgetting friends, Nur Azfahani Ahmad and Mukram
Idris who gave me their undivided attention and support throughout this research.
v
ABSTRACT
Housing low-income families is one of the greatest problems that ail
humanity. With the ever increasing awareness and concerns in building low cost
houses for the low-income earners the government had set up in the 7th Malaysia
Plan (1996 – 2000) a target to reach 200,000 units of low cost houses to
accommodate this group. This was announced by the former Ministry of Housing
and Local Government, Datuk Ting Chew Peh. Despite the steps that have been
taken has it really given these people a healthy and comfortable living environment?
From what has been observed most flats and low cost terraces are poorly built. This
includes the materials used and also the design of the building such as openings for
ventilation. Ventilation design in particular has not been taken into great
consideration where problems such as window openings that do not follow the
standard size requirement and rooms not having any openings at all still exist to this
day. The purpose of this research was to identify the effectiveness and occupant’s
satisfaction level of the design of natural ventilation for low cost terrace houses. A
study will be done on single and double storey houses as well as renovated single and
double. The effectiveness of these designs will be assessed from the type of
occupants, the time heat is most felt and the frequency of mechanical equipment
used. In order to identify the level of satisfaction among occupants, a test is
conducted by using a comfy meter. From the surveys and findings being carried out,
it was found that the UBBL requirements that are applied to the low cost houses are
no longer viable or effective. The results achieved are only in theoretical forms and
can be applied for further study in order to obtain a more accurate and suitable multi
design component. The results can also be applied to other problems.
vi
ABSTRAK
Pembinaan rumah untuk golongan berpendapatan rendah adalah satu masalah
yang telah lama menghantui manusia. Dengan kesedaran yang semakin meningkat
untuk menyediakan dan membina rumah kos rendah untuk golongan tersebut,
kerajaan telah mengatur strategi dalam Rancangan Malaysia ke-7 (RM7) Ini telah
dimaklumkan oleh bekas Menteri Perumahan dan Kerajaan Tempatan, Dato’ Tin
Chew Peh. Walaupun demikian, persekitaran yang diwujudkan dalam rumah tersebut
tidak menyumbang kepada persekitaran yang sihat dan selesa. Dari kajian yang telah
dilakukan oleh pelbagai pihak, kebanyakan rumah-rumah kos rendah yang dibina
kurangkan memuaskan. Ini termasuklah pengunaan bahan binaan serta rekabentuk
bangunan yang digunakan seperti bukaan dan pengudaraan. Rekabentuk pengudaraan
ini kurang diberi perhatian dimana masalah seperti bukaan tingkap yang tidak
mengikut keperluan saiz piawai. Terdapat juga bilik dan ruang yang tidak
mempunyai sebarang bukaan pada dinding yang masih wujud sehingga hari ini.
Tujuan penyelidikan ini dijalankan ialah untuk mengenalpasti keberkesanan dan
kepuasan penduduk terhadap pengudaraan semula jadi bagi rumah teres kos rendah.
Penyelidikan juga akan dilakukan pada rumah satu dan dua tingkatdan juga rumah
yang telah diubahsuai. Keberkesanan rekabentuk akan dinilai melalui jenis-jenis
penduduk, waktu kepanasan atau keadaan paling tidak selasa yang paling kerap
dirasai, dan kekerapan penggunaan peralatan mekanikal. Untuk mengenalpasti tahap
kepuasan penduduk, sebuah alat yang dinamakan sebagai ‘Comfy Meter’ digunakan
untuk tujuan pengukuran dan mengambil data. Daripada penyelidikan dan penemuan
yang diperolehi menunjukkan keperluan yang digunapakai di dalam Uniform
Building By Law (UBBL) untuk rekabentuk sudah tidak relevan. Ini kerana banyak
faktor lain yang mempengaruhi keadaan persekitaran yang menjadikan ia tidak
vii
relevan. Keputusan yang diperolehi adalah dalam bentuk teori dan dan hanya dapat
digunakan untuk kajian selanjutnya untuk mendapatkan kajian pelbagai bagi
mendapatkan suatu keputusan yang lebih tepat dan keputusan ini boleh digunakan
untuk tujuan kajian dari aspek lain.
viii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER
1.
TITLE
PAGE
TITLE PAGE
i
DECLARATION
ii
DEDICATION
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
iv
ABSTRACT
v
ABSTRAK
vi
TABLE OF CONTENT
viii
LIST OF TABLES
xiii
LIST OF FIGURES
xvii
INTRODUCTION
1.1.
General
1
1.2.
Sources of Data
2
1.2.1.
Primary data
2
1.2.2.
Secondary data
3
1.3.
Aim
3
1.4.
Objective of Study
3
1.5.
Scope of Limitation
4
1.6.
Problem Statement
5
1.7.
Methodology
5
1.7.1.
7
Literature Review
ix
CHAPTER
2.
TITLE
PAGE
1.7.2.
Site Survey
7
1.7.3.
Interviews
8
1.7.4.
Site measurement
9
1.8.
Organization of thesis
15
1.9.
Conclusion
18
LITERATURE REVIEW ON VENTILATION
2.1.
General
19
2.2.
Definition
20
2.3.
The Purpose of Ventilation
21
2.4.
Effects of Ventilation
22
2.4.1.
Air Quality
22
2.4.2.
Energy
24
2.4.3.
Comfort
24
2.5.
2.6
Types of Ventilation Openings
2.5.1.
Introduction
25
2.5.2.
Natural Ventilation
26
2.5.3.
Mechanical Ventilation
28
Natural and Mechanical Ventilation
29
2.6.1.
Natural Ventilation
30
2.6.2.
Mechanical Ventilation
32
2.8
Mechanical Ventilation
32
2.9.
Volume of Air Required
34
2.10. Ventilation Problems in Buildings
2.10.1.
Factors that Influence the Increase of
35
35
Temperature in Buildings
2.10.2.
Factors That Increase The Temperature
36
In Terms of Design
2.11. Thermal comfort
37
2.12. Principles of thermal Comfort
38
2.13. Conclusion
41
x
CHAPTER
3.
TITLE
PAGE
LITERATURE REVIEW ON VENTILATION IN
LOW COST HOUSES
3.1.
General
42
3.2.
The Concept of Low Cost Housing
43
3.3.
Low Cost Housing in Selangor
44
3.3.1.
44
The Aim For Squatter-free City By 2005
3.4.
Malaysian Environment and Climate
46
3.5.
Existing Low Cost Housing System
47
3.5.1.
Timber Houses
47
3.5.2.
Concrete Blocks
48
3.5.3.
Bricks
49
3.6.
Current Design Condition
49
3.7.
Design Requirement
50
3.7.1.
The Building
50
3.7.2.
Infrastructure
50
3.7.3.
Landscape
51
3.8.
Building Plan Approval
51
3.9.
Design Guidelines for Low Cost Housing (Single
51
and Double Storey Terraced Houses)
3.9.1.
Layout and Design of Buildings
52
3.9.2.
Floor Area
52
3.9.3.
Area of Kitchen
52
3.9.4.
Bathroom and Toilet
53
3.9.5.
Living and Dining Room
53
3.9.6.
Storage Room
53
3.9.7.
Number of Rooms
54
3.9.8.
Floor Area
54
3.9.9.
Finishes and Cladding
55
3.10. The Requirement in the Ventilation Design of Low
58
Cost Houses
3.10.1.
Direction of Wind, Sun and Rain
58
3.10.2.
Heat Stress and Ventilation
59
xi
CHAPTER
TITLE
3.11. Natural Lighting and Ventilation
59
3.11.1.
Room height
60
3.11.2.
Party wall
60
3.11.3.
Other structural elements
60
3.11.4.
Staircase
61
3.11.5.
Safety bars for windows
61
3.12. Conclusion
4
PAGE
61
CASE STUDIES
4.1.
Introduction
63
4.2.
History of Shah Alam
64
4.3.
Field Study
64
4.4.
Objectives
65
4.5.
Introduction To The Case Study
65
4.6.
Background Of Case Study
66
4.7.
Case Study No.1 – Single And Double Storey
68
Terraced Houses at Section 18
4.8.
4.9.1.
Respondents
69
4.9.2.
General Description
69
4.9.3.
Building Design
72
4.9.4.
Dimensions Of Windows And Doors
72
4.9.5.
Testing
73
4.9.6.
Conclusion
88
Case Study No. 2 - Single Storey Terraced Houses
89
at Section 20
4.10.1. Respondents
90
4.10.2. General Description
90
4.10.3. Building Design
91
4.10.4. Dimensions Of Windows And Doors
93
4.10.5. Testing
94
4.10.6. Conclusion
108
xii
CHAPTER
TITLE
4.9.
Case Study No. 2-Single Storey Terraced Houses
PAGE
109
at Section 24
5
4.9.1.
Respondents
110
4.9.2.
General Description
110
4.9.3.
Dimensions Of Windows And Doors
112
4.9.4.
Testing
113
4.9.5.
Conclusion
123
ANALYSIS AND FINDING
5.1.
Analysis of Question 1 to 4
129
5.2.
Type of Low Cost Terrace
130
5.3.
Type of Occupant
132
5.4.
The Time Heat Is Most Felt
133
5.5.
Provision of Mechanical Ventilation
135
5.6.
The Frequency Of Mechanical Ventilation Being
136
Turned On During The Day
5.7.
The Main Causes Of Heat
137
5.8.
Satisfaction In The Number And Size Of
139
Openings
5.9.
Recommendation and Suggestion To Improve
141
The Quality of Ventilation
6
5.10.
Thermal Comfort
146
5.11.
Conclusion
148
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
6.1.
Recommendation
149
6.2.
Conclusion
152
6.3.
Recommendation for Further Study
154
REFERENCES
xiii
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE
TITLE
NO.
PAGE
1.1
Predicted Mean Value
15
2.1
Typical fresh Air Supply Rates
35
3.1
Mechanical Properties of Hollow Blocks
49
3.2
Minimum requirement of type of floor finishes
55
3.3
Minimum requirement of type of wall finishes
56
3.4
Minimum requirement of type of cladding
57
4.1
Details of Low Cost Housing in Shah Alam
67
4.2
Details of Low Cost Housing in Shah Alam
67
4.3
Number of Houses Surveyed
69
4.4
Specification of materials for low cost houses in Section 18
70
4.5
General built up area for single storey low cost houses at
71
Section 18
4.6
General built up area for double storey low cost houses at
71
Section 18
4.8
Dimension of windows and doors for single storey low
72
cost houses (2 bedroom) at Section 18
4.9
Dimension of windows and doors for double storey low
73
cost houses at Section 18
4.10
Result testing for thermal sensation level (morning) –
74
sample 1
4.11
Result testing for thermal sensation level (afternoon) –
76
sample 1
4.12
Result testing for thermal sensation level (night) – sample
1
77
xiv
TABLE
TITLE
PAGE
Result testing for thermal sensation level (morning) –
79
NO.
4.13
sample 2
4.14
Result testing for thermal sensation level (afternoon) –
80
sample 2
4.15
Result testing for thermal sensation level (night) – sample
82
2
4.16
Result testing for thermal sensation level (night) – sample
85
3
4.17
Result testing for thermal sensation level (night) – sample
86
3
4.18
Number of Houses Surveyed
90
4.19
Specification of materials for low cost houses in Section 20
92
4.20
General description of built up area for single storey low
93
cost houses at Section 20
4.21
Dimension of windows and doors for single storey low
94
cost houses at Section 20
4.22
Result testing for thermal sensation level (morning) –
95
sample 4
4.23
Result testing for thermal sensation level (afternoon) –
96
sample 4
4.24
Result testing for thermal sensation level (night) – sample
98
4
4.25
Result testing for thermal sensation level (morning) –
99
sample 5
4.26
Result testing for thermal sensation level (afternoon) –
101
sample 5
4.27
Result testing for thermal sensation level (night) – sample
102
5
4.28
Result testing for thermal sensation level (morning) –
sample 6
104
xv
TABLE
TITLE
PAGE
Result testing for thermal sensation level (afternoon) –
105
NO.
4.29
sample 6
4.30
Result testing for thermal sensation level (night) – sample
107
6
4.31
Number of Houses Surveyed
110
4.32
Specification of materials for low cost houses in Section 24
111
4.33
General description of built up area for single storey low
112
cost houses at Section 24
4.34
Dimension of windows and doors for single storey low
113
cost houses at Section 24
4.35
Result testing for thermal sensation level (morning) –
114
sample 7
4.36
Result testing for thermal sensation level (afternoon) –
115
sample 7
4.37
Result testing for thermal sensation level (night) – sample
117
7
4.38
Result testing for thermal sensation level (morning) –
118
sample 8
4.39
Result testing for thermal sensation level (afternoon) –
120
sample 8
4.40
Result testing for thermal sensation level (night) – sample
121
8
4.41
Result testing for thermal sensation level (morning) –
123
sample 9
4.42
Result testing for thermal sensation level (afternoon) –
124
sample 9
4.43
Result testing for thermal sensation level (night) – sample
126
9
5.1
Type of low cost terrace
130
5.2
Type of occupant
132
5.3
The time heat is most felt
133
xvi
TABLE
TITLE
NO.
PAGE
5.4
Provision of mechanical ventilation
135
5.5
frequency of mechanical ventilation being turned on during
136
the day
5.6
The main causes of heat
138
5.7
Satisfaction in the number and size of openings
140
5.8
Recommendation and suggestion to improve the quality of
141
ventilation
xvii
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE
TITLE
NO.
PAGE
1.1
Methodology
6
1.2
Compartment of Comfy Meter
10
1.3
Connection of the Comfy Meter Compartment
11
1.4
Port Bar
12
4.1
Double storey low cost terraced houses at Section
68
18
4.2
PPD against PPD
72
4.3
PPD against PPD
76
4.4
PPD against PPD
78
4.5
PPD against PPD
80
4.6
PPD against PPD
81
4.7
PPD against PPD
83
4.8
PPD against PPD
84
4.9
PPD against PPD
86
4.10
PPD against PPD
87
4.11
89
4.12
Single storey low cost terraced houses at Section
20
PPD against PPD
4.13
PPD against PPD
97
4.14
PPD against PPD
99
4.15
PPD against PPD
100
4.16
PPD against PPD
102
4.17
PPD against PPD
103
4.18
PPD against PPD
105
96
xviii
FIGURE
TITLE
NO.
PAGE
4.19
PPD against PPD
106
4.20
PPD against PPD
108
4.21
Single storey low cost houses at Section 24
109
4.22
PPD against PPD
115
4.23
PPD against PPD
116
4.24
PPD against PPD
118
4.25
PPD against PPD
119
4.26
PPD against PPD
121
4.27
PPD against PPD
122
4.28
PPD against PPD
124
4.29
PPD against PPD
125
4.30
PPD against PPD
127
5.1
Type of low cost terrace
131
5.2
Type of occupant
132
5.4
The heat is most felt
134
5.5
Provision of mechanical ventilation provided
135
5.7
frequency of mechanical ventilation being turned
137
on during the day
5.8
The main causes of heat
138
5.9
Satisfaction in the number and size of openings
140
5.10
Recommendation and suggestion to improve the
142
quality of ventilation
CHAPTER
1
INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1.
GENERAL
The effectiveness of thermal performance depends on natural atmospheric
conditions, microclimate and the operating of windows or other opening in the
building being ventilated, in which the occupants control the operation of the
openings. These indoor quality problems have been associated with poor plan
maintenance, high concentration of internally generated pollutants and low indoor air
supply rates.
A good flow of air movement can provide comfortable natural ventilation and
thermal conditions and healthy environment besides reducing the requirement for
mechanical ventilation. Careful design of the internal spaces and openings allows
airflows driven by the buoyancy of warmer air to draw cooler fresh air into building.
Removing the need for ventilation equipments can save money and space and also
reduces health risks associated with highly serviced ‘sick building syndrome’.
2
This project is important because the conditions of the environment in low
cost housing are not up to standard. This is because the various problems that arise
are not well understood. The main problems found on the natural ventilation of low
cost housing are to fulfil the demand of occupants and followed by the limitation of
land, design, which influences the thermal performance of the building. As
mentioned above, there are no specified rules or regulations in order to eradicate the
problems for the relevant parties to follow the standard procedure.
1.2.
SOURCES OF DATA
Sources of data are vitally important in order to obtain information necessary
for this research. The sources of data will support the facts that have been gathered
and as a means to make certain decisions and obtaining results. Many of the
information will come from the various government agencies including Perbadanan
Kemajuan Negeri Selangor (PKNS) and MBSA along with the feedback from the
occupants themselves. These sources of data will come in two forms:-
1.2.1. Primary Data
Primary data will be obtained orally from interviews on the occupants and
officers, case studies and so forth which rely on individuals and their cooperation.
This will be the first stage of getting primary data.
3
1.2.2. Secondary Data
Secondary data will be obtained from written and officially and unofficially
published sources such as journals, books related articles and extracts from past
research.
1.3.
AIM
The aim of the study is to improved the natural ventilation design for low cost
housing in Malaysia. The improvement will facilitate the government bodies and
agencies in term of assisting them in making their development planning on low cost
housing.
1.4.
OBJECTIVE OF STUDY
Generally, an objective is a means of achieving a required target by
undergoing a research on the related topic. Among the objectives that will be reached
are the following: -
1.4.1. To identify the effectiveness and thermal sensation level of the design of
ventilation openings in low cost houses.
1.4.2. To determine whether these houses are built according to the Uniform
Building By Laws (UBBL).
4
1.4.3. To proposed recommendation to improved the aspects of natural ventilation
design in these houses.
1.5.
SCOPE OF LIMITATION
The study will be on the concerns of the design of ventilation openings and
layout principally in low cost houses in Seksyen 18, 20 and 24 at Shah Alam, which
is the related case study. The research will be concentrated on the single and double
storey terrace as well as renovated houses. To obtain direct facts interviews visits
will be carried out was distributed to the occupants and others who are concerned
with the research. There will be no study made on outdoor climate and air exchange
rate.
To measure thermal sensation level, the tests are conducted in the morning,
afternoon and night on residential low cost houses. These houses will be chosen
based on the similarity in design principle, opening and material. The reasons for
conducting these tests are: -
1.5.1. To collect various data related to indoor thermal condition that emphasize on
air temperature, relative humidity, air speed, mean radiant temperature, and
operative temperature.
1.5.2. To determine the natural ventilation present in each houses which highlight
on the thermal sensation level, i.e. cold, cool, slightly warm, warm and hot.
Also the level of dissatisfaction can be determined once the sensation level
has been identified.
5
1.6.
PROBLEM STATEMENT
As we are all aware, low cost houses and flats are built to accommodate those
who have low and medium income with prices as low as RM 25,000 and over.
Therefore the qualities of these houses are not always up to the standard. In terms of
ventilation these houses do not even have proper windows and some do not even
have any openings for air. The spaces provided are often too small. Improper
ventilation can result in poor air circulation which means poor air quality, a built up
of excessive heat inside the house, and excessive use of electricity because fans are
turned on most of the time as well as other contributing factors. Throughout the years
this has been an ongoing problem that needs to be improved if not solved. These
occupants should not be neglected as they have equal rights as the others. Malaysia,
as a developing country should play a greater role in housing its people in better
living condition.
1.7.
METHODOLOGY
A methodology is a method of how such information should be gathered,
analyzed and maintained. This information comes from various sources either from
primary or secondary data. The information gathering starts from the third semester
and with the guide of the set objectives it will be ensured that it will go according to
plan. The following are the stages of preparing this dissertation: -
6
Proposed title
Objectives and
scope of study
Identify the
problem/ Issues
Identify the
method of study
.
Theory,
principles,
previous research
Literature survey
Case study
Survey and
Measurement
Finding and
analysis
Decision making
Conclusion and
recommendation
Figure 1.1 : Methodology
Books, magazine,
journal and
articles
7
1.7.1. Literature Review
In this section, the theory of thermal environment and ventilation system are
briefly discussed. Information was obtained from reference such as books, articles
and journals. The purpose of this is to get a general overview of the topic on the
effectiveness of ventilation design and thermal environment comfort in low cost
houses.
1.7.2. Site Survey
Survey forms were distributed to occupants of single and double storey
terrace houses. 50 sets of survey forms were distributed randomly around houses in
Shah Alam.
The survey form is based on the research from books, articles and journal. Its
will be on how the design and layout of ventilation openings effect their everyday
living and problems that occur. This is another way of getting direct information
from the occupants.
Survey forms are prepared and distributed based on the detail of property, the
effectiveness of the surrounding environment and other related aspects. A number of
50 houses are surveyed for the purpose of the study. The survey include are as
follows:-
1.5.2.1.
details on types of openings; and
8
1.5.2.2.
the floor area and the area of opening;
During this exercise also, the measurements of the case studies are carried out
by the surveyor and is compiled in a table which is contained in the survey form. A
letter of identification is prepared in order for the surveyor to carry out the work as
well as to gain permission from the occupant and to inform the surveyor’s presence.
The survey forms are filled up by the occupants with the assistance of the
surveyor. The survey covers original and renovated houses. All complete forms are
collected and analyzed. Basically, the survey forms are divided into 2 parts i.e (1)
detail of property and (2) detail of ventilation effectiveness.
1.7.3. Interviews
Interviews will be held between the writer and occupants as well as the
management such as Majlis Bandaraya Shah Alam (MBSA), the Ministry of Housing
and Local Government, Perbadanan Kemajuan Negeri Selangor (PKNS).
This method will allow better insight towards the issue and at the same time
supports the facts given in the research.
9
1.7.4. Site measurement
The measurement of thermal sensation level will be carried out at the above
mentioned houses. The thermal conditions that will take into considerations are air
temperature; globe temperature; relative humidity; air speed and operative
temperature. The measurement will be made in three different sites. The purpose of
these measurements is to determine the actual parameters of thermal conditions of
these houses. The following are the method for testing procedure:-
1.7.4.1.
