Dry grasslands
17
Features to note
Dry grasslands are habitats that are maintained by traditional farming practices.
Grasses and sedges dominate, with abundant flowering species. Calcareous or
limestone grasslands only occur on well drained slopes such as eskers, shallow or
rocky limestone areas, and dune grasslands such as machair. Neutral grasslands,
which have not been reseeded but to which fertiliser has been added are more
common than limestone grassland in Ireland.
1
3
2
4
1
2
3
4
DOH
Anthills are features of
old permanent pastures.
Ants build tunnels below
their nests. By moving
particles from above to
below
ground,
they
enrich the soil.
Common
Blue
Butterflies
can
be seen feeding
and laying eggs
on
Birdsfoot
Trefoil in dry
grasslands.
Rocky outcrops in dry grasslands
are associated with low growing
grasses and flowers and small
patches of bare ground which
attract Green Tiger Beetles.
Ringed Plovers occur in coastal
grasslands.
Features to control
•While a little scrub adds diversity, if it is encroaching on grassland sites,
increase cattle stocking density or undertake scrub control during the autumn.
•Cut grassland in late summer to benefit butterflies and allow plants to set seed.
Dry grasslands (continued)
18
Dry grasslands consist of various grasses and plants
Features to maintain
Grazing
Six Spot Burnet Moth
•Maintain a low stocking density. Graze lightly in spring
and then remove stock, to allow wildflower seeds to set in
summer.
•If no winter grazing has occurred and undergrazing is a
concern, it may be necessary to increase the stocking
levels from May onwards, as long as this does not pose a
risk to nesting birds or butterflies.
Cutting
•Cut hay meadows twice-yearly, in Spring and in late
August/September; or cut once between mid-July and
early September, varying the time of cutting each year.
•Cut using a mower with horizontal bars mounted as high Orange Tip Butterfly
on Dandelion
as possible to protect newts, frogs, invertebrates and
birds nests from harm.
•Alternate a variety of uncut grass strips alongside the
field margin each year, regardless of time of cutting.
Features to enhance
•Restrict summer grazing in certain areas if ground
nesting birds such as Skylark are present. This will also
allow seeds to set in summer.
•Once cut locally, spread green hay to increase species
diversity with seeds of local origin.
•Increase species richness with aftermath grazing at
sustainable levels.
Silver Washed
•Maintain and enhance any small patches of woodland or
Fritillary on Knapweed
scrub that are present at the margins of grassland.
Grasshopper
Beetle on Buttercup
Skylark
TC1
Wet grasslands
19
Features to note
Wet grassland includes wet meadows or pastures with low levels of rushes,
marshy pools, scattered tussocks of Purple Moor Grass and Devil’s Bit Scabious
on poorly drained soils. Meadowsweet and Ragged Robin (overleaf) are common.
Devil’s Bit
Scabious
4
3
1
Frog
2
Curlew
Purple Loosestrife
MG
DOH
Lizard
MH
1
Low levels of rush cover provide
shelter for Curlew and Lapwing.
Snipe, Reed Bunting, the Otter and
Hare prefer extensive rush cover.
3
Flowering Iris and Purple
Loosestrife indicate wetter areas
that are good for frogs,
dragonflies and damselflies.
2
A few scattered tussocks of grass
and wildflowers benefit butterflies.
Devil’s Bit Scabious provides food
for the Marsh Fritillary caterpillar.
4
South facing slopes become
warm in sunlight and are good
basking spots for lizards and
large beetles.
Features to manage
Rush control
•Cattle rarely choose to graze rushes. Retain no more than one-third of the field
as rushes (see A overleaf), at varying height. Lapwing select short clumps of
rushes to conceal chicks but Snipe prefer taller clumps.
•Leave rushes in areas which are difficult to cut with machinery such as wet
flushes or near rocky outcrops.
Wet grasslands (continued)
20
(A) Wet meadow taken over by rushes
c (B) Wet meadow with Meadowsweet
CS
Features to maintain
Grazing
•Graze in Spring with a very low stocking rate of cattle
(0.3-0.5 LU/ha) to ensure different sward heights will
occur. Sheep are not suitable as they will remove
caterpillar food plants such as Devil’s Bit Scabious.
•Light early grazing creates conditions for small plant
species to grow which benefits butterflies. Marsh Fritillary
select swards between 8-25cm high and lay eggs in mid
May on Devil’s Bit Scabious.
•From late March to mid-June*, when ground nesting
birds are breeding (*early August for Snipe), either
restrict access, fence nesting areas, or lower the cattle
stocking rate (less than 0.3 LU/ha).