Introduction
A Comfy meter CM-015 is designed to evaluate of indoor thermal
environment. Its function is to measure, record and playback the 4 contents which
consist of room temperature, humidity, air velocity and radiant temperature of indoor
thermal environment.
As index of indoor thermal comfort, a comfy meter calculates and display
metabolism and clothing by using from PPD/ PPV of ISO 7730 as measurement
value. Measured data can be read or edited using a spread sheet software. Also it has
a simple simulation function for each index.
1.7.4.2.
Content and compartment
For the purposed of the research, an instrument to measure thermal comfort
will be used. The instrument is known as ‘Comfy Meter CM – 015’ that consist of
the following items: -
10
i.
Room Temperature and Humidity Thermometer
ii.
Air Velocity Sensor
iii.
Connecter Base – Connecter each sensor
iv.
Tripod
v.
Converter – Interface between personal laptop and Comfy Meter
vi.
Connecting Cable
vii.
Storage Case
viii.
Floppy Disk – Measuring/ Analysis software
ix.
Manual of Comfy Meter
x.
Personal Laptop – NEC PC series. MS DOS 3.3 or higher is not acceptable
xi.
RS-232C Cable – Straight (normal). The connecting side for converter is DSub25 pin male
Figure 1.2 : Compartment of Comfy Meter
11
1.7.4.3.
Assembling and Connecting
Firstly, extend the tripod to an appropriate height and fix on site. Then, screw
the connector base to the tripod (height 1.10m from stand high). Secondly, connect
each of the sensors and connection cables to the connector base. Making sure the
screws of the connectors are fastened tightly. The other side of the connector cable is
connected to ‘sensor in’ of the converter. Next, connect the converter and personal
laptop with RS-232C straight normal cable. Lastly, connect the power cable of the
converter to AC 100V and turn the switch ‘ON’. At the same time, one to be aware
of the high temperature of the top part of their velocity meter.
Figure 1.3 : Connection of the Comfy Meter components
12
1.7.4.4.
Installation of Comfy Meter CM-15 Software
The procedure below describes the setting up of Comfy Meter CM-15,
personal laptop NEC PC9821 La13/S14R and how to start the software.
First, attach the port bar to personal laptop. Then attach the FDD to personal
laptop and connect the RS-232C cable. For the laptop, connect a small RS-232C
connector to RS-232C port to the back side of personal laptop port bar. Next, connect
a large RS-232C port to the comfy meter and switch ‘ON’ the laptop (the same way
apply when shutting down). Then, switch on the comfy meter by pressing the red
button. In order to start the software, type ‘COMFY’ and then press ‘ENTER’.
Figure 1.4 : Port bar
13
1.7.4.5.
i.
Measurement
Preparation
Assemble sensor parts and connect to converter before selecting
‘measurement in main menu’.
ii.
Setting Condition Screen
To set up the condition screen, a data file is initially set to year/
month/ date at the beginning of the measurement process; the date will
change accordingly. Upon the completion of the measurement process the
data file is saved automatically on daily basis. Only selected period of time
will be saved on the data file. The instrument will continue taking data until it
is switch off but data collected half an hour before it is switch of will not be
safe. The measurement was setting and recorded at 5 min intervals
iii.
Monitor
The monitor can be changed from ‘value screen’ to the ‘graphic
screen’ by pressing ‘display value’ or ‘display graph’ buttons.
iv.
Auto-Continue Measurement
In the following situation, the measurement will automatically
continue the next time a program is started. Conditions of the measurement
14
will be recorded. In case of electricity shutdown during measurement, only
starting up program process is included in AUTOEXEC.BAT, will recontinue the measurement after the electricity supply recovers.
v.
Data transfer
All the measurement collected will be transferred to Microsoft
windows manually. This is because the data saved in the laptop cannot be
transferred automatically.
vi.
Analysis
Data transferred will be analyzed manually based on PMV against PPD.
1.7.4.6.
i.
Theoretical Information
Predicted Mean Vote (PMV)
The PMV is an index that predicts the mean value of the vote of a
large group of persons on the following 7 point thermal sensation scale. The
PMV often called as a statement of PMV or a statement of Predicted Sense
Temperature Mean Vote (PSTMV).
15
Table 1.1 : Predicted Mean Value Scale
ii.
PMV Scale
Thermal Sensation
+3
Hot
+2
Warm
+1
Slightly Warm
0
Neutral
-1
Slightly Cool
-2
Cool
-3
Cold
Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfaction (PPD)
The PPD index establishes and quantitative prediction of the of
thermally dissatisfied persons. It is also called the percentage of Predicted
Dissatisfied Persons.
1.8.
ORGANISATION OF THE THESIS
The thesis contains a total of 7 chapters. A brief of the following chapters is
described as follows: -
16
1.8.1. Chapter 1 – Introduction
Chapter 1 is an introduction of the topic of research together with the
objectives and methods of how this research should be carried out. Roughly, Chapter
1 is a guideline on how the research should be done.
1.8.2. Chapter 2 – Literature Review On Ventilation
This chapter will be concentrated on ventilation and the importance of
ventilation in residential buildings. The main concern is the influence of the design
of ventilation openings in residential buildings. This chapter also explains the types
and application of natural ventilation. This chapter also discussed on thermal comfort
level and their principle.
1.8.3. Chapter 3 - Ventilation In Low Cost Houses
The following chapter will be on the aspects of ventilation in low cost houses
in Malaysia. This chapter also explains ventilation problems and design requirement
for low cost houses.
17
1.8.4. Chapter 4 - Case Studies
Chapter 4 will be the case study of the low cost terraced houses in Shah
Alam. To gather specific information, references to certain bodies and organizations
will be carried out. Survey form, interviews and testing method are applied and
distributed to the residents as part of the study. To measure sensation level of thermal
condition, a testing method was conducted.
1.8.5. Chapter 5 - Analysis Of Results
The analysis is carried out on this chapter regarding the findings from the
research. The results from the analysis are based on the information gathered from
the residents themselves through surveys and testing.
1.8.6. Chapter 6 – Recommendation And Conclusion
In the final chapter the conclusion and necessary recommendation will be
made based on the findings as a summary for the whole study.
18
1.9.
CONCLUSION
As a conclusion, Chapter 1 gives an insight of what the project is about and
how it is carried out. An introduction of the problems of ventilation and its affect on
low cost houses is discussed briefly. Among others are the objective of the study,
problem statement, scope of study and sources of data.
CHAPTER
2
LITERATURE REVIEW ON
VENTILATION
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW ON VENTILATION
2.1.
GENERAL
It may seem odd but years ago in Malaysia a light woolen blanket was
required to keep us warm at night. Most buildings were eco-friendly; older houses
had ceilings that reached the rafters, and through-ventilation was common (Chong
and Seck Chim, 2000).
Today, more and more buildings are built of concrete with false ceilings,
reduced living spaces and multi-storey flats. People are constantly cooped up in these
cramped little houses and are forced to tolerate the heat. Those who live in low cost
flats suffer the most.
Poorly designed terrace houses are not much better. Temperatures inside
them sometimes go higher than in livestock pens; it was reported recently in the
papers.
20
In a hot and humid country like ours, air movement is needed to speed up the
evaporation process in order to lessen the discomfort and sticky feeling that we get
on our skin. This has to be effective if we depend on natural ventilation. The
minimum condition for ventilation openings and lighting is stated in the Uniform
Building By-Laws 1984 (UBBL), Clause 39 (1) to (4), 40 (1) and (2), 41 (1) to (4).
These by-laws are enforced by the local authority as one of the conditions for plan
approval.
This chapter will discuss on the definition, types of ventilation, ventilation
opening thermal principles and how it is affected.
2.2.
DEFINITION
According to the Oxford Dictionary, ventilation means the process of causing
air to circulate (in a room etc.) Basically, ventilation is the process of supplying
conditioned air to and removing it from a given space by any method. For example,
when wind enters a bedroom, it becomes ventilation but it is always air movement.
Ventilation is classified by the force acting on air. Natural ventilation
depends on natural forces; induced ventilation depends on influencing natural forces
to perform specific tasks as in a thermal chimney; forced ventilation depends on
mechanical methods (Boutet, Terry S., 1987).
21
2.3.
THE PURPOSE OF VENTILATION
Ventilation is important for the comfort of the occupants and to ensure a
healthier living environment. Below are the factors for the purpose of ventilation in a
building: -
2.3.1. To fulfil health needs which are to maintain air quality in a building to a
minimum level which is to replace used air with fresh, clean air.
2.3.2. To create thermal comfort which is to by encouraging evaporation of
moisture and increasing heat loss and lessen the discomfort caused by moist
and sticky skin.
2.3.3. To cool the building structure whenever the temperature inside a building is
higher than the temperature outside the building.
2.3.4. To cool the body by encouraging evaporation of moisture from the skin and
increasing heat loss from the skin by forced convection
For tropical climate, which is hot and humid, natural ventilation is the best
approach that can be provided at a lower cost compared mechanical ventilation. A
majority of residential buildings in Malaysia were constructed based on the natural
ventilation system (Smith Peter R. and Tamakloe Patrick K., 1963).
22
2.4.
EFFECTS OF VENTILATION
Air movement, which influences air purity, temperature and moisture, has a
direct effect on human health, comfort and well being. In residences there are three
separate functions which are air quality, energy and comfort. They may be called
health ventilation which refers to maintaining air quality by replacing indoor air
with fresh outdoor air. Not all health problems are caused by lack of air purity.
Exterior and interior spaces must be taken in consideration. Ventilation starts when
air enters the building, but its source of energy is the air movement of larger and
more surrounding systems (Boutet, Terry S., 1987).
Energy involves both avoidance of heat gain and acceleration of heat loss.
Comfort encompasses both the physical and psychological aspects of human well
being.
2.4.1. Air Quality
Pollution arising from fuels used in homes to cook or create comfort and for
human respiratory processes has always been a problem in households. Air pollution
in residences remains an important issue and it is becoming more involved as the
technology advances. Air pollution should be stopped at its sources or to dilute
pollutants so that the air can be cleansed naturally.
Residential air pollution can be controlled at its source within the home.
Control must begin before the occupation of the building. Many materials used in
residential construction introduce pollutants. In sufficient quantities, formaldehyde
can cause lung irritation, nausea, vomiting, drowsiness, sore throat, headaches and
fatigue. The problem with the building materials may last for as long as 20 to 30
23
years. Formaldehyde comes in a variety of products; plastic appliances, towels soaps,
plastic rubbish bags, newspapers, cosmetics, clothing, disinfectants, shampoo and
toothpaste. Nonetheless, providing adequate ventilation can reduce the problem
(Boutet, Terry S., 1987).
Household products introduce other interior pollutants. By running a research
in the home reveals a large number of products that may cause pollution. A scented
product adds substances to the air that may or may not be desirable. There are two
types of problems from household products: -
2.4.1.1.
Pollution from the product’s chemical content may be harmful; and
2.4.1.2.
two or more products can have an unpredictable chemical reaction.
Household products can be lessened by proper selection of the products and by
adequate ventilation.
People are the final major source of interior air pollution; metabolism
produces by products discharged by respiration. Compared to outdoors they can be
removed by air movement but indoors they become concentrated. These are caused
by respiratory by products that include carbon dioxide discharged from lungs,
bacteria expelled from the breath and odour given off by the body.
Exterior air pollution is not easily controlled. A simple way to eliminate
exterior air pollution is to remove it by avoiding locations where there are known
source of pollution such as factories and move to an area known as pollution free.
Air can be filtered if pollution cannot be avoided.
24
2.4.2. Energy
Proper air movement control lessens the demand for energy, therefore
reducing the expense of providing a comfortable home. To cool the home
environment the direct heat loads can be reduced. Heat gain from the sun can be
avoided by using shading techniques. Avoiding reflective surfaces around the
building prevents retransmission of solar heat into the home. Mechanical cooling
systems protected from direct sunlight function with less stress and greater
efficiency. The cooling of air and the environment can be done by exposing more of
the building to air movement by increasing the surface area and getting greater
surface air contact that may provide more structural cooling.
2.4.3. Comfort
Comfort and health has always been influenced by climate. In about 400 B.C
Hippocrates wrote that:
Whoever would study medicine aright must learn of the following
subjects. First he must consider the effects of each seasons of the year
and the difference between them. Secondly, he must study the warm and
the cold winds, both those which are common to every country and those
peculiar to a particular locality. Lastly, the effect of water on the health
must not be forgotten.
Thus he would know what changes to expect in the weather and not only
would he enjoy good health himself but for the most part, he would be
very successful in the practice of medicine. It should be thought that this
is more of the business of the meteorologist, then learn that astronomy
25
plays a very important part in medicine since the changes of the seasons
produce changes in the mechanism of the body.
Climate and health are still vital issues and influences health and well being
and sets a foundation on which to establish human comfort. Comfort results from
many psychological and physical factors that provide convenience or make life
easier.
2.5.
TYPES OF VENTILATION OPENINGS
2.5.1
Introduction
Openings should permit maximum airflow into interior spaces for cooling.
The air should be directed downwards into the living zones. The basic ventilation
functions of properly designed openings are windows, doors, skylights, dormers,
vents, ventilators and others of special design.
The Uniform Building By-Laws require every space in the residential home
to provide one or more windows to promote natural ventilation and lighting. It is
stated in Clause 39 (1), that the window(s) must have a total area of not less than
10% from the total gross floor area and the windows shall have openings capable of
allowing a free uninterrupted passage of air not less than 5% of the total space area
(Legal research board, 1984).
26
This chapter will illustrate that some opening types are limited in their ability
to facilitate maximum air movement conditions while others actually encourage and
enhance air movement.
2.5.2
Natural Ventilation
2.5.2.1.
Windows
The important aspects of window designs include proper day lighting, good
weatherproofing, structural strength, suitable solar heat rejection or absorption, easy
operation, durable construction and parts, excellent air tightness, good insulation,
trouble free clean ability and serviceability, and finally, valuable air movement
control. However, most window manufacturers have all the characteristics above
except for air movement control. Windows that are well designed are a net gain for
energy conservation while poor designed ones are an energy burden.
Even though there are many varieties of windows in the market the styles and
sizes can be classified into a combination of three primary window types which are: -
i.
simple opening;
ii.
vertical vane opening; and
iii.
horizontal vane opening
27
The simple opening includes the single hung, double hung, and horizontal
vane opening, and horizontal sliding windows. The vertical vane opening includes
styles such as the hinged casement, folding casement and vertical pivot which opens
by pivoting on a vertical axis. The horizontal vane opening consists of the projected
sash, awning, basement, hopper and jalousie windows which open by pivoting on a
horizontal axis.
2.5.2.2.
Doors
Other than functioning as entrances and exits, doors also permit light and air
to enter rooms from adjacent spaces. Exterior door designs also include aspects such
as good weatherproofing, proper solar heat resistance, structural strength, excellent
air tightness, good insulation, easy operation, durable construction and parts and
good air movement control.
Doors for residential use are defined as six basic types. The single door is a
one panel unit which opens by pivoting on a vertical axis along one side. It may be in
swinging or out swinging. The double door is a two panel unit each panel of which
pivots on an individual vertical axis. It too may either be inswingging or out
swinging.
Doors for residences are available in a wide selection of types, styles and
modes of operation. One type of door even has numerous positional variations which
can alter air movement in a different manner with each new position. Consequently,
no one type door is suited for all types of situations.
28
2.5.2.3.
Roof Monitors
The use of skylights, dormers, clerestories and other roof monitors as air
movement control devices has relatively been insignificant. In hot climates such as
Malaysia, they are used to lessen the heat load in a house. When air is heated, it
raises and collects under the ceilings in most houses. An opening in the roof
or
upper portions of the walls permits the heated air to escape and allows cool air to
replace it.
2.5.3
Mechanical Ventilation
2.5.3.1.
Ventilators
There are basically three types of ventilators which are stationary ventilators,
rotary ventilators and mechanical ventilators. Stationary ventilators are non
mechanical and non moving devices that allow heat to escape from the attic space.
Some are often used in conjunction with fans for more effective heat removal from
either the attic or the living spaces. Some lists of stationary ventilators include pipes.
Rotary ventilators are similar to non mechanical stationary ventilators except that
they usually move in a circular motion. The roof turbine is the common type used for
residential buildings. The revolving ventilator and free flow ventilator are other
popular types but they are usually found in commercial buildings. The revolving
action of these ventilators is created by the passing of exterior airflow over the roof;
in other words rotary ventilators are wind powered.
The mechanical ventilator that is frequently used is a fan. The two common
types are attic fans and power ventilators. The attic fan is a combination of a large
29
fan and louvers while a power ventilator is a stationary ventilator with a fan added.
Both provide cooler air.
2.6.
NATURAL AND MECHANICAL VENTILATION
A good ventilation system provides comfort to the occupant. Ventilation is
the process of supplying or removing air to or from any building space. Such air may
or may not have been conditioned. Ventilation results in the following effects: -
2.6.1. Reduces the accumulation of hazardous gases and odour
2.6.2. Reduces the accumulation of dust and smoke
2.6.3. Reduces the increase in temperature
2.6.4. Reduces humidity
Air ventilation is divided into two categories:-
2.6.5. Natural ventilation
2.6.6. Mechanical ventilation
30
2.7.
NATURAL VENTILATION
Natural ventilation is a form of ventilation that surrounds the environment
such as direction, velocity and pressure applied by the wind.
There are 3 natural forces for moving air through and out of buildings,
mainly:-
2.7.1. Wind forces
The conditions for producing ventilation in natural forces are as follows: -
2.7.1.1.
Average wind velocity
2.7.1.2.
Prevailing wind direction
2.7.1.3.
Seasonal and daily variations in wind directions and velocity.
When the wind blows without encountering any obstructions to change its
direction, the movement of the air stream as well as the pressure remains constant.
On the other hand, if the wind encounters any obstruction such as a house or a
ventilator, the air stream will be pushed aside.
Another example is in a case of a simple ventilator. The closed end forms of
an obstruction which changes the direction of the wind, expanding at the closed end
31
and converging at the open, therefore produces a vacuum inside the head which
induces an upward flow of air through the flue and through the head.
2.7.2. Stack Effect
A stack effect is produced by a difference in weight of the warm column of
air within the building and the cooler air inside. In this case the outdoor temperature
is lower than the indoor temperature. Warm air rises and escapes out of any opening
in the upper portion of the house. The escaping air must be replaced with outdoor air,
which will enter through openings in the lower part of the home. A neutral pressure
plane develops in the house where air above the neutral pressure plane is under
slightly positive pressure and the air below the neutral pressure plane is slightly
negative. The neutral pressure plane rises and falls because of atmospheric
conditions such as wind and temperature
2.7.3. Combination of Wind and Stack Effect
The actual flow in building results are from the combination effect of thermal
and wind forces. The two forces may either reinforce or oppose each other,
depending on the direction of the wind and on whether the external or internal
temperature is higher (Hafidi Abu Hassan, 2001).
Even though natural ventilation is cheaper it cannot guarantee complete
ventilation. Factors that influence natural ventilation are temperature, air and wind.
The wind carries dust and other particles therefore the air needs to be filtered
32
beforehand. Natural ventilation alone cannot do this and adequate supply of air
cannot reach hidden buildings or buildings that are obstructed by walls and so on.
2.8.
MECHANICAL VENTILATION
Mechanical ventilation is another form of ventilation that uses electrical
power to achieve air movement. This system has many benefits because it is able to
supply air at all times. However, the use of this system requires high cost that is
needed for the installation of equipment, electricity consumption and maintenance
(Enderson, Edwin P., 1980).
2.8.1. The Use of Mechanical Ventilation
The basic reasons for mechanical ventilation are as follows:-
2.8.1.1.
When natural ventilation is not available such as in the basement;
2.8.1.2.
In crowded spaces where natural ventilation alone is not adequate such
as cinemas, assembly halls and so on;
2.8.1.3.
In spaces that undergoes a certain process and emits contaminated air
such as laboratories and factories;
33
2.8.1.4.
In high rise buildings and complexes;
2.8.1.5.
In areas experiencing high air pollution as in the middle of the city; and
2.8.1.6.
In places that requires a certain temperature such as silk factories.
2.8.2. Types of Mechanical Ventilation Systems
There are three types of mechanical systems, namely:
2.8.2.1.
Natural Inlet and Mechanical Extract (Exhaust System) - These systems
is the most common and are often found in kitchens, assembly halls etc.
a negative pressure is created from the fan’s inlet side, and this causes
the air inside the room to move towards the fan, and the fresh air from
outside the room displaces the room air.
2.8.2.2.
Mechanical Inlets and Natural Extract - This system is used for boiler
rooms, offices and certain types of factories. The air may be heated in a
central plant and ducted to the various rooms, or a unit fan convector
may be used.
2.8.2.3.
Mechanical Inlets And Extract - This type offers the best in ventilation
but it
also very costly and is used for many types of buildings, such as
cinemas, theatres, offices, etc. the system is necessary for operating
theatres and sterilizing rooms.
34
2.8.3. Types of Mechanical Ventilation Equipment
Basically mechanical ventilation involves electrical power support in order to
promote air movement. There are several types of mechanical ventilation used.
Below are the following types of mechanical ventilation:
2.8.3.1.
Fixed ceiling fan
2.8.3.2.
Air conditioner
2.8.3.3.
Roof ventilator
2.8.3.4.
Propeller fan
2.9.
VOLUME OF AIR REQUIRED
The volume of air required is determined by the size of the space to be
ventilated and the number of times per hour that the air in the space is to be changed.
In many cases, existing regulations or codes will regulate the ventilating
requirements (Etheridge, David and Sandberg, 1965).
A number of statutory regulations specify minimum rates of air supply in
occupied spaces. Recommended rates of ventilation depend upon the volume of a
room, the number of occupants, and the types of activity and whether smoking is
expected. It is difficult therefore to summarise figures for air supply but Table 2.6.1.
quotes some typical values.
35
Table 2.1 : Typical fresh air supply rates
Type of Space
Recommended Air Supply
Residences, office, shops
8 litres/s per person
Restaurants, bars
18 litres/s per person
Kitchens, domestics, toilets
10 litres/s per person
2.10. VENTILATION PROBLEMS IN BUILDINGS
The lack of comfort in our climate is chiefly caused by the increase in
internal temperature that is not only too high but also the addition of high humidity
rate. The body will gradually get hot and sticky and make it feel very uncomfortable
and irritated.
2.10.1. Factors that Influence the Increase of Temperature in Buildings
Normally, the temperature inside the building is slightly higher than outside
temperature. Below are the factors that influence the increase in temperature in our
buildings. They are:-The emission of body heat from occupants;-
2.10.1.1.
The emission of heat from lamps and electrical and mechanical
appliances;
2.10.1.2.
Heat conducted from the outside through the wall and roof of building;
36
2.10.1.3.
Heat from the sun penetrated through the window and other openings;
and
2.10.1.4.
The convection of heat by hot air from outside.
In Malaysia, the temperature rises up to 2 to 4 degrees Celsius. To cope with
the rise in temperature, natural ventilation or the use of electrical fans offer the best
way to reduce heat. The flow of air in a building at 0.1 m/s to 1.5 m/s will be able to
provide the necessary comfort if the air humidity is below 78% (relativity of
humidity) and the maximum temperature is around 28ºC to 32ºC. Natural and
mechanical ventilation will accelerate the condensation process to attain the required
level of comfort even though the decrease in temperature cannot be achieved.
2.10.2. Factors That Increase The Temperature In Terms of Design
In terms of design, there are two factors that cause the increase of
temperature in a building. They are as follows:-
2.10.2.1.
Selection of Building Materials
The temperature inside a building during the night will probably remain high
even though the sun is no longer there. This happens because the heat that is trapped
in the material of the wall and roof during the day will be reflected back inside the
building during the night. This in turn causes discomfort and the heat will remain in
the building from the day all through the night.
37
Materials such as concrete blocks for the wall and concrete roof tiles for the
roof will trap more heat compared to bricks and roof tiles that are made from clay.
Steel that is used for the roof is a good conductor of heat and is able to transfer heat
into a building at a fast rate. Thus, a good insulator is required to stop the conduction
of heat through the roof.
2.10.2.2.
Orientation of Building
Today, many buildings are deliberately built facing the west and east with a
large area of glass built into them. In this country, the buildings are required to face
north-south and the façade should face east-west. The main reason for this is to
reduce direct sun exposure. Other than the walls and roof being exposed to the sun,
green house effect will also occur to the building that has the glass area exposed
directly to the sun’s rays as this causes the sun’s long wave to be trapped inside the
building and remain there. This in turn causes a rise in temperature inside the
building (Dr. Ismail, Abd. Majid, 2000).
2.11. THERMAL COMFORT
The thermal comfort of human being is governed by many physiological
mechanisms of the body and these vary from one person to another. In any particular
thermal environment it is difficult to get more than 50% of the people affected to
agree that the conditions are comfortable.
The body constantly produces heat energy from the food it consumes. This
heat needs to dissipate at an appropriate rate to keep the body at constant
38
temperature. The transfer of the heat from the body is mainly by the process of
convection, radiation and evaporation. Evaporation transfers the latent heat we give
to the water vapour, which is given on the skin and in the breath.
2.12. PRINCIPLES OF THERMAL COMFORT
The six factors that influence to the sensation of comfort. There are as
follows: -
2.12.1.
Activity
The greater activity of the body the more heat it gives off. The rate of heat
emission depends upon the individual metabolic rate of a person and upon their
surface area. People who seem similar in all other expect can vary by 10 to 20% in
their heat output. The average of heat emission decreases with age. The heat outputs
from the adult females more than 85% from the adult males.
2.12.2.
Clothing
Clothes act as the thermal insulator for the body and help to maintain the skin
at a comfortable temperature. Variations in clothing have a significant effect on the
surrounding temperatures that are required for comfort. To enable heating needs to
39
be predicted a scale of clothing has been developed which is called the do value. 1 do
represents 0.155 m2 °C/W of insulation and values range from the 0 do to 4 do. Table
4.1 shows the value of different types of clothing and indicates how the room
temperature required for comfort varies with clothing. On average, women prefer
slightly higher temperatures.
2.12.3.
Room temperature
The temperature of the surrounding surfaces can affect the thermal comfort of
people as much as the temperature of the surrounding air. This is because the rate at
which heat is radiated from a person is affected by the radiant properties of the
surroundings. For example, when sitting near the cold surface of a window, the
radiated from the body increases and cause discomfort. A satisfactory design
temperature for achieving thermal comfort need to take into account of both air and
surfaces temperature.
2.12.4.
Air movement
Previous research experiments indicate that the optimum value for air
movement can be taken as about 0.17m/s. Speed in excess of 0.5 m/s are considered
very draughty and below 0.1 m/s are consider airless. The effects of air movement
are complex and differ with circumstances.
The air movement of air in room helps to increase heat loss from the body by
convection and cause the sensations of draught. The back of the neck, the forehead
40
and the ankles are the most sensitive areas for chilling. As the speed of air movement
in a room increases above 0.1 m/s, then the higher one air temperature is required to
give the same degree of comfort. For example, if the air temperature is at 18°C and
the air movement increased from 0.1 m/s; the air temperature should rise to 21 °C to
avoid discomfort. The air movement rate is not the same thing as the air change rate
and is not always caused by ventilation. Uncomfortable air movement may be due to
natural convection currents, especially near windows or in rooms with high ceilings.
2.12.5.
Humidity
Humidity is caused by moisture in the air. For achieving comfortable
condition relative humidity should be kept within the range of 40 -70%. High
humidity and high temperatures feel oppressive and natural cooling by perspiration is
decreased. High humidity and low temperatures cause the air to chill. Low humidity
can cause dryness to throats and skin. Static electricity can accumulate with low
humidity, especially in modern offices with synthetic carpet and cause mild but
uncomfortable electric shocks.
2.12.6.
Ventilation
In any occupied space, ventilation is necessary to provide oxygen and to
remove contaminated air. Fresh air contains about 16 per cent oxygen and 0.04 per
cent carbon dioxide. The body requires a constant supply of oxygen.
41
A number of statutory regulations specify minimum rates of air supply in
occupied spaces. Recommended rates of ventilation depend upon the volume of a
room, the number of occupants, and the type of activity and whether smoking is
expected. It is difficult therefore to summarise figures for air supply but Table 4.4
quotes some typical values.
2.13. CONCLUSION
Chapter 2 is a literature review on ventilation. Here, the types of ventilation
are explained. From the types of openings to the types mechanical systems used are
described. This is to give an understanding of what ventilation is all about as well as
to recognize how ventilation is influenced. This chapter also described the thermal
comfort and their principles.
CHAPTER
3
LITERATURE REVIEW ON
VENTILATION IN LOW COST
HOUSING
CHAPTER 3
LITERATURE REVIEW ON VENTILATION IN
LOW COST HOUSES
3.1.
GENERAL
The Malaysian Government started providing low-cost houses for lowincome groups from 1971 (Tengku, 1979). However, as from Second Malaysian Plan
the construction of low-cost houses has always been below target. As from Second to
Seventh MP, there was a shortage of 747,761 units of low-cost houses. Only 55.2 %
of the targeted units were completed (Khor, K. P, 1989). These shortages of low cost
houses are due to: -
3.1.1. Both the private and public sectors were unable to build enough low cost
houses.
43
3.1.2. Some of the low cost houses were constructed in remote areas having no
demand.
3.1.3. The selling price is too low for developers to make any profit. Thus
developers are not willing to build low cost houses.
3.1.4. Every year there is an increase in demand of low cost houses.
In Malaysia, a low cost house has become a big issue. It gets more than its
fair share of attention from the mass media reporting on the deficiencies,
achievements and exhortation of the political leaders for greater efforts towards the
construction of low cost housing by both the public and private sectors.
3.2.
THE CONCEPT OF LOW COST HOUSING
Basically, low cost housing is defined according to its selling price of RM
25,000.00 per unit or less. Below are the following guidelines laid down by The
Ministry of Housing and Local Government for this category of housing: -
3.2.1. The target group consists of households with monthly incomes not more than
RM750.00
3.2.2. The type of house may include terrace, flats or detached houses.
44
3.2.3. The minimum design standard specifies a built up are of 560-600 square feet,
2 bedrooms, a living room, a kitchen and a bathroom.
Low cost houses are built in order to ensure that Malaysians particularly of
the low income group have greater access to adequate and affordable home and
related facilities thus gradually reducing poverty.
3.3
LOW COST HOUSING IN SELANGOR
The purpose of building low cost houses is to ensure that not a single person
in Selangor is left out in owning an affordable house by 2005. In Selangor, there are
two fixed rates for low cost houses which is RM35,000.00 for squatters in which its
sole purpose is to lessen the burden of its people and RM42,000 for non squatters.
3.3.1. The Aim for Squatter-Free City by 2005
In order to overcome the problem of squatter houses, the government has set
up a target of zero –slums by the year 2005.
This is to ensure squatters settling on government land or those belonging to
the low-income groups to be relocated to a new house. The National Housing
Department has advanced a few low cost housing programmes to cater for the
housing needs of these groups and they are:-
45
3.3.1.1.
Perumahan Awam Kos Rendah (PAKR)
This programme is set to provide a satisfying housing service including basic
amenities for the low income groups in the urban and rural area. Rationally, this is to
improve the standard of living and at the same wipe out poverty altogether. The
features are a five storey flat and terrace or timber houses in the suburbs with 3
bedrooms, a living room, a kitchen and bathroom as well as a separate toilet. The
targeted income is below RM1,500 per month.
3.3.1.2.
Perumahan Rakyat (PPR) Bersepadu
This programme relocates those who are involved in the government
development projects around Kuala Lumpur and the Klang Valley in Selangor. The
features include flats of 11 to 14 or 16 to 18 storeys in large cities and flat of up to 5
storeys in small cities with 3 bedrooms, a living room, a kitchen and bathroom as
well as a separate toilet. The targeted income is RM1,500 a month.
3.3.1.3.
Skim Pertapakan dan Kemudahan (SPK)
SPK is part of the public low cost housing programme for the rural folks who
cannot afford a house even under the low cost housing programme. This program is
especially for those with an income of RM300 and RM400 a month in West
Malaysia while in Sabah and Sarawak. it is RM400 to RM600.00
46
3.3.1.4.
Program Skim Pinjaman Perumahan
This programme is
set up to manage the accounts administered by the
Kumpulan Wang Amanah Pinjaman Perumahan to the low income groups. The
objective of this programme is to award loans to those who do not have a source of
loan to purchase or to build a low cost house in the manner of improving their
standard of living. The maximum loan rate is RM20,000 and the targeted income is
less than RM1,200 a year.
3.4.
MALAYSIAN ENVIRONMENT AND CLIMATE
The climatic condition in Malaysia can be classified as warm-humid
equatorial characterized by high temperatures and humidity. The air temperature
ranges from 22Cº to 32ºC with small annual and diurnal ranges. Sometimes it seldom
exceeds normal skin temperature, which could cause skin disease or sunburn (Hafidi
Abu Hassan, 2001).
Throughout the year humidity is high averaging from 75% or more to create a
high water vapour content in the air. The function of the water vapour is to act as
filters from direct solar radiation, yet it can still cause painful sky glare. The
humidity also causes rotting, rusting and the growth of alga and mould.
The speed of the wind is of low variable speed. Often, it occurs with the rain.
They will be come the northeast and southwest directions. The rainfall averages from
250 cm to 300 cm annually.
47
Because of the moist air, moderate heat and high rainfall, the growth of
vegetation are sometimes difficult to control. There are pros and cons to thick
vegetation. On one hand thick plant cover reduces reflected radiation and lessens the
heating on the ground’s surface while on the other hand the thick plant cover
increases unfavourable climatic conditions.
By understanding the Malaysian climate and environment, houses can be
designed better taking in considerations of climate to suit the designs and therefore
taking an advantage of the factors that effect ventilation.
3.5.
EXISTING LOW COST HOUSING SYSTEM
In Malaysia, there are several types low cost housing system. The existing
low cost housing systems are listed below. They are: -
3.5.1. Timber Houses
Other than concrete, steel and brickwork, timber is a popular material for use
in housing construction. The technologies of timber have been improved over the
years and therefore are used for more complicated housing structures. The
prefabricated houses designed and constructed recently have proven to be one of the
cheaper materials in construction. The secret of its success lies entirely on the
effectiveness of the design and the method of construction, which in turn minimizes
the cost. It performs just as well as other conventional building materials such as
concrete and steel.
48
In Malaysian forests, timber can be found in abundant quantities making it is
a relatively cheap material for housing construction. This seems true at that time
because of
the availability of construction technology, which is purely labour
intensive. Nowadays however, timber is not a cheap material anymore. Good species
of timber is very expensive and would only be used for more buildings that are
expensive, structural components or decorative purposes.
Until today, timber technology has advanced. The material is more suitable
for prefabricated housing construction, which is more economical as it is cheap to
build and also saves time and labour. Much thought is given to construction of joints
between structural components, methods of construction and quality of the timber
used. All timbers are chemically treated before being used in construction to
maintain its durability. The choice of timber houses with the appropriate technology
is restrained to rural houses, while for urban housing, timber houses are still not
permitted by the Uniform Building By Laws (Mahyudin Ramli , 1990).
3.5.2
Concrete Blocks
Concrete blocks are by far the mostly used building materials for low cost
housing. Apart from ease of fabrication on site, the materials can be incorporated in
construction to serve as load bearing structures such as for columns, floor slabs,
walls etc. The blocks are also applicable to precast concrete construction where the
materials are economically used as retaining walls.
Research has been conducted on concrete blocks mixed with some industrial
waste materials such as rice husk ash, saw dust, sugar cane, etc. to study its
mechanical and physical properties. Results are presented below in Table 3.5.2
49
Table 3.1 : Mechanical Properties of Hollow Blocks
Mix Composition
Nominal size of
Age of test
Age of test
Absorption
cement:
block (mm)
(days)
(days)
(%)
203x203x216
28
3.074
15.7
460x115x216
28
2.640
13.3
203x203x216
28
3.806
14.9
460x115x216
28
2.866
13.0
sand by weight
1:25
1:30
3.5.3. Bricks
Cement bricks are among the most popular materials used for low cost
housing constructions. Although the materials are reasonably cheap and can be easily
constructed on site, the materials would require conventional skill and more use of
labour and can hardly be adopted in prefabricated systems of building. The high
porosity of the bricks would also enable penetration of dampness into the building
unless good plaster finish is emphasized. This would then become costly.
3.6.
CURRENT DESIGN CONDITIONS
Currently, most homes in Malaysia are constructed with materials that absorb
heat that come from the sun during the day time. At night, the air outside cools
rapidly, but the building fabric behaves differently where heat is released from the
building mass to the surrounding air indoor and outdoor. This thermal behaviour is
typical of houses that are built of mostly high dense materials such as clay and
50
cement bricks; concrete and also lightweight concrete aggregate (Dr. Abdul Malik
Abdul Rahman , 1995).
3.7.
DESIGN REQUIREMENT
The standardization in design is emphasized and must be obeyed to ensure all
houses are functional and comfortable to live in. The following are the main factors
that have to be considered (National Housing Department, 2001) :
3.7.1
The Building
In the design of housing units the occupant’s comfort has to be prioritized in
order for them to carry out their daily activities. Minimum standards are set for the
designer such as the number of bedrooms, the floor area for internal spaces such as
bedrooms, kitchen, dining room, bathroom, toilet and living room. Electrical
installations, fire prevention, lighting and ventilation are also standardized.
3.7.2
Infrastructure
An effectively planned environment will assist in the socioeconomic growth
of the occupants. The road network, water supply system, and drainage and sewerage
system has to be well planned for a more efficient infrastructure network.
51
3.7.3 Landscape
Special attention is given to the layout of landscape for the physical planning
of each housing scheme to create a comfortable and peaceful environment.
Landscaping for low cost houses for public places such as along main roads,
recreational grounds, car parks and retention ponds/rivers are given top priority.
3.8.
BUILDING PLAN APPROVAL
All building plans for low cost houses that are sent for approval are verified
according to the minimum standards and guidelines to enable the plans to be
approved automatically. This will speed up the process of plan approval.
3.9.
DESIGN GUIDELINES FOR LOW COST HOUSING (SINGLE AND
DOUBLE STOREY TERRACED HOUSES)
A housing unit should have at least three bedrooms, a living and dining room,
a bathroom and toilet and a storage room. All building dimensions must be in
accordance to the MS 1064 - Guide To Modular Coordination in Building
(Kementerian Perumahan dan Kerajaan Tempatan, 1996).
Any material or product used in the construction of low cost houses must be
in accordance to the Malaysian Standard especially for the safety and quality
features.
52
3.9.1 Layout and Building Design
The layout and use of space has to contain 3 bedrooms, living room, dining
room, bathroom and toilet and also store. All design is according to the specification
MS 1064 – Guide to Modular Coordination in Building .
3.9.2
Floor Area
Each housing unit has to have a total floor area between 48 square meters to
60 square meters excluding the non habitable areas. Areas for bedroom floors are as
follows:-
3.9.2.1.
Bedroom 1 - not less than 11.7 square meters
3.9.2.2.
Bedroom2 - not less than 9.9 square meters
3.9.2.3.
Bedroom 3 - not less than 7.2 square meters
3.9.3
Area of Kitchen
3.9.3.1.
The area of the kitchen should not be less than 4.5 square meters.
53
3.9.4
Bathroom and toilet
3.9.4.1.
Bathroom and toilet is to be provided separately
3.9.4.2.
Bathroom-not less than 1.8 square meters
3.9.4.3.
Toilet- not less than 1.8 square meters
3.9.4.4.
Minimum width of bathroom- not less than 1.2 square meters
3.9.4.5.
Minimum width of toilet- not less than 0.9 square meters
3.9.5 Living and Dining Room
3.9.5.1.
3.9.6
Living and dining room is to be provided separately or together.
Storage Room
3.9.6.1.
Adequate storage room should be provided for the comfort
54
3.9.7
Number of Rooms
3.9.7.1.
3.9.8
All houses must have not less than 3 bedrooms.
Floor Area
Adequate floor area should be provided for the needs and comfort of the
occupants. The net floor has to be between 48 square meters to 60 square meters
excluding non - habitable areas such as terrace and balcony.
3.9.8.1.
Area for Bedroom 1 is not less than 11.7 square meters
3.9.8.2.
Area for Bedroom2 is not less 9.9 square meters
3.9.8.3.
Area for Bedroom 3 is not less than 7.2 square meters
3.9.8.4.
Area for Kitchen is not less than 4.5 square meters
3.9.8.5.
Bathroom and toilet should be providing separately. The area of
bathroom must be not less than 1.8 square meters. The area of toilet
shall be not less than 1.8 square meters. Then, the minimum width of
bathroom shall not less than 1.2 meters and toilet not less than 0.9
meters.
55
3.9.8.6.
Living room and dining room shall be provided either separately or
together.
3.9.8.7.
Adequate space has to be provided for stores for the comfort of the
occupants
3.9.9. Finishes and Cladding
The tables below show types of finishes and cladding for each room.
Table 3.2 : Minimum requirement of type of floor finishes
Item
Area
1.
Living room
2.
Dining
3.
Bedroom
4.
Store
5.
Balcony
6.
Corridor
7.
Staircase
8.
Apron
9.
Kitchen
10.
Bathroom/Toilet
Floor Finish
Cement screed
Cement screed
Ceramic tiles/equivalent
56
Table 3.3 : Minimum requirement of type of wall finishes
Item
Area
Wall Finishes
1.
Internal walls
Emulsion paint
2.
External walls
Weather proof paint (Minimum: 1 layer of
undercoat and layers of finish coat)
3.
Kitchen
4.
Bathroom/Toilet
5.
Timber wall and Varnish
building
components
Ceramic tiles 1.5 m high
57
Table 3.4 : Minimum requirement of type of cladding
Item
1.
Area
Finish/Cladding
Window
Casement
Adjustable louvers
Permanent louvers
2.
3.
Door
1. Living room
Plywood
2. Bedroom
Plywood
3. Others
Plywood
Bathroom/Toilet
PVC door
Plywood
door
internally
lined
with
aluminium sheets
4.
Ceiling
1. Cement cladding
2. Cement sheets without asbestos
5.
Roof
1. Roof tiles
2. Corrugated tiles
6.
Kitchen
1 unit tap
1 unit metal sink
7.
Bathroom
1 unit wash basin with a tap
1 unit 300 mm x 450mm face mirror
1 unit shower
1 unit towel hanger
8.
Toilet
1 unit PVC cistern
1 unit squatting WC
1 unit stand pipe
9.
Drainage
225 mm diameter drainage with concrete
cover
10.
House yard
1 unit vertical pipe
58
3.10
THE REQUIREMENT IN THE VENTILATION DESIGN OF LOW
COST HOUSES
A good ventilated house requires good ventilation design. This is to ensure a
healthy and comfortable living and in return save cost and energy. Unfortunately,
low cost houses are not usually design in such a way. It is because the importances of
ventilation design are not much considered in these types of houses. They often face
hot and uncomfortable conditions not to mention the low level of health. These
conditions often occur in cramped and not so well ventilated houses such as flats and
terraced houses. Each housing unit must offer adequate natural lighting and
ventilation for the rooms provided. This can be done by having one or more windows
that have an area of not less than 10% of the floor area of a room. An opening has to
give way to let fresh air in without obstruction. The opening has to be less than 5%
of floor area in order to encourage cross ventilation to all rooms in the house and has
to be able to flow from one end of the house to another. Below are a few guidelines
to improve the condition.