•Trampling by cattle helps manage rush levels after
rushes have been cut in autumn.
Cutting
•Allow flowers to provide a nectar source for bees,
hoverflies and butterflies.
•Mowing is appropriate if the site does not support marsh
fritillaries. Top and remove cuttings in late summer using
traditional horizontal blade mowers to reduce harm to
invertebrates and amphibians.
Features to enhance
•Retain some grassy tussocks because they provide year
round cover for Smooth Newts, Lapwing chicks in summer
and invertebrates, especially for over-wintering.
•Cut scrub between October to February. Let a little
remain uncut to form deep cover and protect the Otter
when breeding.
•Block one field drain to create a mosaic of drier nesting
areas grading into wet feeding areas (see ponds p 12).
Marsh Fritillary on
Buttercup
Lapwing
Ragged Robin
DOH
Semi-improved grasslands
21
Semi-improved grassland
is intermediate between
semi-natural unimproved
vegetation and improved
agricultural grassland.
2
Grasslands that have either
a short history of intensive
management and/or
biodiversity loss are more
likely to increase their
species richness than
grassland which has been
subject to longterm
intensive management, as
long as the soil fertility is
low.
1
Identifying areas of semiimproved grassland could
be an important resource
when restoring grasslands
and also count towards
classifying areas of High
Nature Value farmland.
3
Improved grassland
Semi-improved grassland
Unimproved grassland
1
2
3
Unimproved grassland
Improved
grassland
is
identified by its rich green
colour and by the fact that it
has been reseeded and/or
receives fertiliser. Improved
grassland is often dominated
by
Perennial
Rye-grass.
Species such as Clovers,
Dandelions, Docks, Creeping
Buttercup, Nettles, Thistles
and
Plantains
can
be
common. Usually no more
than 10 species are present.
Semi-improved grassland
contains between 10-25
herbaceous species and
grasses. Species such as
Selfheal, Yarrow, Lady’s
Smock
and
meadow
grasses can be common.
Semi-improved grassland
is extensively managed
but it may have been
reseeded in the past.
This
grassland
is
associated with lowintensity farming and
can support between
25 – 45 grass and
herbaceous species. In
the
past,
such
a
grassland may have
been fertilised but it is
unlikely to have been
reseeded.
Semi-improved grasslands (continued)
Yarrow
Selfheal
Ribwort Plantain
22
Lady’s Smock
Features to note and manage
•Identify semi-improved grassland by the presence of key species such as
Yarrow, Selfheal, Lady’s Smock, Autumn Hawkbit and Ribwort Plantain.
•Proximity to nature reserves or remnants of semi-natural habitats may increase
the potential to successfully increase the diversity of semi-improved farmed
grasslands.
•Once grassland maintenance stops, scrub will begin to encroach. Abandoned
grassland systems may have Blackthorn, Gorse, Hawthorn, Hazel, small Birches
and Willows, Bramble and Dog Rose. However, in the site below, the scrubby
banks on a south-facing slope now form a mosaic of habitats that provide ideal
conditions for lizards and some invertebrates. Maintain this mix of sheltered and
sunny spots, when controlling the scrub, in sections over a three year period.
Retain scrubby
margins around
sheltered grassy
bays; they are
ideal for lizards.
Here, scrub has
encroached on
grassland and
needs to be
controlled.
Features to restore and enhance
•If a traditional species-rich hay meadow is in close proximity, Yellow Rattle
green hay strewing as soon as possible after cutting can have
some success in increasing diversity of semi-improved
grasslands.
•Spreading seed of Yellow Rattle could, in time, help increase
the variety of grasses and wild flowers.
•Cut silage as late as possible if ground nesting birds are
present, working from the centre of the field outwards to allow
wildlife to escape.
Blanket bog
23
3
2
1
CS
1. Grassy hummocks
2. Heather near mossy pool
3. Bog Myrtle
BC
CS
Features to note
Lowland blanket bog consists of scattered pools, dry grassy tussocks, mossy
clumps of heather. Hydrology is one of the determining factors. Vegetation is
dominated by Heathers, Black Bog Rush, Purple Moor-grass, Cottongrass,
Deergrass, Milkwort and Lousewort.
Lousewort
Common
Sedge
St. Daboec’s
Heath
Bog Asphodel
BC
Heath
Milkwort
Blanket bog (continued)
Mossy pool.
Raft Spiders watch for tadpoles and
other prey at the edge of pools.