3.10.1. Direction of Wind, Sun and Rain
Since Malaysia is in the equatorial region, the buildings should be oriented
according to the direction of the existing wind and not in the direction of the sunrays,
etc. The buildings should be oriented towards the South or the Southeast because it is
uncomfortably hot if the room is facing the sun. Most of the units should have
sunshades over the window. This is a very common feature in most low cost houses.
The use of sunshade helps to lower room temperature.
59
3.10.2. Heat Stress and Ventilation
A good design will provide necessary sunshade and ventilation to reduce heat
stress inside the building (Evans M, 1980). This also helps residents to save costs to
maintain thermal comfort. But, this is not so in the existing low cost houses, for
instance the cross ventilation is very poor due to the bad design of building blocks,
windows and doors are too close to each other or sometimes not there at all or the
windows of the opposite sides are more than 30 feet, the ceiling height is too low, the
floor area does not coincide with the size of the openings, etc. What is more
appalling, to cut costs; houses are built with minimum ceiling height which in turn
results in hot air being accumulated near the ceiling. To overcome the problem, airconditioning, fan or mechanical ventilation is used in order to bring the temperature
to a comfortable level. These will surely add to the running costs.
3.11. NATURAL LIGHTING AND VENTILATION
According to the Uniform Building By-Laws 1984 (UBBL), the rooms/areas
provided in each housing unit has to receive adequate lighting and ventilation
through one or more windows that have an area of not less than 10% of the room
floor area and an opening is to be provided to enable the air flowing freely and
unobstructed which is not less 5% of the floor area. This is to encourage cross
ventilation to all rooms from one end of the house to another.
60
3.11.1. Room height
According to the Uniform Building By-Laws 1984, Clause 44 (1), each
room requires the following height:-
3.11.1.1.
Living/dining area and bedroom – not less than 3.0 meters
3.11.1.2.
Kitchen – not less than 2.7 meters
3.11.1.3.
Bathroom/toilet – not less than 2.4 meters
3.11.2. Party wall
Party walls are to be built between each unit and built all the way up to roof
level and have fire resistance of up to two (2) hours.
3.11.3. Other structural elements
All other structural elements as stated in the Uniform Building By-Laws 1984
are to be made of building materials that have a minimum fire resistance of half (1/2)
an hour.
61
3.11.4. Staircase
A staircase, if any is disallowed in the kitchen. The staircase provided has to
have adequate width and coincides with the requirements of the latest Uniform
Building By-Laws to accommodate in the user’s mobility particularly during
emergencies.
3.11.5. Safety bars for windows
If safety bars are to be installed, basic requirements of Fire Protection and
Safety Division of the Fire and Safety Department of Malaysia are to be followed
which are as stated below:-
3.11.5.1.
The bars installed should have safety features that enables it to be
opened from the inside;
3.11.5.2.
Priority for bar installation is given to the bedroom because of panic
risk and sleeping risk factors; and
3.11.5.3.
Other alternatives should be provided to aid the fire department in
rescuing and fire extinguishing purposes
3.12. CONCLUSION
Low cost houses are often built with minimum quality of materials
and
minimum design without taking in account neither the effect of the climate towards
the building nor the ventilation aspects. Chapter 3 explains the importance of these
62
factors besides giving a guideline in the design and requirement of ventilation. It also
tells about the current types of low cost houses available in Malaysia and how the
lack of natural ventilation affects them. Low cost houses need improvement in a lot
of aspects especially in terms of ventilation.
CHAPTER
4
CASE STUDIES
CHAPTER 4
CASE STUDY - SECTION 18, 20 AND 24, SHAH
ALAM
4.1.
INTRODUCTION
The case study is conducted in Shah Alam around Section 18, 20, and 24. The
types of houses in which to be studied are single, double storey and renovated single
and double storey low cost houses. From here, questionnaires will be distributed to
the occupants in order to determine the level of ventilation effectiveness. A few other
things will be observed to support the study such as the size and number of openings,
whether they co-relate with the Uniform Building By Laws (UBBL) or otherwise.
64
4.2.
HISTORY OF SHAH ALAM
Shah Alam is the state capital of Selangor. It came a long way since it was
only palm tree plantation area that was then known as Sungai Renggam and later had
been developed into a city. The purpose of the opening of the city was to replace
Kuala Lumpur which was turned into Federal Territory on 1st February 1974.
On 7th December 1978, Shah Alam was officially announced as the capital of
Selangor Darul Ehsan by the DYMM Sultan Selangor with an area of 41.69 square
kilometer.
In conjunction to that, Majlis Perbandaran Shah Alam (MPSA) was set up
under Act 171, the Local Authority Act. Prior to that, Shah Alam was administrated
by the Lembaga Bandaran Shah Alam under the authority of Perbadanan
Kemajuan Negeri Selangor (PKNS).
4.3.
FIELD STUDY
For the purpose of the study, single and double storey terraced houses in
Sections 18, 20 and 24 has been chosen. The terraced houses in Section 19 comprise
of 500 units, while Section 20 comprise of 560 units and Section 24 comprise of 620
units.
65
4.4.
OBJECTIVES
The objectives are as follows: -
4.4.1. To identify what types of ventilation equipment used;
4.4.2. To find out the effectiveness of natural ventilation in these houses;
4.4.3. To determine whether the size of openings coincide with the floor area and in
accordance to the UBBL;
4.4.4. To identify the types of openings used;
4.4.5. To identify whether there any addition of openings to the existing openings;
and
4.4.6. To identify level of thermal environment.
4.5.
INTRODUCTION TO THE CASE STUDY
The low cost houses in Shah Alam was developed by Perbadanan Kemajuan
Negeri Selangor (PKNS). PKNS plays a major role in providing residential houses
66
for the public. One of the major housing programmes is to build affordable and
quality houses with basic and social facilities for the low-income groups. There are
110,445 housing units that comprises of 45% of low cost houses in 1999, which in
that year alone 3,431 housing units were completed of which 78% were low cost
houses.
4.6.
BACKGROUND OF CASE STUDY
There are two types of low cost houses built in Shah Alam. They consist of
flats and terraced housing. A number of 1,158 units of walked-up flat type were built
in 1987 in Section 16. By 1995 almost 2000 units were built in Sections 19, 20, 24.
The study will be conducted on low cost houses of Shah Alam, Selangor. The
type of dwellings consists of single and double storey-terraced houses.
There are 3 case studies selected in Shah Alam which are: -
4.6.1. Single and Double Storey Terraced Houses - Section 18
4.6.2. Single-Storey Terraced Houses - Section 20
4.6.3. Double-Storey Terraced Houses - Section 24
67
The study will be carried out on these sections of low cost houses with prices
ranging from RM 25,000 to RM 42,000. The houses consist of the same materials
and almost the same built up area.
Below are details of low cost housing developed by PKNS in Shah Alam
shown in Table below: -
Table 4.1 : Details of Low Cost Housing in Shah Alam
TYPE A : LOW COST FLATS
Type of
Date of
Housing
Occupancy
Section 16
Flat
31/12/1987
1,158
Conventional
2.
Section 19
Flat
27/10/1998
200
Pre-fabricated
3.
Section 24
Flat
17/10/2000
480
Pre-fabricated/
No.
Location
1.
Units
Type of
construction
Conventional
4.
Section 20
Flat
17/05/1985
1,235
Pre-fabricated/
Conventional
TOTAL
3,073
Table 4.2 : Details of Low Cost Housing in Shah Alam
TYPE B : LOW COST TERRACE (3 ROOMS)
Type of
Date of
Housing
Occupancy
Section 20
Terraced
06/04/1998
560
Conventional
2.
Section 24
Terraced
15/09/1989
75
Conventional
3.
Section 24
Terraced
20/01/1993
234
Conventional
4.
Section 24
Terraced
28/06/1990
290
Conventional
5.
Section 24
Terraced
01/06/1990
298
Conventional
No.
Location
1.
TOTAL
Units
1,457
Type of
construction
68
4.7.
CASE STUDY NO.1 – SINGLE AND DOUBLE STOREY TERRACED
HOUSES AT SECTION 18
Figure 4.1 : Double storey low cost terraced houses at Section 18
Section 18 is located in the industrial part of Shah Alam. Its surrounding area
consists of two primary and secondary schools, shop lots, and a supermarket. It is
completed with basic amenities. The area was developed by Perbadanan Kemajuan
Negeri Selangor (PKNS). The construction was completed in the 1980’s and cost
RM 25,000 per unit. The area consists of single and double storey houses.
Location
:
Section 18, Shah Alam
Total number of houses
:
460
Year built/Developer
:
1980’s/ PKNS
Date of occupancy
:
Late 1980’s
69
Table 4.3 : Number of Houses Surveyed
No.
Name Of Street
Number Of Houses Surveyed
1
Jalan Kepau, 18/4
5
2
Jalan Gebang Satu, 18/6A
8
3
Jalan 18/18
4
4.7.1. Respondents
Most occupants consist of factory workers and government servants. It is
estimated that the total monthly income for husband and wife is RM 1,200.00.
4.7.2. General Description
Price
: RM 25,000
Area
: 51.74 m2
No. of bedrooms
:2
No. of bathrooms
:1
Water supply
: Direct; for kitchen and water tank
Air conditioning
: Not provided
Rubbish compartment:
: Provided
The single and double storey houses are basically constructed of reinforced
concrete framework. To suit the climate, they are built with pitched roofs. The
specifications for the materials are shown in Table 4.4 while the built up area for the
houses are shown in Table 4.5.
70
Table 4.4 : Specification of materials for low cost houses in Section 18.
Item
1.
Element
Specification
Work Below Lowest Floor Reinforced concrete pad footing, ground
Finish
beams, column stump and ground floor slabs,
on and including hardcore, reinforcement and
formwork.
2.
Frame
Reinforced concrete column and beams
3.
Roof
Corrugated asbestos sheet roof at 22° pitch
4.
External and internal walls
60 mm thick precasted concrete wall
5.
Doors and windows
Single leaf plywood flush door with standard
and approved ironmongery.
Louvred windows in timber frames completed
with glass and mild steel security bar
6.
External and internal wall Cement, sand and lime plastering and painted
finishes
7.
Floor Finishes
Cement and sand rendering trowelled smooth
8.
Ceiling finishes
Asbestos ceiling panel
9.
Plumbing installation and Concealed PVC piping for cold water
sanitary installation
plumbing, UPVC piping for all sanitary
piping and standard and approved sanitary
fittings
10.
Electrical installation
Concealed wiring for all light points, power
points and fan points including telephone
trunking and other necessary items
71
Table 4.5 : General built up area for single storey low cost houses at Section 18
Item
Description
Area (m2)
Ground Floor
1.
Living and Dining
17.13
2.
Kitchen
9.35
3.
Bathroom
3.26
4.
Toilet
3.26
5.
Master Bedroom
20.08
6.
Bedroom 2
14.97
7.
Bedroom 3
-
TOTAL
62.20
Table 4.5 shows the general built up area of single storey low cost houses at
Section 18. Areas are taken for the living and dining, kitchen, bathroom, toilet and
bedrooms.
Table 4.6 : General built up area for double storey low cost houses at Section 18
Item
Description
Area (m2)
Ground Floor
1.
Living and Dining
15.94
2.
Kitchen
2.78
3.
Bathroom
1.62
4.
Toilet
1.62
First Floor
5.
Bedroom 1
9.87
6.
Bedroom 2
13.25
7.
Hall
6.66
TOTAL
51.74
Table 46 shows the general built up area of double storey low cost houses at
Section 18. Areas are taken for the living and dining, kitchen, bathroom, toilet and
bedrooms from the ground floor to the upper floor.
72
4.7.3. Building Design
Basically, these residential houses are built with two or three bedrooms, a
bathroom and toilet, a living room, a kitchen, and dining. Based on the microclimate,
the roof is pitched 20° to allow rainwater to pass through.
4.7.4. Dimensions Of Windows And Doors
Below are tables showing the typical dimensions of doors and windows for
single and double storey low cost houses at Section 18.
Table 4.8 : Dimension of windows and doors for single storey low cost houses (2
bedroom) at Section 18
Item
Descriptions
Windows (m2)
Doors (m2)
Area Of Room (m2)
1.
Bedroom 1
1.08
1.89
20.08
2.
Bedroom 2
0.54
1.89
14.97
3.
Bathroom
0.19
0.19
3.26
4.
Toilet
0.19
0.19
3.26
5.
Living/Dining
1.08
1.89
17.13
6.
Kitchen
0.48
1.89
9.35
TOTAL
3.56
10.08
62.20
From table 4.8 above, it is found that the total area of window openings is
less than 10 % of the total floor area. This shows that it does not coincide with the
requirement of the Uniform Building By Law. 10 % of the total floor area of rooms
is 6.2 meter squared while the total area of windows is 3.56 meter squared. This
73
means that the total area of window openings is less than 10 % of the total of floor
area of rooms.
Table 4.9 : Dimension of windows and doors for double storey low cost houses at
Section 18
Item
Descriptions
Windows
(m2)
Doors (m2)
Area of Room
(m2)
GROUND FLOOR
1.
Bathroom
0.19
1.47
3.26
2.
Toilet
0.19
1.47
3.26
3.
Living/Dining
1.08
1.89
17.13
Kitchen
0.48
1.47
9.35
FIRST FLOOR
4.
Bedroom 1
1.08
1.89
20.08
5.
Bedroom 2
0.54
1.89
14.97
6.
Hall
1.08
-
6.66
TOTAL
4.64
8.61
74.71
Table 4.9 shows the dimensions of windows for double storey low cost
houses at Section 18. The total area of the window opening is 4.64m2 while the total
floor area is 74.71 in which 10 % of the total floor area is 7.47 meter squared. This
means that the total area of window openings is less than the total area of the floor.
4.7.5. Testing
There are 3 samples houses selected from this section. 2 unit are intermediate
lots and one unit in a corner lot. As mentioned before, the parameter of thermal
74
conditions are using a ‘Comfy Meter’. The thermal parameters measured and the
values are shown in the table shown. The measurement was divided into 3 categories,
i.e morning, evening and night. The following are the result of the testing:-
Table 4.10 : Result testing for thermal sensation level (morning) – sample 1
Air
Globe
Temp.
Temp.
(Degree
(Degree
C)
C)
0830
27.9
0835
Operative
Relative
Air
Humidity
Speed
(%)
(m/s)
28.6
76
0.2
2916
1.8
75
28.3
28.5
27.9
28.6
76
0.2
2996
1.8
70
28.3
28.6
0840
27.9
28.7
76
0.4
2841
1.7
64
28.3
28.6
0845
27.9
28.8
74
0.2
2567
1.8
64
28.4
28.8
0850
27.8
28.6
75
0.2
2548
1.7
62
28.2
28.6
0855
27.8
28.8
73
0.3
2457
1.6
59
28.3
28.8
0900
28.4
28.9
72
0.2
2869
1.6
61
28.7
28.8
0905
28.8
29.0
71
0.2
2896
1.7
58
28.9
29.0
0910
29.0
29.1
76
0.3
2789
1.5
53
29.1
29.1
0915
29.0
29.2
78
0.2
2564
1.5
57
29.1
29.2
0920
29.1
29.2
80
0.2
2897
1.6
57
29.2
29.0
0925
29.1
29.4
82
0.2
2458
1.6
57
29.3
29.0
0930
29.2
29.4
84
0.2
2985
1.7
58
29.3
29.2
0935
29.1
29.2
84
0.2
2487
1.7
62
29.2
29.2
0940
29.0
29.0
84
0.2
2654
1.7
60
29.0
29.0
Time
Pressure
(Pa)
PMV
PPD
(%)
MRT
(Degree
C)
Temp.
(Degree
C)
Table above shown the average value of thermal sensation scale based on
Predicted Mean Value (PMV) is 1.7, which means it is ALMOST WARM and
Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied (PPD) is 61% are shown in figure 4.10.
75
PMV against PPD
80
70
PPD (%)
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1.8
1.8
1.7
1.8
1.7
1.6
1.6
1.7
1.5
1.5
1.6
1.6
1.7
1.7
1.7
PMV
PMV Scale
The scale of thermal sensation is :
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
Cold
Cool
Slightly Cool
Neutral
Slightly Warm
Warm
Hot
Figure 4.2 : PMV against PPD
Result: Average PMV
- 1.7 the thermal sensation scale is ALMOST WARM
Average PPD index - 61% the Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied
76
Table 4.11 : Result testing for thermal sensation level (afternoon) – sample 1
Air
Time
Globe
Relative
Air
Temp.
Humidity
Speed
(Degree C)
(%)
(m/s)
Temp.
(Degree
C)
Pressure
(Pa)
PMV
Operative
MRT
PPD
Temp.
(Degree
(%)
(Degree
C)
C)
1530
29.9
29.8
81
0.2
3418
1.5
73
28.9
29.8
1505
29.6
29.6
81
0.2
3360
1.6
69
29.0
29.6
1540
29.5
29.5
82
0.4
3382
1.7
63
28.9
29.5
1545
29.2
29.2
86
0.2
3486
1.8
65
29.0
29.2
1550
29.0
29.0
88
0.2
3526
1.8
63
29.1
29.0
1555
29.0
29.0
89
0.3
3546
1.8
60
29.0
29.0
1600
28.9
28.9
90
0.2
3465
1.7
62
28.9
28.9
1605
28.8
28.8
88
0.2
3406
1.7
59
28.8
28.8
1610
28.7
28.7
87
0.3
3445
1.5
53
28.8
28.7
1615
28.6
28.6
88
0.2
3465
1.5
58
28.9
28.7
1620
28.6
28.6
88
0.2
3465
1.5
59
28.9
28.8
1625
28.7
28.7
88
0.2
3485
1.6
59
29.0
28.8
1630
28.7
28.7
88
0.2
3485
1.6
61
29.0
28.9
1635
28.8
28.8
88
0.2
3485
1.7
61
28.8
28.9
1640
28.8
28.8
88
0.2
3465
1.7
60
28.9
28.8
Table above shown the average value of thermal sensation scale based on
Predicted Mean Value (PMV) is 1.6, which means it is ALMOST WARM and
Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied (PPD) is 62% are shown in figure 4.11.
PMV against PPD
80
70
PPD (%)
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.8
1.8
1.7
1.7
1.5
PMV
1.5
1.5
1.6
1.6
1.7
1.7
77
PMV Scale
The scale of thermal sensation is :
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
Cold
Cool
Slightly Cool
Neutral
Slightly Warm
Warm
Hot
Figure 4.3 : PMV against PPD
Result: Average PMV
- 1.6 the thermal sensation scale is ALMOST WARM
Average PPD index - 62% the Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied
Table 4.12 : Result testing for thermal sensation level (night) – sample 1
Air
Time
Temp.
(Degree
C)
Globe
Relative
Air
Temp.
Humidity
Speed
(Degree C)
(%)
(m/s)
Pressure
(Pa)
PMV
PPD
(%)
MRT
(Degree
C)
Operative
Temp.
(Degree
C)
2015
29.9
29.8
81
0.2
3418
1.6
73
28.9
29.8
2020
29.6
29.6
81
0.2
3360
1.6
69
29.0
29.5
2025
29.5
29.5
82
0.4
3382
1.6
63
28.9
29.5
2030
29.2
29.2
86
0.2
3486
1.7
65
29.0
29.0
2035
29.0
29.0
88
0.2
3526
1.7
63
29.1
29.0
2040
29.0
29.0
89
0.3
3546
1.7
60
29.0
29.0
2045
28.9
28.9
90
0.2
3456
1.7
62
28.9
28.9
2050
28.8
28.8
88
0.2
3406
1.7
59
28.8
28.8
2055
28.7
28.7
87
0.3
3445
1.5
53
28.8
28.7
2100
28.6
28.6
88
0.2
3465
1.6
58
28.9
28.8
2105
28.6
28.6
88
0.2
3465
1.7
59
28.9
28.6
2110
28.7
28.7
88
0.2
3485
1.6
59
29.0
28.8
2115
28.7
28.7
88
0.2
3485
1.6
61
29.0
28.7
2120
28.8
28.8
88
0.2
3485
1.6
61
28.8
28.9
2125
28.8
28.8
88
0.2
3465
1.7
60
28.9
28.8
Table above shown the average value of thermal sensation scale based on
Predicted Mean Value (PMV) is 1.6, which means it is ALMOST WARM and
Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied (PPD) is 62% are shown in figure 4.12.
78
PMV against PPD
80
70
PPD (%)
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.8
1.8
1.7
1.7
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.6
1.6
1.7
1.7
PMV
PMV Scale
The scale of thermal sensation is :
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
Cold
Cool
Slightly Cool
Neutral
Slightly Warm
Warm
Hot
Figure 4.4 : PMV against PPD
Result: Average PMV
- 1.6 the thermal sensation scale is ALMOST WARM
Average PPD index - 62% the Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied
79
Table 4.13 : Result testing for thermal sensation level (morning) – sample 2
Air
Globe
Temp.
Temp.
(Degree
(Degree
C)
C)
0830
27.6
0835
Relative
Air
Humidity
Speed
MRT
Operative
(Degree
Temp.
(%)
(m/s)
C)
(Degree C)
28.6
80
0.1
3410
1.8
72
28.1
28.6
28.6
28.8
80
0.1
3358
1.7
68
28.7
28.8
0840
28.8
29.0
81
0.3
3380
1.6
62
28.9
28.8
0845
28.8
29.2
85
0.1
3484
1.7
64
29.0
29.0
0850
28.8
29.0
87
0.1
3524
1.6
62
28.9
29.0
0855
28.8
29.0
88
0.2
3544
1.6
59
28.9
28.8
0900
28.8
29.2
89
0.1
3463
1.6
61
29.0
29.0
0905
28.8
29.0
87
0.1
3404
1.6
58
28.9
28.8
0910
28.8
29.0
88
0.2
3443
1.4
52
28.9
29.0
0915
29.0
29.2
87
0.1
3463
1.5
57
29.1
29.0
0920
29.2
29.4
87
0.1
3463
1.6
58
29.3
29.2
0925
29.4
29.9
87
0.1
3482
1.6
58
29.7
29.8
0930
29.4
29.8
87
0.1
3482
1.6
60
29.6
29.7
0935
29.4
29.6
87
0.1
3482
1.6
60
29.5
29.6
0940
28.8
29.2
87
0.1
3482
1.6
59
29.0
29.1
Time
Pressure
(Pa)
PMV
PPD
(%)
Table above shown the average value of thermal sensation scale based on
Predicted Mean Value (PMV) is 1.6, which means it is ALMOST WARM and
Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied (PPD) is 61% are shown in figure 4.13.
PMV against PPD
80
70
PPD (%)
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1.8
1.7
1.6
1.7
1.6
1.6
1.6
1.4
1.5
PMV
1.6
1.6
1.6
1.6
1.6
1.6
80
PMV Scale
The scale of thermal sensation is :
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
Cold
Cool
Slightly Cool
Neutral
Slightly Warm
Warm
Hot
Figure 4.5 : PMV against PPD
Result: Average PMV
- 1.6 the thermal sensation scale is ALMOST WARM
Average PPD index - 61% the Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied
Table 4.14 : Result testing for thermal sensation level (afternoon) – sample 2
Air
Globe
Temp.
Temp.
(Degree
(Degree
C)
C)
1530
30.1
1505
Operative
Relative
Air
Humidity
Speed
(%)
(m/s)
30.4
74
0.3
3159
2.0
75
29.3
30.4
29.7
29..9
75
0.4
3129
1.8
66
29.4
29.9
1540
29.5
29.7
76
0.2
3135
1.8
68
29.3
29.7
1545
29.4
29.6
77
0.3
3157
1.7
64
29.2
29.6
1550
29.1
29.3
76
0.6
3081
1.5
52
28.9
29.3
1555
29.2
29.2
77
0.1
3103
1.8
66
28.8
29.2
1600
28.9
29.0
77
0.2
3067
1.6
57
28.6
29.0
1605
28.8
28.9
78
0.1
3089
1.7
62
28.5
28.9
1610
28.7
28.9
79
0.2
3111
1.6
56
28.6
28.9
1615
28.8
28.9
79
0.1
3129
1.7
62
28.8
28.9
1620
28.8
28.9
79
0.1
3129
1.7
62
28.7
28.9
1625
28.7
28.9
79
0.2
3111
1.6
56
29.3
28.9
1630
28.8
29.0
80
0.2
3168
1.6
58
29.4
29.0
1635
29.0
29.3
80
0.2
3206
1.7
63
29.3
29.3
1640
29.1
29.3
80
0.3
3224
1.7
60
29.2
29.3
Time
Pressure
(Pa)
PMV
PPD
(%)
MRT
(Degree
C)
Temp.
(Degree
C)
Table above shown the average value of thermal sensation scale based on
Predicted Mean Value (PMV) is 1.7, which means it is ALMOST WARM and
Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied (PPD) is 62% are shown in figure 4.14.
81
PMV against PPD
80
70
PPD (%)
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
2
1.8
1.8
1.7
1.5
1.8
1.6
1.7
1.6
1.7
1.7
1.6
1.6
1.7
1.7
PMV
PMV Scale
The scale of thermal sensation is :
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
Cold
Cool
Slightly Cool
Neutral
Slightly Warm
Warm
Hot
Figure 4.6 : PMV against PPD
Result: Average PMV
- 1.7 the thermal sensation scale is ALMOST WARM
Average PPD index - 62% the Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied
82
Table 4.15 : Result testing for thermal sensation level (night) – sample 2
Air
Globe
Temp.
Temp.
(Degree
(Degree
C)
C)
2015
29.9
2020
Operative
Relative
Air
Humidity
Speed
(%)
(m/s)
29.8
81
0.2
3418
1.9
73
28.9
29.8
29.6
29.6
81
0.2
3360
1.8
69
29.0
29.6
2025
29.5
29.5
82
0.4
3382
1.7
63
28.9
29.5
2030
29.2
29.2
86
0.2
3486
1.8
65
29.0
29.2
2035
29.0
29.0
88
0.2
3526
1.7
63
29.1
29.0
2040
29.0
29.0
89
0.3
3546
1.7
60
29.0
29.0
2045
28.9
28.9
90
0.2
3465
1.7
62
28.9
28.9
2050
28.8
28.8
88
0.2
3406
1.7
59
28.8
28.8
2055
28.7
28.7
87
0.3
3445
1.5
53
28.8
28.7
2100
28.6
28.6
88
0.2
3465
1.6
58
28.9
28.7
2105
28.6
28.6
88
0.2
3465
1.7
59
28.9
28.8
2110
28.7
28.7
88
0.2
3485
1.7
59
29.0
28.8
2115
28.7
28.7
88
0.2
3485
1.7
61
29.0
28.9
2120
28.8
28.8
88
0.2
3485
1.7
61
28.8
28.9
2125
28.8
28.8
88
0.2
3465
1.7
60
28.9
28.8
Time
Pressure
(Pa)
PMV
PPD
(%)
MRT
Temp.
(Degree
(Degree
C)
C)
Table above shown the average value of thermal sensation scale based on
Predicted Mean Value (PMV) is 1.7, which means it is ALMOST WARM and
Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied (PPD) is 62% are shown in figure 4.15.
PMV against PPD
80
70
PPD (%)
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1.9
1.8
1.7
1.8
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.5
PMV
1.6
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
83
PMV Scale
The scale of thermal sensation is :
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
Cold
Cool
Slightly Cool
Neutral
Slightly Warm
Warm
Hot
Figure 4.7 : PMV against PPD
Result: Average PMV
- 1.7 the thermal sensation scale is ALMOST WARM
Average PPD index - 62% the Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied
Table 4.16 : Result testing for thermal sensation level (night) – sample 3
Air
Globe
Temp.
Temp.
(Degree
(Degree
C)
C)
0830
28.0
0835
Relative
Air
Humidity
Speed
(%)
(m/s)
28.2
84
0.0
2918
1.4
28.0
28.2
84
0.0
2860
0840
28.0
28.2
85
0.0
0845
28.2
28.4
89
0850
28.4
28.6
0855
28.6
0900
MRT
Operative
(Degree
Temp.
C)
(Degree C)
70
28.1
29.8
1.3
64
29.0
29.6
2882
1.2
58
28.9
29.5
0.0
2986
1.3
60
29.0
29.2
91
0.1
3026
1.5
58
29.1
29.0
28.6
91
0.1
3046
1.5
55
29.0
29.0
28.6
28.8
93
0.1
2965
1.5
57
28.9
28.9
0905
28.4
28.8
91
0.2
2906
1.5
54
28.8
28.8
0910
28.2
28.7
90
0.2
2945
1.0
48
28.8
28.7
0915
28.6
28.6
91
0.1
2965
1.1
53
28.9
28.7
0920
28.6
28.6
91
0.1
2965
1.2
54
28.9
28.8
0925
28.8
29.0
91
0.1
2985
1.2
54
29.0
28.8
0930
29.0
29.0
91
0.2
2985
1.2
56
29.0
28.9
0935
29.0
29.2
91
0.2
2985
1.2
56
28.8
28.9
0940
29.2
29.4
91
0.2
2965
1.2
55
28.9
28.8
Time
Pressure
(Pa)
PMV
PPD
(%)
Table above shown the average value of thermal sensation scale based on
Predicted Mean Value (PMV) is 1.3, which means it is SLIGHTLY WARM and
Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied (PPD) is 57% are shown in figure 4.16.
84
PMV against PPD
80
70
PPD (%)
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1.9
1.8
1.7
1.8
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
PMV
PMV Scale
The scale of thermal sensation is :
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
Cold
Cool
Slightly Cool
Neutral
Slightly Warm
Warm
Hot
Figure 4.8 : PMV against PPD
Result: Average PMV
- 1.3 the thermal sensation scale is SLIGHTLY WARM
Average PPD index - 57% the Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied
85
Table 4.16 : Result testing for thermal sensation level (night) – sample 3
Air
Globe
Temp.
Temp.
(Degree
(Degree
C)
C)
1530
29.5
1505
Operative
Relative
Air
Humidity
Speed
(%)
(m/s)
29.5
69
0.2
2846
1.7
62
29.5
29.5
28.8
28.8
72
0.6
2851
1.3
42
28.8
28.8
1540
28.2
28.2
80
0.1
3060
1.5
52
28.2
28.2
1545
28.0
28.1
82
0.1
3101
1.5
51
28.2
28.1
1550
27.7
27.9
86
0.1
3195
1.5
49
28.0
27.9
1555
27.5
27.6
87
0.2
3195
1.3
39
27.7
27.6
1600
27.2
27.5
88
0.2
3175
1.2
37
27.8
27.5
1605
27.1
27.4
88
0.2
3156
1.2
36
27.7
27.4
1610
27.1
27.4
89
0.2
3192
1.2
36
27.7
27.4
1615
27.1
27.4
90
0.1
328
1.4
43
27.6
27.4
1620
27.0
27.3
89
0.2
3174
1.2
35
27.6
27.3
1625
26.8
27.2
90
0.2
3172
1.2
33
27.7
27..2
1630
27.2
27.5
89
0.0
3211
1.4
37
27.6
27.5
1635
27..5
27.7
88
0.1
3232
1.4
47
28.0
27.7
1640
27.6
27.7
88
0.1
3185
1.4
47
27.6
27.7
Time
Pressure
PMV
(Pa)
MRT
PPD
Temp.
(Degree
(%)
(Degree
C)
C)
Table above shown the average value of thermal sensation scale based on
Predicted Mean Value (PMV) is 1.4, which means it is SLIGHTLY WARM and
Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied (PPD) is 43% are shown in figure 4.7 (h).
PMV against PPD
80
70
PPD (%)
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1.4
1.3
1.2
1.3
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1
PMV
1.1
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.2
86
PMV Scale
The scale of thermal sensation is :
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
Cold
Cool
Slightly Cool
Neutral
Slightly Warm
Warm
Hot
Figure 4.9 : PMV against PPD
Result: Average PMV
- 1.4 the thermal sensation scale is SLIGHTLY WARM
Average PPD index - 43% the Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied
Table 4.17 : Result testing for thermal sensation level (night) – sample 3
Air
Globe
Temp.
Temp.
(Degree
(Degree
C)
C)
2015
29.7
2020
Operative
Relative
Air
Humidity
Speed
(%)
(m/s)
29.6
81
0.2
3418
1.9
73
29.7
29.8
29.4
29.4
81
0.2
3360
1.8
69
29.4
29.6
2025
29.3
29.3
82
0.4
3382
1.7
63
29.3
29.5
2030
29.0
29.0
86
0.2
3486
1.8
65
29.0
29.2
2035
28.8
28.8
88
0.2
3526
1.7
63
28.8
29.0
2040
28.8
28.8
89
0.3
3546
1.7
60
28.8
29.0
2045
28.7
28.7
90
0.2
3465
1.7
62
28.7
28.9
2050
28.6
28.6
88
0.2
3406
1.7
59
28.6
28.8
2055
28.5
28.5
87
0.3
3445
1.5
53
28.5
28.7
2100
28.4
28.4
88
0.2
3465
1.6
58
28.4
28.7
2105
28.4
28.4
88
0.2
3465
1.7
59
28.4
28.8
2110
28.5
28.5
88
0.2
3485
1.7
59
28.5
28.8
2115
28.5
28.5
88
0.2
3485
1.7
61
28.5
28.9
2120
28.6
28.6
88
0.2
3485
1.7
61
28.6
28.9
2125
28.6
28.6
88
0.2
3465
1.7
60
28.6
28.8
Time
Pressure
(Pa)
PMV
PPD
(%)
MRT
(Degree
C)
Temp.
(Degree
C)
Table above shown the average value of thermal sensation scale based on
Predicted Mean Value (PMV) is 1.7, which means it is ALMOST WARM and
Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied (PPD) is 62% are shown in figure 4.7 (i).
87
PMV against PPD
70
60
PPD (%)
50
40
30
20
10
0
1.7
1.3
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.3
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.4
1.2
1.2
1.4
1.4
1.4
PMV
PMV Scale
The scale of thermal sensation is :
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
Cold
Cool
Slightly Cool
Neutral
Slightly Warm
Warm
Hot
Figure 4.10 : PMV against PPD
Result: Average PMV
- 1.7 the thermal sensation scale is ALMOST WARM
Average PPD index - 62% the Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied
88
7.6.
Conclusion
In terms of ventilation, the terraced houses at Section 18 lacked a few things.
Firstly, the size of openings are not adequate. Furthermore, they do not coincide with
the Uniform Building By Laws. It was found that both types of low cost houses have
an area of openings of less than 10 % of the floor area.
Secondly, from 17 units of houses, all of them have low pitched roofs. This
reduces the effectiveness of ventilation creating an increase in temperature and
difficulty in extracting air. Some houses took the initiative to install additional
mechanical ventilation. The houses are built facing direct sunlight.
Based on testing conducted, we can conclude that most of the time the
thermal sensation level for samples houses are at level almost warm.
89
4.8.
CASE STUDY NO. 2 – SINGLE STOREY TERRACED HOUSES AT
SECTION 20
Figure 4.11 : Single storey low cost terraced houses at Section 20
Section 20 is located in the industrial part of Shah Alam. The area was
developed by Perbadanan Kemajuan Negeri Selangor (PKNS). Each unit cost RM
42,000. The area consist of single and double storey houses as well as flats.
Location
:
Section 20, Shah Alam
Total number of houses
:
560
Year built/Developer
:
1996/PKNS
Date of occupancy
:
1997-2001
90
Table 4.18 : Number of Houses Surveyed
No.
Name Of Street
Number Of Houses Surveyed
1.
Jalan Kunang-kunang, 20/8
6
2.
Jalan Belalang Dua, 20/7B
4
3.
Jalan Rusa, 20/9
2
4.
Jalan Belalang Satu, 20/7A
4
4.8.1. Respondents
The respondents consist of students, industrial workers and government
servants. It is estimated that the total monthly income for husband and wife is RM
1,200.00.
4.8.2. General Description
Price
: RM 25,000
Area
: 58.94 m2
No. of bedrooms
:3
No. of bathrooms
:1
Water supply
: Direct; for kitchen and water tank
Air conditioning
: Not provided
Rubbish compartment:
: Provided
91
The single and double storey houses are basically constructed of reinforced
concrete framework. To suit the climate, they are covered with pitched roofs. The
specification for the materials is shown in Table 4.19 while the built up area for the
houses are shown in Table 4.20. Some houses stay in their original design while
some are renovated to accommodate a bigger space.
92
Table 4.19 : Specification of materials for low cost houses in Section 20
Item
1.
Element
Work
Below
Lowest
Finish
Specification
Floor Reinforced concrete pad footing, ground
beams, column stump and ground floor
slabs,
on
and
including
hardcore,
reinforcement and formwork.
2.
Frame
Reinforced concrete column and beams
3.
Roof
Concrete roof tiles including timber roof
construction and reinforced concrete
4.
External and internal walls
120 mm thick precast concrete wall
where necessary to both internal and
external wall
5.
Doors and windows
Single leaf plywood flush door with
standard and approved ironmongery.
Louvred windows in timber frames
completed with glass and mild steel
security bar
6.
7.
External
and
internal
wall Cement, sand and lime plastering and
finishes
painted
Floor Finishes
Cement and sand rendering trowelled
smooth
8.
Plumbing
installation
sanitary installation
and Concealed PVC piping for cold water
plumbing, UPVC piping for all sanitary
piping
and
standard
and
approved
sanitary fittings
9.
Electrical installation
Concealed wiring for all light points,
power points and fan points including
telephone trunking and other necessary
items
93
Table 4.20 : General description of built up area for single storey low cost houses at
Section 20.
Item
Description
Area (m2)
1.
Master Bedroom
11.50
2.
Bedroom 2
9.35
3.
Bedroom 3
6.55
4.
Bathroom
1.05
5.
Toilet
1.95
6.
Living/Dining
19.68
7.
Kitchen
7.80
TOTAL
57.88
The table above shows the general description of built up area for double storey low
cost houses at Section 20. The areas are taken for a three bedroom house.
4.8.3. Dimension of Windows and Doors
The table below shows the dimension of windows and doors for single storey low
cost houses at Section 20.
94
Table 4.21 : Dimension of windows and doors for single storey low cost houses at
Section 20
Item
Descriptions
Windows
Doors
Area of Room
(m2)
(m2)
(m2)
1.
Master Bedroom
1.44
1.89
11.50
2.
Bedroom 2
0.25
1.89
9.35
3.
Bedroom 3
-
1.89
6.55
4.
Bathroom
0.19
1.47
1.05
5.
Toilet
0.19
1.47
1.95
6.
Living/ Dining
1.08
1.89
19.68
7.
Kitchen
1.24
1.89
7.80
TOTAL
4.39
12.39
57.88
From the information gathered, the table shows that total area of window openings
are less than 10 % of the total floor area. 10 % of floor area is 5.78 meter squared
which more than the total area of window opening which is 4.39 meter squared. This
is inadequate in terms of ventilation and this does not coincide with the Uniform
Building By Laws.
4.8.4. Testing
There are 3 samples houses selected from this section. 2 units are intermediate lots
and one unit in a corner lot. As mentioned before, the parameter of thermal
conditions are using a ‘Comfy Meter’. The thermal parameters measured and the
values are shown in the table shown. The measurement was divided into 3 categories,
i.e morning, evening and night. The following are the result of the testing:-
95
Table 4.22 : Result testing for thermal sensation level (morning) – sample 4
Air
Globe
Temp.
Temp.
(Degree
(Degree
C)
C)
0830
29.9
0835
Operative
Relative
Air
Humidity
Speed
(%)
(m/s)
29.8
70
0.2
3048
2.1
82
29.1
29.8
29.6
29.6
71
0.2
3030
1.9
72
29.0
29.6
0840
29.5
29.5
71
0.2
3030
1.8
69
29.3
29.5
0845
29.2
29.2
74
0.2
3058
1.8
68
29.5
29.2
0850
29.0
29.0
76
0.2
3257
1.8
66
29.2
29.0
0855
29.0
29.0
77
0.2
3145
1.7
63
28.8
29.0
0900
28.9
28.9
78
0.4
3589
1.6
26
28.5
28.9
0905
28.8
28.8
79
0.7
3332
1.5
52
28.0
28.8
0910
28.7
28.7
84
0.5
3552
1.6
59
28.7
28.7
0915
28.6
28.6
83
0.2
3352
1.7
62
28.4
28.6
0920
28.6
28.6
83
0.3
3362
1.6
58
28.4
28.6
0925
28.7
28.7
81
0.3
6364
1.6
56
28.6
28.7
0930
28.7
28.7
81
0.2
6364
1.6
59
28.4
28.7
0935
28.8
28.8
83
0.3
3352
1.6
57
28.7
28.8
0940
28.8
28.8
88
0.3
3527
1.6
58
28.5
28.8
Time
Pressure
PMV
(Pa)
MRT
PPD
Temp.
(Degree
(%)
(Degree
C)
C)
Table above shown the average value of thermal sensation scale based on
Predicted Mean Value (PMV) is 1.7, which means it is ALMOST WARM and
Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied (PPD) is 60% are shown in figure 4.22.
PMV against PPD
90
80
PPD (%)
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
2.1
1.9
1.8
1.8
1.8
1.7
1.6
1.5
1.6
PMV
1.7
1.6
1.6
1.6
1.6
1.6
96
PMV Scale
The scale of thermal sensation is :
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
Cold
Cool
Slightly Cool
Neutral
Slightly Warm
Warm
Hot
Figure 4.12 : PMV against PPD
Result: Average PMV
- 1.7 the thermal sensation scale is ALMOST WARM
Average PPD index
- 62% the Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied
Table 4.23 : Result testing for thermal sensation level (afternoon) – sample 4
Air
Globe
Temp.
Temp.
(Degree
(Degree
C)
C)
1530
32.3
1505
Operative
Relative
Air
Humidity
Speed
(%)
(m/s)
30.8
63
0.2
3048
2.1
82
29.1
30.8
30.9
30.0
68
0.2
3039
1.9
72
29.0
30.0
1540
30.2
29.8
71
0.2
3049
1.8
69
29.3
29.8
1545
29.9
29.7
73
0.2
3081
1.8
68
29.5
29.7
1550
29.8
29.5
75
0.2
3147
1.8
66
29.2
29.5
1555
29.7
29.3
76
0.2
3171
1.7
63
28.8
29.3
1600
29.6
29.2
77
0.4
3194
1.6
26
28.5
29.2
1605
29.7
29.2
80
0.7
3338
1.5
52
28.0
29.2
1610
29.6
29.3
83
0.5
3443
1.6
59
28.7
29.3
1615
29.5
29.0
82
0.2
3382
1.7
62
28.4
29.0
1620
29.4
29.0
82
0.3
3362
1.6
58
28.4
29.0
1625
29.3
29.0
80
0.3
3261
1.6
56
28.6
29.0
1630
29.3
28.9
80
0.2
3261
1.6
59
28.4
28.9
1635
29.2
29.0
82
0.3
3324
1.6
57
28.7
29.0
1640
29.2
28.9
87
0.3
3527
1.6
58
28.5
28.9
Time
Pressure
(Pa)
PMV
PPD
(%)
MRT
(Degree
C)
Temp.
(Degree
C)
Table above shown the average value of thermal sensation scale based on
Predicted Mean Value (PMV) is 1.7, which means it is ALMOST WARM and
Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied (PPD) is 60% are shown in figure 4.23.
97
PMV against PPD
90
80
PPD (%)
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
2.1
1.9
1.8
1.8
1.8
1.7
1.6
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.6
1.6
1.6
1.6
1.6
PMV
PMV Scale
The scale of thermal sensation is :
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
Cold
Cool
Slightly Cool
Neutral
Slightly Warm
Warm
Hot
Figure 4.13 : PMV against PPD
Result: Average PMV
Average PPD index
- 1.7 the thermal sensation scale is ALMOST WARM
- 60% the Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied
98
Table 4.24 : Result testing for thermal sensation level (night) – sample 4
Air
Globe
Temp.
Temp.
(Degree
(Degree
C)
C)
2015
29.9
2020
Operative
Relative
Air
Humidity
Speed
(%)
(m/s)
29.8
81
0.2
3418
1.9
73
28.9
29.8
29.6
29.6
81
0.2
3360
1.8
69
29.0
29.6
2025
29.5
29.5
82
0.4
3382
1.7
63
28.9
29.5
2030
29.2
29.2
86
0.2
3486
1.8
65
29.0
29.2
2035
29.0
29.0
88
0.2
3526
1.7
63
29.1
29.0
2040
29.0
29.0
89
0.3
3546
1.7
60
29.0
29.0
2045
28.9
28.9
90
0.2
3465
1.7
62
28.9
28.9
2050
28.8
28.8
88
0.2
3406
1.7
59
28.8
28.8
2055
28.7
28.7
87
0.3
3445
1.5
53
28.8
28.7
2100
28.6
28.6
88
0.2
3465
1.6
58
28.9
28.7
2105
28.6
28.6
88
0.2
3465
1.7
59
28.9
28.8
2110
28.7
28.7
88
0.2
3485
1.7
59
29.0
28.8
2115
28.7
28.7
88
0.2
3485
1.7
61
29.0
28.9
2120
28.8
28.8
88
0.2
3485
1.7
61
28.8
28.9
2125
28.8
28.8
88
0.2
3465
1.7
60
28.9
28.8
Time
Pressure
PMV
(Pa)
MRT
PPD
Temp.
(Degree
(%)
(Degree
C)
C)
Table above shown the average value of thermal sensation scale based on
Predicted Mean Value (PMV) is 1.7, which means it is ALMOST WARM and
Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied (PPD) is 62% are shown in figure 4.24.
PMV against PPD
80
70
PPD (%)
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1.9
1.8
1.7
1.8
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.5
PMV
1.6
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
99
PMV Scale
The scale of thermal sensation is :
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
Cold
Cool
Slightly Cool
Neutral
Slightly Warm
Warm
Hot
Figure 4.14 : PMV against PPD
Result: Average PMV
- 1.7 the thermal sensation scale is ALMOST WARM
Average PPD index
- 63% the Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied
Table 4.25 : Result testing for thermal sensation level (morning) – sample 5
Air
Globe
Temp.
Temp.
(Degree
(Degree
C)
C)
0830
27.9
0835
Operative
Relative
Air
Humidity
Speed
(%)
(m/s)
28.0
81
0.1
3418
1.9
74
29.0
29.8
28.0
28.6
81
0.1
3340
1.8
70
28.3
29.6
0840
28.2
29.5
82
0.1
3362
1.7
64
28.9
29.5
0845
28.2
29.2
86
0.2
3466
1.8
66
28.7
29.2
0850
28.2
29.0
88
0.2
3506
1.7
64
28.6
29.0
0855
28.2
29.0
89
0.2
3526
1.7
61
28.6
29.0
0900
28.4
28.9
90
0.2
3446
1.7
63
28.7
28.9
0905
28.6
28.8
88
0.2
3384
1.7
60
28.7
28.8
0910
28.7
28.8
87
0.3
3425
1.5
54
28.8
28.7
0915
28.6
28.8
88
0.2
3425
1.6
59
28.7
28.7
0920
28.6
28.8
88
0.2
3245
1.7
60
28.7
28.8
0925
28.7
28.7
88
0.2
3465
1.7
60
28.7
28.8
0930
28.7
28.8
88
0.2
3465
1.7
62
28.8
28.9
0935
29.0
29.0
88
0.2
3465
1.7
62
29.0
28.9
0940
29.0
29.2
88
0.2
3465
1.7
61
29.1
28.8
Time
Pressure
(Pa)
PMV
PPD
(%)
MRT
(Degree
C)
Temp.
(Degree
C)
Table above shown the average value of thermal sensation scale based on
Predicted Mean Value (PMV) is 1.7, which means it is ALMOST WARM and
Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied (PPD) is 63% are shown in figure 4.25.
100
PMV against PPD
80
70
PPD (%)
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1.9
1.8
1.7
1.8
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
PMV
PMV Scale
The scale of thermal sensation is :
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
Cold
Cool
Slightly Cool
Neutral
Slightly Warm
Warm
Hot
Figure 4.15 : PMV against PPD
Result: Average PMV
Average PPD index
- 1.7 the thermal sensation scale is ALMOST WARM
- 63% the Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied
101
Table 4.26 : Result testing for thermal sensation level (afternoon) – sample 5
Air
Globe
Temp.
Temp.
(Degree
(Degree
C)
C)
1530
29.4
1505
Operative
Relative
Air
Humidity
Speed
(%)
(m/s)
29.8
79
0.2
3363
1.9
72
29.6
29.8
29.1
29.6
79
0.2
3305
1.8
68
29.4
29.6
1540
29.1
29.5
80
0.4
3327
1.7
62
29.3
29.5
1545
28.7
29.2
84
0.2
3461
1.8
64
29.0
29.2
1550
28.5
29.0
86
0.2
3471
1.7
62
28.8
29.0
1555
28.5
29.0
878
0.3
3491
1.7
59
28.8
29.0
1600
28.4
28.9
88
0.2
3410
1.7
61
28.7
28.9
1605
28.3
28.8
86
0.2
3351
1.7
58
28.6
28.8
1610
28.2
28.7
85
0.3
3390
1.5
52
28.5
28.7
1615
28.1
28.6
86
0.2
3410
1.6
57
28.4
28.7
1620
28.1
28.6
86
0.2
3410
1.7
58
28.4
28.8
1625
28.2
28.7
86
0.2
3430
1.7
58
28.5
28.8
1630
28.2
28.7
86
0.2
3430
1.7
60
28.5
28.9
1635
28.3
28.8
86
0.2
3430
1.7
60
28.6
28.9
1640
28.3
28.8
86
0.2
3410
1.7
59
28.6
28.8
Time
Pressure
PMV
(Pa)
MRT
PPD
Temp.
(Degree
(%)
(Degree
C)
C)
Table above shown the average value of thermal sensation scale based on
Predicted Mean Value (PMV) is 1.7, which means it is ALMOST WARM and
Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied (PPD) is 61% are shown in figure 4.26.
PMV against PPD
80
70
PPD (%)
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1.9
1.8
1.7
1.8
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.5
PMV
1.6
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
102
PMV Scale
The scale of thermal sensation is :
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
Cold
Cool
Slightly Cool
Neutral
Slightly Warm
Warm
Hot
Figure 4.16 : PMV against PPD
Result: Average PMV
- 1.7 the thermal sensation scale is ALMOST WARM
Average PPD index
- 61% the Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied
Table 4.27 : Result testing for thermal sensation level (night) – sample 5
Air
Globe
Temp.
Temp.
(Degree
(Degree
C)
C)
2015
29.3
2020
Operative
Relative
Air
Humidity
Speed
(%)
(m/s)
29.8
78
0.2
3353
1.9
71
29.6
29.8
29.0
29.6
78
0.2
3295
1.8
67
29.3
29.6
2025
28.9
29.5
79
0.4
3317
1.7
61
29.2
29.5
2030
28.6
29.2
83
0.2
3421
1.8
63
28.9
29.2
2035
28.4
29.0
85
0.2
3461
1.7
61
28.7
29.0
2040
28.4
29.0
86
0.3
3481
1.7
58
28.7
29.0
2045
28.3
28.9
87
0.2
3400
1.7
60
28.6
28.9
2050
28.2
28.8
85
0.2
3341
1.7
57
28.5
28.8
2055
28.1
28.7
84
0.3
3380
1.5
51
28.4
28.7
2100
28.0
28.6
85
0.2
3400
1.6
56
28.3
28.7
2105
28.0
28.6
85
0.2
3400
1.7
57
28.3
28.8
2110
28.1
28.7
85
0.2
3420
1.7
57
28.4
28.8
2115
28.1
28.7
85
0.2
3420
1.7
59
28.4
8.9
2120
28.2
28.8
85
0.2
3420
1.7
59
28.5
28.9
2125
28.2
28.8
85
0.2
3400
1.7
58
28.5
28.8
Time
Pressure
(Pa)
PMV
PPD
(%)
MRT
(Degree
C)
Temp.
(Degree
C)
Table above shown the average value of thermal sensation scale based on
Predicted Mean Value (PMV) is 1.7, which means it is ALMOST WARM and
Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied (PPD) is 60% are shown in figure 4.27.
103
PMV against PPD
80
70
PPD (%)
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1.9
1.8
1.7
1.8
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
PMV
PMV Scale
The scale of thermal sensation is :
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
Cold
Cool
Slightly Cool
Neutral
Slightly Warm
Warm
Hot
Figure 4.17 : PMV against PPD
Result: Average PMV
Average PPD index
- 1.7 the thermal sensation scale is ALMOST WARM
- 60% the Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied
104
Table 4.28 : Result testing for thermal sensation level (morning) – sample 6
Air
Globe
Temp.
Temp.
(Degree
(Degree
C)
C)
0830
27.9
0835
Operative
Relative
Air
Humidity
Speed
(%)
(m/s)
28.0
81
0.1
3418
1.9
74
29.0
29.8
28.0
28.6
81
0.1
3340
1.8
70
28.3
29.6
0840
28.2
29.5
82
0.1
3362
1.7
64
28.9
29.5
0845
28.2
29.2
86
0.2
3466
1.8
66
28.7
29.2
0850
28.2
29.0
88
0.2
3506
1.7
64
28.6
29.0
0855
28.2
29.0
89
0.2
3526
1.7
61
28.6
29.0
0900
28.4
28.9
90
0.2
3446
1.7
63
28.7
28.9
0905
28.6
28.8
88
0.2
3384
1.7
60
28.7
28.8
0910
28.7
28.8
87
0.3
3425
1.5
54
28.8
28.7
0915
28.6
28.8
88
0.2
3425
1.6
59
28.7
28.7
0920
28.6
28.8
88
0.2
3245
1.7
60
28.7
28.8
0925
28.7
28.7
88
0.2
3465
1.7
60
28.7
28.8
0930
28.7
28.8
88
0.2
3465
1.7
62
28.8
28.9
0935
29.0
29.0
88
0.2
3465
1.7
62
29.0
28.9
0940
29.0
29.2
88
0.2
3465
1.7
61
29.1
28.8
Time
Pressure
PMV
(Pa)
MRT
PPD
Temp.
(Degree
(%)
(Degree
C)
C)
Table above shown the average value of thermal sensation scale based on
Predicted Mean Value (PMV) is 1.7, which means it is ALMOST WARM and
Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied (PPD) is 63% are shown in figure 4.28.
PMV against PPD
80
70
PPD (%)
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1.9
1.8
1.7
1.8
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.5
PMV
1.6
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
105
PMV Scale
The scale of thermal sensation is :
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
Cold
Cool
Slightly Cool
Neutral
Slightly Warm
Warm
Hot
Figure 4.18 : PMV against PPD
Result: Average PMV
- 1.7 the thermal sensation scale is ALMOST WARM
Average PPD index
- 63% the Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied
Table 4.29 : Result testing for thermal sensation level (afternoon) – sample 6
Air
Globe
Temp.
Temp.
(Degree
(Degree
C)
C)
1530
29.5
1505
Operative
Relative
Air
Humidity
Speed
(%)
(m/s)
29.8
78
0.2
3365
1.9
71
29.7
29.8
29.2
29.6
78
0.2
3307
1.8
67
29.4
29.6
1540
29.1
29.5
79
0.4
3329
1.7
61
29.3
29.5
1545
28.8
29.2
83
0.2
3463
1.8
63
29.0
29.2
1550
28.6
29.0
85
0.2
3473
1.7
61
28.8
29.0
1555
28.6
29.0
86
0.3
3493
1.7
58
28.8
29.0
1600
28.5
28.9
87
0.2
3412
1.7
60
28.7
28.9
1605
28.4
28.8
85
0.2
3353
1.7
57
28.6
28.8
1610
28.3
28.7
84
0.3
3392
1.5
51
28.5
28.7
1615
28.2
28.6
85
0.2
3412
1.6
56
28.4
28.7
1620
28.2
28.6
85
0.2
3412
1.7
57
28.4
28.8
1625
28.3
28.7
85
0.2
3432
1.7
57
28.5
28.8
1630
28.3
28.7
85
0.2
3432
1.7
59
28.5
28.9
1635
28.4
28.8
85
0.2
3432
1.7
59
28.6
28.9
1640
28.4
28.8
85
0.2
3412
1.7
58
28.6
28.8
Time
Pressure
(Pa)
PMV
PPD
(%)
MRT
(Degree
C)
Temp.
(Degree
C)
Table above shown the average value of thermal sensation scale based on
Predicted Mean Value (PMV) is 1.7, which means it is ALMOST WARM and
Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied (PPD) is 60% are shown in figure 4.29.
106
PMV against PPD
80
70
PPD (%)
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1.9
1.8
1.7
1.8
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
PMV
PMV Scale
The scale of thermal sensation is :
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
Cold
Cool
Slightly Cool
Neutral
Slightly Warm
Warm
Hot
Figure 4.19 : PMV against PPD
Result: Average PMV
Average PPD index
- 1.7 the thermal sensation scale is ALMOST WARM
- 60% the Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied
107
Table 4.30 : Result testing for thermal sensation level (night) – sample 6
Air
Globe
Temp.
Temp.
(Degree
(Degree
C)
C)
2015
29.2
2020
Operative
Relative
Air
Humidity
Speed
(%)
(m/s)
29.8
80
0.2
3356
1.9
72
29.5
29.8
28.9
29.6
80
0.2
3299
1.8
68
29.3
29.6
2025
28.8
29.5
81
0.4
3320
1.7
62
29.2
29.5
2030
28.5
29.2
85
0.2
3424
1.8
64
28.9
29.2
2035
28.3
29.0
87
0.2
3464
1.7
62
28.7
29.0
2040
28.3
29.0
88
0.3
3484
1.7
59
28.7
29.0
2045
28.2
28.9
89
0.2
3403
1.7
61
28.6
28.9
2050
28.1
28.8
87
0.2
3344
1.7
58
28.5
28.8
2055
28.0
28.7
86
0.3
3383
1.5
52
28.4
28.7
2100
27.9
28.6
87
0.2
3403
1.6
57
28.3
28.7
2105
27.9
28.6
87
0.2
3403
1.7
58
28.3
28.8
2110
28.0
28.7
87
0.2
3423
1.7
58
28.4
28.8
2115
28.0
28.7
87
0.2
3423
1.7
60
28.4
8.9
2120
28.1
28.8
87
0.2
3423
1.7
60
28.5
28.9
2125
28.1
28.8
87
0.2
3403
1.7
59
28.5
28.8
Time
Pressure
PMV
(Pa)
MRT
PPD
Temp.
(Degree
(%)
(Degree
C)
C)
Table above shown the average value of thermal sensation scale based on
Predicted Mean Value (PMV) is 1.7, which means it is ALMOST WARM and
Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied (PPD) is 61% are shown in figure 4.30.
PMV against PPD
80
70
PPD (%)
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1.9
1.8
1.7
1.8
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.5
PMV
1.6
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
108
PMV Scale
The scale of thermal sensation is :
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
Cold
Cool
Slightly Cool
Neutral
Slightly Warm
Warm
Hot
Figure 4.20 : PMV against PPD
Result: Average PMV
- 1.7 the thermal sensation scale is ALMOST WARM
Average PPD index - 60% the Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied
4.8.5. Conclusion
Section 20 has just been recently developed by PKNS. Therefore, the areas
still lack trees for protection against direct sunlight. Most low cost houses have low
pitched roofs besides having an area opening of less than 10 % of floor area. Some
houses surveyed did not have windows in all bedrooms. This is not good for the
health as there is no air flow and no replacement of fresh air. In addition, the roof
pitch is too low.
Based on testing conducted, we can conclude that most of the time the
thermal sensation level for samples houses are at level almost warm.
109
4.9.
CASE STUDY NO.3 – SINGLE AND DOUBLE STOREY TERRACED
HOUSES AT SECTION 24
Figure 4.21 : Single storey low cost houses at Section 24
Section 24 is located in the industrial part of Shah Alam near the Giant
Supermarket. The area has two primary and secondary schools, churches, a Hindu
temple, a market and shop lots. Half of Section 24 is surrounded by Sungai Kelang.
The area was developed by Perbadanan Kemajuan Negeri Selangor (PKNS). The
construction was completed in 1984 and cost RM 25,000 per unit. The area consists
of single storey houses as well as flats.
Location
:
Section 24, Shah Alam
Total number of houses
:
897
Year built/Developer
:
1984/PKNS
Date of occupancy
:
1989
110
Table 4.31 : Number of Houses Surveyed
No.
Name Of Street
Number Of Houses Surveyed
1.
Jalan Kobis, 24/30
4
2.
Jalan ,24/33C
6
3.
Jalan 24/31
3
4.
Jalan Pegaga, 24/3
4
4.9.1. Respondents
Most respondents consist of students, industrial workers and government
servants. It is estimated that the total monthly income for husband and wife is RM
1,200.00.
4.9.2. General description
Price
: RM 42,000
Area
: 61.50 m2/661.74 sq.ft
No. of bedrooms
:3
No. of bathrooms
:1
Water supply
: Direct; for kitchen and water tank
Air conditioning
: Not provided
Rubbish compartment:
: Provided
The single and double storey houses are basically constructed of reinforced
concrete framework. To suit the climate, they are covered with pitched roofs. The
specifications for the materials are shown in Table 4.32 while the built up area for
the houses are shown in Table 33.
111
Table 4.32 : Specification of materials used for low cost houses in Section 24
Shah Alam
Item Element
1.
Work
Specification
Below
Lowest
Finish
Floor Reinforced concrete pad footing, ground
beams, column stump and ground floor
slabs,
on
and
including
hardcore,
reinforcement and formwork.
2.
Frame
Reinforced concrete column and beams
3.
Roof
Concrete roof tiles including timber roof
construction and reinforced concrete
4.
External and internal walls
Precast concrete (100 mm. thick) and
plywood for living area
5.
Doors and windows
Single leaf plywood flush door with
standard and approved ironmongery
Louvred windows in timber frames
completed with glass louvres and mild
steel security bar
6.
External
and
internal
wall Cement, sand and lime plastering
finishes
7.
Floor Finishes
Cement and sand rendering trowelled
smooth
8.
Ceiling finishes
9.
Plumbing
installation
sanitary installation
Asbestos
and Concealed PVC piping for cold water
plumbing, UPVC piping for all sanitary
piping
and
standard
and
approved
sanitary fittings
10.
Electrical installation
Concealed wiring for all light points,
power points and fan points including
telephone trunking and other necessary
items
112
The table above show the specification of materials used for low cost houses
at Section 24, Shah Alam. The materials used here are basic materials of minimum
cost such as concrete tiles for the roof and plywood flush door.
Table 4.33 : General description of built up area for double storey low cost houses at
Section 24.
Item
Description
Area (m2)
1
Living and Dining
16.39
2
Kitchen
5.80
3
Bathroom
1.00
4
Toilet
1.80
5
Master Bedroom
11.10
6
Bedroom 2
9.45
7
Bedroom 3
6.50
TOTAL
52.04
The total built up floor area for the double storey low cost terraced house is 52.04
meter squared.
4.9.3
Dimensions of Windows and Doors
Below is a table showing the dimensions of window and doors for low cost
houses in Section 18.
113
Table 4.34 : Dimension of windows and doors for single storey low cost houses
at
Section 24
Windows
Doors
Area of Room
(m2)
(m2)
(m2)
Master Bedroom
1.44
1.89
11.10
2.
Bedroom 2
0.25
1.89
9.45
3.
Bedroom 3
1.44
1.89
6.50
4.
Bathroom
1.00
1.47
1.00
5.
Toilet
0.18
1.47
1.80
6.
Living/dining
2.15
1.89
16.39
7.
Kitchen
1.24
1.89
2.14
TOTAL
7.7
12.39
52.04
Item
Descriptions
1.
From the information in the table above, it is found that the area of window
openings for the low cost houses in Section 24 are not less than 10 % of the floor
area of each room. This means that it fulfils the requirements of the Uniform
Building By Laws.
4.9.4. Testing
There are 3 samples houses selected from this section. 2 unit are intermediate
lots and one unit in a corner lot. As mentioned before, the parameter of thermal
conditions are using a ‘Comfy Meter’. The thermal parameters measured and the
values are shown in the table shown. The measurement was divided into 3 categories,
i.e morning, evening and night. The following are the result of the testing:-
114
Table 4.35 : Result testing for thermal sensation level (morning) – sample 7
Air
Globe
Temp.
Temp.
(Degree
(Degree
C)
C)
0830
27.6
0835
Operative
Relative
Air
Humidity
Speed
(%)
(m/s)
28.0
28.0
0.1
3383
1.9
69
27.8
29.8
27.7
28.6
28.6
0.1
3305
1.8
65
28.2
29.6
0840
27.9
29.5
29.5
0.1
3327
1.7
59
28.7
29.5
0845
27.9
29.2
29.2
0.2
3431
1.8
61
28.6
29.2
0850
27.9
29.0
29.0
0.2
3471
1.7
59
28.5
29.0
0855
27.9
29.0
29.0
0.2
3491
1.7
56
28.5
29.0
0900
28.1
28.9
28.9
0.2
3411
1.7
58
28.5
28.9
0905
28.3
28.8
28.8
0.2
3349
1.7
55
28.6
28.8
0910
28.4
28.8
28.8
0.3
3390
1.5
49
28.6
28.7
0915
28.3
28.8
28.8
0.2
3390
1.6
54
28.6
28.7
0920
28.3
28.8
28.8
0.2
3210
1.7
55
28.6
28.8
0925
28.4
28.7
28.7
0.2
3430
1.7
55
28.6
28.8
0930
28.4
28.8
28.8
0.2
3430
1.7
57
28.6
28.9
0935
28.7
29.0
29.0
0.2
3430
1.7
57
28.9
28.9
0940
28.7
29.2
29.2
0.2
3430
1.7
56
29.0
28.8
Time
Pressure
(Pa)
PMV
MRT
PPD
Temp.
(Degree
(%)
(Degree
C)
C)
Table above shown the average value of thermal sensation scale based on
Predicted Mean Value (PMV) is 1.7, which means it is ALMOST WARM and
Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied (PPD) is 58% are shown in figure 4.35.
PMV against PPD
80
70
PPD (%)
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1.9
1.8
1.7
1.8
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.5
PMV
1.6
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
115
PMV Scale
The scale of thermal sensation is :
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
Cold
Cool
Slightly Cool
Neutral
Slightly Warm
Warm
Hot
Figure 4.22 : PMV against PPD
Result: Average PMV
- 1.7 the thermal sensation scale is ALMOST WARM
Average PPD index - 58% the Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied
Table 4.36 : Result testing for thermal sensation level (afternoon) – sample 7
Air
Globe
Temp.
Temp.
(Degree
(Degree
C)
C)
1530
29.7
1505
Operative
Relative
Air
Humidity
Speed
(%)
(m/s)
29.8
77
0.2
3346
1.9
72
59.8
29.8
29.4
29.6
77
0.2
3288
1.8
68
29.5
29.6
1540
29.3
29.5
78
0.4
3310
1.7
62
29.4
29.5
1545
29.0
29.2
82
0.2
3414
1.8
64
29.1
29.2
1550
28.8
29.0
84
0.2
3454
1.7
62
28.9
29.0
1555
28.8
29.0
85
0.3
3474
1.7
59
28.9
29.0
1600
28.7
28.9
86
0.2
3393
1.7
61
28.8
28.9
1605
28.6
28.8
84
0.2
3334
1.7
58
28.7
28.8
1610
28.5
28.7
83
0.3
3373
1.5
52
28.6
28.7
1615
28.4
28.6
84
0.2
3393
1.6
57
28.5
28.7
1620
28.4
28.6
84
0.2
3393
1.7
58
28.5
28.8
1625
28.5
28.7
84
0.2
3413
1.7
58
28.6
28.8
1630
28.5
28.7
84
0.2
3413
1.7
60
28.6
28.9
1635
28.6
28.8
84
0.2
3413
1.7
60
28.7
28.9
1640
28.6
28.8
84
0.2
3393
1.7
59
28.7
28.8
Time
Pressure
(Pa)
PMV
PPD
(%)
MRT
(Degree
C)
Temp.
(Degree
C)
Table above shown the average value of thermal sensation scale based on
Predicted Mean Value (PMV) is 1.7, which means it is ALMOST WARM and
Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied (PPD) is 61% are shown in figure 4.36.
116
PMV against PPD
80
70
PPD (%)
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1.9
1.8
1.7
1.8
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
PMV
PMV Scale
The scale of thermal sensation is :
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
Cold
Cool
Slightly Cool
Neutral
Slightly Warm
Warm
Hot
Figure 4.23 : PMV against PPD
Result: Average PMV
- 1.7 the thermal sensation scale is ALMOST WARM
Average PPD index - 61% the Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied
117
Table 4.37 : Result testing for thermal sensation level (night) – sample 7
Air
Globe
Temp.
Temp.
(Degree
(Degree
C)
C)
2015
29.4
2020
Operative
Relative
Air
Humidity
Speed
(%)
(m/s)
29.8
76
0.2
3375
1.9
70
29.6
29.8
29.1
29.6
76
0.2
3317
1.8
66
29.4
29.6
2025
29.0
29.5
77
0.4
3339
1.7
60
29.3
29.5
2030
28.7
29.2
81
0.2
3443
1.8
62
29.0
29.2
2035
28.5
29.0
83
0.2
3483
1.7
60
28.8
29.0
2040
28.5
29.0
84
0.3
3503
1.7
57
28.8
29.0
2045
28.4
28.9
85
0.2
3422
1.7
59
28.7
28.9
2050
28.3
28.8
83
0.2
3363
1.7
56
28.6
28.8
2055
28.2
28.7
82
0.3
3402
1.5
50
28.5
28.7
2100
28.1
28.6
83
0.2
3422
1.6
55
28.4
28.7
2105
28.1
28.6
83
0.2
3422
1.7
56
28.4
28.8
2110
28.2
28.7
83
0.2
3442
1.7
56
28.5
28.8
2115
28.2
28.7
83
0.2
3442
1.7
58
28.5
28.9
2120
28.3
28.8
83
0.2
3442
1.7
58
28.6
28.9
2125
28.3
28.8
83
0.2
3442
1.7
57
28.6
28.8
Time
Pressure
(Pa)
PMV
MRT
PPD
Temp.
(Degree
(%)
(Degree
C)
C)
Table above shown the average value of thermal sensation scale based on
Predicted Mean Value (PMV) is 1.7, which means it is ALMOST WARM and
Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied (PPD) is 59% are shown in figure 4.37.
PMV against PPD
80
70
PPD (%)
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1.9
1.8
1.7
1.8
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.5
PMV
1.6
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
118
PMV Scale
The scale of thermal sensation is :
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
Cold
Cool
Slightly Cool
Neutral
Slightly Warm
Warm
Hot
Figure 4.24 : PMV against PPD
Result: Average PMV
- 1.7 the thermal sensation scale is ALMOST WARM
Average PPD index - 59% the Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied
Table 4.38 : Result testing for thermal sensation level (morning) – sample 8
Air
Globe
Temp.
Temp.
(Degree
(Degree
C)
C)
0830
27.8
0835
Operative
Relative
Air
Humidity
Speed
(%)
(m/s)
28.0
75
0.1
3370
1.8
73
27.9
29.8
27.9
28.6
75
0.1
3292
1.9
69
28.3
29.6
0840
28.1
29.5
76
0.1
3314
1.7
63
28.8
29.5
0845
28.1
29.2
80
0.2
3418
1.8
65
28.7
29.2
0850
28.1
29.0
82
0.2
3458
1.7
63
28.6
29.0
0855
28.1
29.0
83
0.2
3478
1.7
60
28.6
29.0
0900
28.3
28.9
84
0.2
3398
1.7
62
28.6
28.9
0905
28.5
28.8
82
0.2
3336
1.7
59
28.7
28.8
0910
28.6
28.8
81
0.3
3377
1.5
53
28.7
28.7
0915
28.5
28.8
82
0.2
3377
1.6
58
28.7
28.7
0920
28.5
28.8
82
0.2
3197
1.7
59
28.7
28.8
0925
28.6
28.7
82
0.2
3417
1.7
59
28.7
28.8
0930
28.6
28.8
82
0.2
3417
1.7
61
28.7
28.9
0935
28.9
29.0
82
0.2
3417
1.7
61
29.0
28.9
0940
28.9
29.2
82
0.2
3417
1.7
60
29.1
28.8
Time
Pressure
(Pa)
PMV
PPD
(%)
MRT
(Degree
C)
Temp.
(Degree
C)
Table above shown the average value of thermal sensation scale based on
Predicted Mean Value (PMV) is 1.7, which means it is ALMOST WARM and
Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied (PPD) is 58% are shown in figure 4.38.
119
PMV against PPD
80
70
PPD (%)
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1.8
1.9
1.7
1.8
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
PMV
PMV Scale
The scale of thermal sensation is :
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
Cold
Cool
Slightly Cool
Neutral
Slightly Warm
Warm
Hot
Figure 4.25 : PMV against PPD
Result: Average PMV
- 1.7 the thermal sensation scale is ALMOST WARM
Average PPD index - 58% the Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied
120
Table 4.39 : Result testing for thermal sensation level (afternoon) – sample 8
Air
Globe
Temp.
Temp.
(Degree
(Degree
C)
C)
1530
28.9
1505
Operative
Relative
Air
Humidity
Speed
(%)
(m/s)
29.8
76
0.2
3373
1.9
70
29.4
29.8
28.6
29.6
76
0.2
3315
1.8
66
29.1
29.6
1540
28.5
29.5
77
0.4
3337
1.7
60
29.0
29.5
1545
28.2
29.2
81
0.2
3441
1.8
62
28.7
29.2
1550
28.0
29.0
83
0.2
3481
1.7
60
28.5
29.0
1555
28.0
29.0
84
0.3
3501
1.7
57
28.5
29.0
1600
27.9
28.9
85
0.2
3420
1.7
59
28.4
28.9
1605
27.8
28.8
83
0.2
3361
1.7
56
28.3
28.8
1610
27.7
28.7
82
0.3
3400
1.5
50
28.2
28.7
1615
27.6
28.6
83
0.2
3420
1.6
55
28.1
28.7
1620
27.6
28.6
83
0.2
3420
1.7
56
28.1
28.8
1625
27.7
28.7
83
0.2
3440
1.7
56
28.2
28.8
1630
27.7
28.7
83
0.2
3440
1.7
58
28.2
28.9
1635
27.8
28.8
83
0.2
3400
1.7
58
28.3
28.9
1640
27.8
28.8
83
0.2
3420
1.7
57
28.3
28.8
Time
Pressure
(Pa)
PMV
MRT
PPD
Temp.
(Degree
(%)
(Degree
C)
C)
Table above shown the average value of thermal sensation scale based on
Predicted Mean Value (PMV) is 1.7, which means it is ALMOST WARM and
Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied (PPD) is 59% are shown in figure 4.39.
PMV against PPD
80
70
PPD (%)
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1.9
1.8
1.7
1.8
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.5
PMV
1.6
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
121
PMV Scale
The scale of thermal sensation is :
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
Cold
Cool
Slightly Cool
Neutral
Slightly Warm
Warm
Hot
Figure 4.26 : PMV against PPD
Result: Average PMV
- 1.7 the thermal sensation scale is ALMOST WARM
Average PPD index - 58% the Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied
Table 4.40 : Result testing for thermal sensation level (night) – sample 8
Air
Globe
Temp.
Temp.
(Degree
(Degree
C)
C)
2015
29.3
2020
Relative
Air
Humidity
Speed
(%)
(m/s)
29.8
78
0.2
3378
1.9
29.0
29.6
78
0.2
3320
2025
28.9
29.5
79
0.4
2030
28.6
29.2
83
2035
28.4
29.0
2040
28.4
2045
MRT
Operative
(Degree
Temp.
C)
(Degree C)
75
29.6
29.8
1.8
71
29.3
29.6
3342
1.7
65
29.2
29.5
0.2
3446
1.8
67
28.9
29.2
85
0.2
3486
1.7
65
28.7
29.0
29.0
86
0.3
3506
1.7
62
28.7
29.0
28.3
28.9
87
0.2
3425
1.7
64
28.6
28.9
2050
28.2
28.8
85
0.2
3366
1.7
61
28.5
28.8
2055
28.1
28.7
84
0.3
3405
1.5
55
28.4
28.7
2100
28.0
28.6
85
0.2
3425
1.6
60
28.3
28.7
2105
28.0
28.6
85
0.2
3425
1.7
61
28.3
28.8
2110
28.1
28.7
85
0.2
3445
1.7
61
28.4
28.8
2115
28.1
28.7
85
0.2
3445
1.7
63
28.4
28.9
2120
28.2
28.8
85
0.2
3445
1.7
63
28.5
28.9
2125
28.3
28.8
85
0.2
3425
1.7
62
28.6
28.8
Time
Pressure
(Pa)
PMV
PPD
(%)
Table above shown the average value of thermal sensation scale based on
Predicted Mean Value (PMV) is 1.7, which means it is ALMOST WARM and
Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied (PPD) is 64% are shown in figure 4.40.
122
PMV against PPD
80
70
PPD (%)
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1.9
1.8
1.7
1.8
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
PMV
PMV Scale
The scale of thermal sensation is :
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
Cold
Cool
Slightly Cool
Neutral
Slightly Warm
Warm
Hot
Figure 4.27 : PMV against PPD
Result: Average PMV
- 1.7 the thermal sensation scale is ALMOST WARM
Average PPD index - 64% the Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied
123
Table 4.41 : Result testing for thermal sensation level (morning) – sample 9
Air
Globe
Temp.
Temp.
(Degree
(Degree
C)
C)
0830
28.0
0835
Operative
Relative
Air
Humidity
Speed
(%)
(m/s)
28.0
87
0.1
3466
1.9
75
28.0
29.8
28.1
28.6
87
0.1
3388
1.8
71
28.4
29.6
0840
28.3
29.5
88
0.1
3410
1.7
65
28.9
29.5
0845
28.3
29.2
92
0.2
3514
1.8
67
28.8
29.2
0850
28.3
29.0
94
0.2
3554
1.7
65
28.7
29.0
0855
28.3
29.0
95
0.2
3574
1.7
67
28.7
29.0
0900
28.5
28.9
96
0.2
3494
1.7
68
28.7
28.9
0905
28.7
28.8
94
0.2
3432
1.7
69
28.8
28.8
0910
28.8
28.8
93
0.3
3473
1.5
71
28.8
28.7
0915
28.7
28.8
94
0.2
3473
1.6
73
28.8
28.7
0920
28.7
28.8
94
0.2
3293
1.7
77
28.8
28.8
0925
28.8
28.7
94
0.2
3513
1.7
69
28.8
28.8
0930
28.8
28.8
94
0.2
3513
1.7
65
28.8
28.9
0935
29.0
29.0
94
0.2
3513
1.7
63
29.1
28.9
0940
29.0
29.2
94
0.2
3513
1.7
67
29.2
28.8
Time
Pressure
(Pa)
PMV
MRT
PPD
Temp.
(Degree
(%)
(Degree
C)
C)
Table above shown the average value of thermal sensation scale based on
Predicted Mean Value (PMV) is 1.7, which means it is ALMOST WARM and
Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied (PPD) is 69% are shown in figure 4.41.
PMV against PPD
80
70
PPD (%)
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1.9
1.8
1.7
1.8
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.5
PMV
1.6
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
124
PMV Scale
The scale of thermal sensation is :
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
Cold
Cool
Slightly Cool
Neutral
Slightly Warm
Warm
Hot
Figure 4.28 : PMV against PPD
Result: Average PMV
- 1.7 the thermal sensation scale is ALMOST WARM
Average PPD index - 69% the Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied
Table 4.42 : Result testing for thermal sensation level (afternoon) – sample 9
Air
Globe
Temp.
Temp.
(Degree
(Degree
C)
C)
1530
28.9
1505
Operative
Relative
Air
Humidity
Speed
(%)
(m/s)
29.8
76
0.2
3373
1.9
70
29.4
29.8
28.6
29.6
76
0.2
3315
1.8
66
29.1
29.6
1540
28.5
29.5
77
0.4
3337
1.7
60
29.0
29.5
1545
28.2
29.2
81
0.2
3441
1.8
62
28.7
29.2
1550
28.0
29.0
83
0.2
3481
1.7
60
28.5
29.0
1555
28.0
29.0
84
0.3
3501
1.7
57
28.5
29.0
1600
27.9
28.9
85
0.2
3420
1.7
59
28.4
28.9
1605
27.8
28.8
83
0.2
3361
1.7
56
28.3
28.8
1610
27.7
28.7
82
0.3
3400
1.5
50
28.2
28.7
1615
27.6
28.6
83
0.2
3420
1.6
55
28.1
28.7
1620
27.6
28.6
83
0.2
3420
1.7
56
28.1
28.8
1625
27.7
28.7
83
0.2
3440
1.7
56
28.2
28.8
1630
27.7
28.7
83
0.2
3440
1.7
58
28.2
28.9
1635
27.8
28.8
83
0.2
3400
1.7
58
28.3
28.9
1640
27.8
28.8
83
0.2
3420
1.7
57
28.3
28.8
Time
Pressure
(Pa)
PMV
PPD
(%)
MRT
(Degree
C)
Temp.
(Degree
C)
Table above shown the average value of thermal sensation scale based on
Predicted Mean Value (PMV) is 1.7, which means it is ALMOST WARM and
Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied (PPD) is 59% are shown in figure 4.42.
125
PMV against PPD
80
70
PPD (%)
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1.9
1.8
1.7
1.8
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
PMV
PMV Scale
The scale of thermal sensation is :
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
Cold
Cool
Slightly Cool
Neutral
Slightly Warm
Warm
Hot
Figure 4.29 : PMV against PPD
Result: Average PMV
- 1.7 the thermal sensation scale is ALMOST WARM
Average PPD index - 59% the Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied
126
Table 4.43 : Result testing for thermal sensation level (night) – sample 9
Air
Globe
Temp.
Temp.
(Degree
(Degree
C)
C)
2015
29.3
2020
Operative
Relative
Air
Humidity
Speed
(%)
(m/s)
29.8
78
0.2
3458
1.9
75
29.6
29.8
29.0
29.6
78
0.2
3400
1.8
71
29.3
29.6
2025
28.9
29.5
79
0.4
3422
1.7
65
29.2
29.5
2030
28.6
29.2
83
0.2
3526
1.8
67
28.9
29.2
2035
28.4
29.0
85
0.2
3566
1.7
65
28.7
29.0
2040
28.4
29.0
86
0.3
3586
1.7
62
28.7
29.0
2045
28.3
28.9
87
0.2
3505
1.7
64
28.6
28.9
2050
28.2
28.8
85
0.2
3446
1.7
61
28.5
28.8
2055
28.1
28.7
84
0.3
3485
1.5
55
28.4
28.7
2100
28.0
28.6
85
0.2
3505
1.6
60
28.3
28.7
2105
28.0
28.6
85
0.2
3505
1.7
61
28.3
28.8
2110
28.1
28.7
85
0.2
3525
1.7
61
28.4
28.8
2115
28.1
28.7
85
0.2
3525
1.7
63
28.4
28.9
2120
28.2
28.8
85
0.2
3525
1.7
63
28.5
28.9
2125
28.3
28.8
85
0.2
3505
1.7
62
28.6
28.8
Time
Pressure
(Pa)
PMV
MRT
PPD
Temp.
(Degree
(%)
(Degree
C)
C)
Table above shown the average value of thermal sensation scale based on
Predicted Mean Value (PMV) is 1.7, which means it is ALMOST WARM and
Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied (PPD) is 59% are shown in figure 4.43.
PMV against PPD
80
70
PPD (%)
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1.9
1.8
1.7
1.8
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.5
PMV
1.6
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
127
PMV Scale
The scale of thermal sensation is :
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
Cold
Cool
Slightly Cool
Neutral
Slightly Warm
Warm
Hot
Figure 4.30 : PMV against PPD
Result: Average PMV
- 1.7 the thermal sensation scale is ALMOST WARM
Average PPD index - 64% the Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied
4.9.5.
Conclusion
The area of Shah Alam consist of single and double storey low cost houses
which are built from the 1980’s through to the late 1990’s. Basic amenities are
provided for the benefit of the neighborhoods. These are so far at a satisfying level.
Low cost houses are usually built with a minimum amount of space. Because
of the limited space, these houses normally undergo extension or alteration in order
to increase the area of the existing space. Owners who live in corner lots have an
advantage in extending and renovating their houses as there are more free space
available. They can extend the back and the side of their houses. However, it is not
easy for the intermediate houses as the space available are only at the back. This
gives them a chance to at least extend the space for the kitchen. This action actually
distracts the flow of wind as the houses are extended back and almost touch the
houses opposite them. Therefore this is not good for ventilation.
Besides that, adequate provision of windows and other openings should be
provided to allow maximum ventilation. The layouts of the building also play a vital
role in influencing the flow of ventilation.
128
It improve when the test were conducted. The result of the testing, we can
conclude that most of the time the thermal sensation level for samples houses are at
level almost warm.
CHAPTER
5
ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS
CHAPTER 5
ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS
5.0
ANALYSIS OF SURVEY
The survey form contains 11 questions and is divided into two parts, which
include the details of the property and the ventilation effectiveness of the house. The
purpose of the first part is to find out about the details of the property and occupants
while the second part is to determine the level of effectiveness of ventilation in each
house in terms of openings, the use of mechanical ventilation and comfort.
130
5.1
ANALYSIS OF QUESTION 1 AND 4
Question 1 to 4 refers to the detail of property of each house surveyed and
information on the occupants. These include the type of low cost terrace, the year it
was built and moved in, address and type of occupant.
5.2
TYPE OF LOW COST TERRACE
Table 5.1 : Type of low cost terrace
Item Type of House
Unit No.
1.
Single Storey
24
2.
Double Storey
16
3.
Renovated Single Storey
6
4.
Renovated Double Storey
4
Total
50
The table above shows the type of low cost terrace in Sections 18, 20 and 24.
Out of all the houses surveyed
24 (48%) of them consisted of single storey, 16
(32%) are double storey while 6 (12%) consisted of renovated single storey and (8%)
4 consisted of renovated double storey. Corner lots tend to be renovated most.
Mainly, renovated houses had their kitchens extended to increase the size of the
already tiny kitchen
131
Single storey
8%
12%
48%
Double storey
Renovated single
storey
32%
Renovated double
storey
Figure 5.1: Type of low cost terrace
Figure 5.1 shows that there is a high number of single storey terraced houses.
The area of the houses is not adequate and comfortable enough to accommodate the
entire family especially large ones. The cramped space makes it uncomfortable for
the family to live in, especially large families, therefore a much bigger space is
required.
Most of the houses surveyed are single storey terrace because most low cost
houses are single storey. From the three sections, double storey terraced houses are
found in Section 18.
132
5.3
TYPE OF OCCUPANT
Table 5.2 : Types of occupant
Item Type of House
Unit No.
1.
Family (Bought)
24
2.
Non-Family (Bought)
0
3.
Family (Rented)
11
4.
Non-family (Rented)
15
Total
50
From Figure 5.2, it was found that 48% of respondents who live with their
family bought their own property while a number of 8 respondents or 16% of them
rented the house with their family. For non-family groups 30% of respondents
rented the house while none of the respondents of non-family groups bought
property.
Family (bought)
30%
48%
Non-family
(bought)
Family (rented)
Non-family
(rented)
22%
0%
Figure 5.2: Type of occupant
From the figure above, there is a high incidence of rented houses which is
52% altogether. This means that those who could afford to purchase the houses took
133
this opportunity to buy low cost houses for their own profit by renting rather than
giving a chance for the low income groups
5.4
THE TIME HEAT IS MOST FELT IN THE HOUSE
Table 5.3 : The time heat is most felt
Item Time Heat
Unit No.
1.
Morning
29
2.
Afternoon
2
3.
Night
6
4.
Most of the time
13
Total
50
The table shows the times heat is most significantly felt in the house. Heat is
mostly felt in the afternoon which is 58% or 29 respondents. This is due to the hot
weather which trap heat and lack of air circulation in the house. The following is felt
most of the time which is 26% or 13 respondents. 12% or 6 respondents said heat is
most felt in the night and finally 4% or 2 respondents felt heat mostly in the evening.
134
26%
0%
Morning
Afternoon
Evening
58%
12%
Night
Most of the time
4%
Figure 5.4: The time heat is most felt
The heat was mostly felt in the afternoon. Figure 5.4 shows that percentage is
which 58%. This is because it is the time when the sun is at its peak which is from 12
p.m to 3 p.m. Furthermore, the houses faced direct sunlight. Meanwhile, 26 % felt
the heat most of the time. The fans had to keep running almost all day. The reasons
why heat was felt is because the houses were constructed without any forms of roof
insulation such as heat reflective foil lining. Furthermore, a porch was not provided
at all for protection against direct sunlight.
The heat continues to be felt in the night time as the heat is not able to escape.
135
5.5
PROVISION OF MECHANICAL VENTILATION
Table 5.4 : Provision of mechanical ventilation
Item Type of Mechanical Ventilation
Unit No.
1.
Ceiling
50
2.
Roof
2
3.
Air-Conditioning
4
4.
Exhaust Fan
4
5.
Propeller Fan
2
6.
Others
0
Total
62
There are various types mechanical ventilation used. All houses use basic
ceiling fans but there are others who put their own initiative to install additional
mechanical ventilation. From the table 5.4, all houses surveyed were provided with
ceiling fans which is 50 (82 %), followed by air conditioning and exhaust fan 4 (8
%), while roof ventilator and propeller fan each with 2 (4 %) respondents.
3%
6%
6%
0%
Ceiling fan
3%
Roof ventilator
Air conditioning
Exhaust fan
Propeller fan
82%
Others
Figure 5.5: Provision of mechanical ventilation provided
136
Figure 5.5 shows the ceiling fan having the highest percentage. The fixed
ceiling fan is the most widely used form of mechanical ventilation because it is the
most efficient and cheapest way to cool the surrounding. Air conditioning and
exhaust fans are the second mostly used form of mechanical ventilation. Air
conditioning is more costly than the ceiling fan but able to provide cool air and
comfort while fans are much widely used than roof ventilator and propeller fan
because of the high cost and unfamiliarity to use them.
5.6
THE FREQUENCY OF MECHANICAL VENTILATION BEING
TURNED ON DURING THE DAY
Table 5.5: The frequency of mechanical ventilation being turned on during the day
Item Descriptions
Frequency
1.
Very Often
26
2.
Often
24
3.
Seldom
0
4.
Never
0
Total
50
Mechanical ventilation includes ceiling fans and others stated above (refer
Table 5.5). The highest frequency is very often, which is 26 (52%) respondents. This
shows that the level of humidity in the house is high due to the heat coming from
various sources. The following is often which came from 24 (48%) respondents.
137
0%
Very often
48%
Often
52%
Seldom
Never
Figure 5.7 : The frequency of mechanical ventilation being turned on during the day
Figure 5.7 shows that besides natural ventilation, other means of mechanical
ventilation is required to keep the temperature to a comfortable level. This is so as
mechanical ventilation is required most of the time.
In this case mechanical
ventilation refers to mainly ceiling fans. Natural ventilation alone is not very
adequate in getting rid of excessive heat; therefore they have to rely on mechanical
ventilation as well. Mechanical ventilation is much needed particularly during the
day and not excluding the night. Neither of the respondents marked seldom nor never
because they will always require the aid of mechanical ventilation.
5.7
THE MAIN CAUSES OF HEAT
What is the main cause of heat?
138
Table 5.6 : The main causes of heat
Item Descriptions
Frequency
1.
Heat from the sun
28
2.
Materials used to construct the house
8
3.
Not enough openings/openings not fully
12
utilized
4.
Lack of air circulation
2
Total
50
Table 5.6 shows the main causes of heat which are heat from the sun, 28
(56%) respondents, materials used to construct the house 8 (16%) respondents, not
enough openings/openings not fully utilized 12 (24%) respondents and lack of air
circulation 2 (4%) respondents.
4%
Heat from the
sun
Materials
24%
56%
16%
Not enough
openings
Lack of air
circulation
Figure 5.8: The main causes of heat
Figure 5.8 show that 56% of respondents found the heat from the sun to be
the main cause of heat. This is because every item is associated with the heat from
the sun. Materials such as concrete blocks trap heat from the sun and also inadequate
number of openings add in the accumulation of heat. Some houses do not open all
139
windows due to various reasons which include avoiding dust from coming into the
house. Because of this, effective air movement cannot occur.
The second cause of heat is the materials that are used to construct the house
which comes to 16%. Materials used to construct the houses include concrete blocks
and concrete roof tiles. These materials have heat conducting properties which have a
tendency in increasing the temperature in a building.
Next is the lack of openings or openings not fully utilized which comes down
to 24% of respondents. It was found that there were not enough openings provided in
these houses. Besides that, the occupants did not make full use of the windows
provided. To achieve maximum ventilation, all windows should be opened to let
fresh air in. Also, the ceiling height was very low and these prevent heat and warm
air to escape from the building.
4% of respondents thought the main cause of heat is lack of air circulation.
This is due to the layout of the house itself, either from the layout of the openings or
due to the insufficient layout of the space itself. Another reason is stagnant air that is
due to the low ceiling height which comes to an average of 2.7 meters high. These
are some of the factors that prevent air from flowing effectively. Other than that air
needs to be replaced to keep the cycle going. Again, this process cannot occur due to
the above reasons.
5.8
SATISFACTION IN THE NUMBER AND SIZE OF OPENINGS
Are you satisfied with the number and size of openings in the house?
140
Table 5.7: Satisfaction in the number and size of openings
Item
Result
No.
1.
YES
10
2.
NO
40
TOTAL
50
20%
YE
S
NO
80%
Figure 5.9 : Satisfaction in the number of openings
Figure 5.8 shows that 20% of respondents are satisfied with the number of
openings while a huge 80% of respondents are not satisfied. This shows that there an
inadequate provision of openings in the house. The types of openings provided were
only windows which were fixed into solid concrete walls. It was also found that the
openings were not fully utilized by the occupants. Not all windows were opened to
allow fresh air in. This was probably to avoid dust and other pollutants from entering
the house.
141
5.9
RECOMMENDATION AND SUGGESTION TO IMPROVE THE
QUALITY OF VENTILATION
Table 5.8: Recommendation and suggestion to improve the quality of ventilation
Item Recommendation and Suggestion
No.
1.
Change the materials used
10
2.
Increase size and number of openings
14
3.
Provide basic mechanical ventilation
11
4.
Change the orientation/design to promote air movement the
12
house
5.
Plant trees before the construction of houses
10
6.
Provide window designs that deflect wind more effectively
15
7.
Other recommendation
2
TOTAL
74
Table 5.8 above shows the recommendation and suggestions by the
respondents to improve the ventilation in their houses. 10 (14%) of respondents
suggested in changing the present materials used for the construction of the house
while 14 (19%) of respondents suggested in increasing the size and number of
openings,
8 (16%) of respondents suggested in providing basic mechanical
ventilation. 11 (15%) suggested in changing the orientation/ design of the house,
also, 10 (14%) suggested to plant trees before the construction of the house, 15
(19%) suggested in providing window design that can deflect wind more effectively,
while 2 (3 %) suggested other recommendations.
142
Change the
materials used
Increase size and
openings
3%
19%
14%
19%
Provide basic
mechanical
ventilation
Change the
orientation
Plant trees
14%
16%
15%
Provide window
designs
Other
recommendation
Figure 5.10 : Recommendation and suggestion to improve the quality of ventilation
Figure 5.8 shows an even distribution of suggestions. The highest number of
suggestion is to provide window designs that deflect wind more effectively. This was
a concern as the design of windows is able to influence the way the wind enters the
house. Most houses were fixed with adjustable louvred windows. This type of
window can be used to control the amount of air that enters the house but is quite
limited. Next, is followed by the suggestion of increasing the size of openings and
changing the orientation of the house each with 19 % of respondents respectively.
5.9.1. Change the materials used
14 % or 10 respondents suggested changing the materials used for the
construction of the house. Normally, for low cost houses, concrete blocks are used to
143
build walls and concrete roof tiles. Steel used for the roof is a good conductor of heat
and is able to transfer heat at a relatively fast rate. These materials trap heat during
the day and in turn the heat is reflected back in the house until night time and tends
to remain inside the house. This causes discomfort to the occupants. Using bricks and
roof tiles that are made from clay can reduce heat compared to using concrete as a
building material.
5.9.2. Increase size and number of openings
Effective natural ventilation depends on good design of openings which
includes the right size and adequate number of openings. 19 % of respondents
suggested in increasing the size and number of openings in order to promote air
circulation and movement.
It was found that most houses were not equipped with enough number of
windows as not all bedrooms have a window. Besides natural lighting it also lacked
fresh air. This is not good for the health and may cause some psychological problems
such as lack of concentration in studying. The opening in the kitchen is also a main
concern as cooking activities are done here.
5.9.3. Provide basic mechanical ventilation
19 % of respondents wanted basic mechanical ventilation provided. This goes
mainly for ceiling fans, which is not included in other rooms except the living room.
Additional fans should be provided so that the environment would not be too hot and
the occupants do not have to rely on table fans. By providing ceiling fans in other
144
bedrooms, time is saved by not having to fix the ceiling fans by the occupants
themselves.
Besides ceiling fans, other means of mechanical ventilation should be readily
provided. Propeller fans, exhaust fans and roof ventilators provide additional
ventilation each in their appropriate places according to their individual function.
5.9.4. Change the layout/orientation/design to promote air movement in the
house
As observed, most low cost houses are not suitably designed in terms of
openings and its layout. Not all rooms have a window provided and this does not
promote good air circulation in the room, thus prevent natural ventilation from
occurring. Often, heat is accumulated which in turn causes excessive heat.
Another problem is that windows are not provided opposite each other,
therefore cross ventilation cannot occur. The windows are built only on one side of
each room. Of course there is not much to be done about it as this is the standard
design of low cost houses and it would be difficult to have windows on opposite
sides as these houses are linked.
145
5.9.5. Plant trees before the construction of houses
Normally, in housing construction, houses are built first until they are
completed and only then trees are planted. Trees play a vital role in the housing
environment. They not only beautify the surrounding but also provide shade to avoid
or reduce heat. 14 % of respondent wanted trees to be planted beforehand so that by
the time the construction is completed the trees would have matured enough to
provide the necessary shade besides being able to deflect wind into the house.
From what was observed, the recently built houses, such as those in Section
20, have trees that are not matured enough to provide shade. Heat could easily
penetrate through the walls which in turn absorb heat.
5.9.6. Provide window designs that deflect wind more effectively
19 % of respondents suggested in providing better window designs that can
provide a better flow of wind. Most houses tend to have the typical adjustable
louvred type windows. Renovated houses have a wider choice of windows to be
fixed. As a result these houses chose to fix casement windows. Casement type
windows provide a greater chance of wind flow as it is directed into a certain angle
in which wind can flow easily into the house.
Louvred windows provide less wind as the flow of wind is usually obstructed
by the blades of the windows.
146
5.9.7. Other recommendation/ suggestion
3 % suggested other recommendation such as increasing the floor area of the
house and increasing the ceiling height in order to lessen the heat. The ceiling heights
in low cost houses built in the early 1980’s were found to be less than 3 meters,
which is below the normal standard. This causes stagnant air and no room for air
movement.
Another suggestion was to change the orientation of the building in order to
receive adequate sunlight and ventilation. But in this case the orientation is not too
important because the houses are not high rise buildings. But it would be best if they
faced the direction the wind instead of away from it. This would distract the wind
from entering the house or to be more precise, the windows and other openings of the
house.
5.10
THERMAL COMFORT
Thermal comfort in building may be broadly divided, for convience, into
humidity, room temperature, air velocity and radiant temperature. Thermal problems
are those that arise in a unit of accommodation in connection with comfort, that is,
the way in which the building design and their orientation, and climatic conditions
affect our sensation level in house.
Comfort is something e\which we cannot describe in exact words but its may
cause many problems to human life. Such as humidity and moisture of we are
exposed continuously.
147
The following are the finding from research and investigation: -
5.10.1.
The parameters of thermal comfort are similar from one house to another
even if the houses are situated in the different housing area.
5.10.2.
The differences of construction will give the different in quality of thermal
environment, due to differ on type of construction, workmanship, the
device that used during construction and the age of building, including its
location.
5.10.3.
Between thermal environments identify, which may affect to the thermal
comfort, the selection of material, building design and their orientation and
climatic conditions are the major factors that the designers should consider
during design stage.
5.10.4.
Surrounding activities also can cause of thermal problem and so natural
ventilation to the occupants. The construction activity, which contributes to
warm air to houses area.
5.10.5.
Overall climatic condition of the sections that had been surveyed are
average. It because the warm air beside the area of study may affect to the
thermal condition of the houses. The average temperature of the area of
study is 32 0C, which it could be considered as regular temperature in
Malaysia climate.
5.10.6.
Based on result of testing, the overall house in area of study is almost
warm. The air circulations in the houses are most probably not well
148
function. The material used for wall cause the warm air cannot move out
from the house.
5.11
CONCLUSION
The analyses of results are carried out on units of houses. The results are
obtained through the distribution of survey and testing which are filled in by the
respondents with the assistance of the surveyor. Most houses use the same type of
windows except when renovated. From the interviews and testing, it was found that
the level of satisfaction in terms of ventilation is low.
The low cost houses in all sections have low pitched roofs of about 20
degrees. The houses are not provided with air wells either in order to let hot air out.
Most houses rely on mechanical ventilation especially ceiling fans.
The UBBL requires a total area of window opening to be not less than 10 %
of the total floor area. It was found that not all of the houses coincide with the
minimum requirements of the UBBL.
CHAPTER
6
CONCLUSION AND
RECOMMENDATION
CHAPTER 6
RECOMMENDATION AND CONCLUSION
6.1.
RECOMMENDATION
Based on the findings, the following recommendations to improve the natural
ventilation in low cost houses were made:
6.1.1. Prior to construction, proper orientation of the buildings with respect to wind
directions, sunshine and rainfall must be done. Appropriate designs of windows,
doors, etc. for cross-ventilation, maximum use of natural lighting, window hoods
to prevent rain splashing in, and other factors must be considered for the comfort
of the occupants. A good design will provide necessary sun shade and ventilation
to reduce heat stress inside the building.
150
6.1.2. Low ceilings tend to increase heat radiation. However, it is cheaper to build
houses with minimum ceiling height which allows hot air to stagnate near the
ceiling To lower the heat radiation, the ceiling height should be higher than the
existing in order to reduce heat radiation and at the same time allow warm air to
escape from the building with the provision of air wells for stack effect. Roof
ventilators also aid in ventilation. The roof should also be installed with heat
reflective foil to resist heat transmission. The external part of the house should
also be taken in account. A porch is useful in providing shade and preventing
direct sunlight.
6.1.3. In the existing low cost houses, the cross ventilation is very poor due to the bad
design of building blocks, windows and doors were too close to each other or not
present or the windows of the opposite side are more than 30 feet, the ceiling
height is too low, etc. To overcome the problem, the house needs to be altered in
order to add more windows of different designs and other openings. A casement
window with additional steel grille is a better option compared to the glass
louvred windows. They not only look more attractive but also let more air in.
This is not a problem for corner lots but it would be difficult for intermediates.
For maximum ventilation, air blocks can be used to replace solid walls for some
parts of the house. A higher roof pitch can also help to reduce the amount of heat
radiated through the ceiling.
6.1.4. It was found that the buildings were mostly faced in the direction of the sun’s
rays. Since Malaysia is in an equatorial region, the buildings should be oriented
according to the direction of the wind and not in the direction of the sun’s rays.
Ideally, the buildings should be oriented towards the south or the southeast. It
would be uncomfortably hot if the room is facing the sun. However, most of the
units have sunshades over the window. This is a very common feature in most all
151
low cost houses in order to lessen the heat. Sunshade helps to lower room
temperature.
6.1.5. The layout and positions of openings should be according to prevalent wind
directions. The openings should be opposite of each other rather than just side by
side in order to promote cross ventilation. Apart from that, the size of openings is
of equal importance. If a particular room has a good cross ventilation opening,
the speed of wind can be controlled by increasing the size of the window. By
doing this, the speed of wind can be increased.
6.1.6. The Government had also campaigned to plant 100,000 trees in the country.
Developers should take this opportunity to green up the environment as well
create a cooler surrounding. Before the construction of the housing units, trees
should be planted, not the other way round. This provides a chance for the trees
to mature and later provide shade once the construction has completed. This
condition should be made compulsory to all developers. Other than providing
shade, plants and trees also deflect wind to a desired direction. Besides that, the
speed of wind can be increased if planned properly. For example, wind speed can
be increased by directing the wind between two lines of trees before entering a
building.
6.1.7. Most homes are constructed with materials which absorbs heat readily from the
sun during daytime. At night, the air outside cools rapidly, but the building fabric
behaves differently where heat is released from the building mass to the
surrounding air indoor and outdoor. This thermal behaviour is typical of houses
mostly built of high dense materials such as clay and cement bricks, concrete and
also lightweight concrete aggregate. It is recommended that these houses be built
152
of materials that do not trap heat so easily and at the same time be able to release
heat rapidly from the building fabric.
The extension of houses should be considered carefully as most extensions are
not properly built. The extension of houses without the approval of the authority is a
grave matter. Improper extensions pose many problems including blocking natural
ventilation from entering the house. Prior to extension, the owner should refer to the
local authority for standard extension design concepts.
6.2.
CONCLUSION
Natural ventilation depends on natural forces for moving air through and out the
building. Ventilation is required to ensure a healthy living environment. Not only that, it
helps to cool the building to maintain a comfortable temperature or thermal comfort as
well as keeping the environment away from dust particles and odour.
Based on the findings, it can be concluded that:
6.2.1.
The level of ventilation is similar from one house to the other even if they are
situated in different areas, which mean that they are not receiving adequate
fresh air. Heat is felt throughout the day especially when the sun is high. There
are still many improvements to be made in order to improve the condition.
Besides natural ventilation, mechanical ventilation is still required in order to
ventilate the building effectively.
153
6.2.2.
The requirement in the Uniform Building By-Laws (UBBL) has been given on
openings for lighting and ventilation as a guide. The understanding towards the
use of openings (windows, doors and other fixed openings) in buildings
especially in providing natural ventilation and its relation to health and comfort
as well as the cooling of interior environment is important as an awareness to
always follow according to the requirement of the UBBL and the local
government.
6.2.3.
As early as the design stage, planners, designers and developers alike should
consider the selection of materials, building design; referring to the orientation
of building, their climatic conditions and other factors concerning the
environment. Also, factors like the size and position of openings should be
taken in account.
6.2.4.
Other external aspects in town planning such as the layout, zoning and open
area, etc., should be considered in the early stage so that the flow of wind can
be fully utilised. The overall elements of landscaping should be integrated to
assist in providing natural comfort.
6.2.5.
Extension of houses should be controlled by the local authority. When
extended, especially the rear extension, the houses tend to meet end to end
which limits air movement.
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6.3
RECOMMENDATION FOR FURTHER STUDY
Besides the study that has been done, the continuation of further studies in other
aspects should be carried out to further improve the effectiveness of natural ventilation
in low cost houses. Below are some of the recommendations for further study.
6.3.1.
Specific air tests should be carried out to determine the actual level of
ventilation effectiveness. This is to obtain accurate reading of air movement in
the house.
6.3.2.
Measure the effectiveness of natural ventilation in other housing schemes such
as the high and medium cost housing. This is because not all types of houses
have effective natural ventilation.
6.3.3.
Carry out specific tests on the materials used for the construction of low and
medium terraced houses. This is because each type of materials influences the
behaviour of heat in the house.
6.3.4.
Study the effectiveness of natural ventilation in buildings other than domestic
buildings such as government buildings that include institution of higher
learning, schools, hospitals, etc.
6.3.5.
Study the comparison between natural ventilation and mechanical ventilation
in terms of cost and how it can be reduced.
155
It is hoped that these recommendations will provide for others an on going study
of the effectiveness of ventilation especially in domestic buildings as well as finding
ways to improve them.
156
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