24
Rocky outcrop with bare ground provides
basking areas for large ground beetles and
lookout perches for birds like Wheatears.
Features to manage
Overgrazing
•Erosion is a threat. Exclude stock from damaged areas to allow recovery to
take place. Follow the advice outlined in commonage framework plans, if
applicable.
•Cattle grazing in early summer can control bracken, but avoid cattle grazing in
winter, as the ground is often too wet and the vegetation has died back.
•Scrub and gorse should be undisturbed between March 1st and August 31st to
protect breeding birds, but can be controlled from September onwards.
Features to enhance
•Use cattle e.g. Kerry cattle to create small patches of poached ground.
Bare ground provides basking spots for invertebrates such as the large ground
beetle Carabus clatratus, which is rare throughout NW Europe.
•Place bare/worn branches from Gorse beside a bogpool to provide enhanced
basking for the large Raft Spider. This spider is semi-aquatic and occurs in bogs
or acid heath.
•Ensure a variety of heathers at different heights are present to provide
habitats for hares and Red Grouse. Fresh heather is used by Grouse for
feeding, and old heathers are used for nesting.
Turloughs
25
Features to note
Fluctuating water levels are key to the ecology of turloughs. Rising groundwater
causes them to flood in winter and dry out in summer. Heavy rainfall can also
result in sporadic floods throughout the year. Flood frequency and duration
creates a series of dry-wet zones, each of which support specialist plants and
invertebrates.
1
3
2
MSS
1. In winter,
turloughs provide
vital habitats for
water birds such as
Whooper Swans.
2. A dark moss covers
the stone walls
indicating the level to
which flooding occurs.
3. Hawthorn and other
shrubby trees indicate
the drier levels of the
turlough.
TC2
TC2
Features to manage
•Avoid early use of land too soon after flooding recedes. Heavier cattle can
damage vegetation, but a little poaching creates bare ground, which attracts
colonising plants and invertebrates.
•Wetter sites may need constrained management such as lighter grazing by
stock over a shorter period.
•Maintain sustainable grazing regimes to control scrub.
Turloughs (continued)
26
In addition to fluctuating water levels, management practices also maintain a
variety of habitats within each turlough. Turloughs are often managed as
commonage and subjected to relatively low intensity farming. Stocking levels
and grazing duration usually varies between landowners.
MSS
The vegetation zones in turloughs correspond to changes in hydrology.
Dry Sedge
Wet Grassland
Sedges
Sedge Heath
CM
CM
MSS
CM
CM
Features to maintain
•Retain a variety of extensive farming practices on turloughs. Keep different
stocking times and rates in different fields, where these occur on a turlough.
• Any management plans must be flexible and site specific. Conserving rare or
endangered wildlife must take account of their ecological requirements and may
need special measures on parts of the site.
•Turloughs are sensitive to run-off. Maintaining high water quality is particularly
important.
•Existing ditch work should continue in short sections over a 3-4 year rotation,
but avoid too much drainage as soil fertility is maintained by flooding.
•If necessary, allow drains and channels to silt up a little naturally.
Features to enhance
•Ensure extensive farming practices continue on adjoining land.
•Maintain a buffer around the turlough to improve water quality.
•Minimise disturbance to wintering wildfowl on the turlough.
Fens
27
Fens are found in damp hollows along lake margins, river floodplains and in
valleys between drumlins. They also occur where cutover bogs are undergoing
regeneration. Fen habitats often grade into wet grassland, bog and woodland.
2
3
1
Features to note
1. Open water body
may contain aquatic
plants like Bogbean
and Pondweed
2. Small shrubs and trees
begin to grow when a fen
is unmanaged. Birch fen
carr
describes
the
waterlogged
woodlands
found on fens. Alder,
Willow and Birch are
common.
3. Reedbeds provide
important
breeding
sites for birds such as
the Reed Bunting. To
ensure reedbeds do
not dominate open
water bodies, excess
reeds
should
be
removed in winter.
Features to maintain
•Fen habitats generally need to be waterlogged and therefore farming practices
should ensure that the fen does not dry out.
•Avoid extracting water for irrigation or for any other purpose. Maintain open
water bodies to retain the water levels in the fen. Block drains if the site has
become vulnerable to drainage.
•A buffer zone of 50m can be applied to protect the fen from runoff. Avoid the
use of fertilizers or lime in the buffer zone. In addition, ploughing, reseeding and
planting new crops or forestry should not be undertaken within the buffer zone.
Fens (continued)
28
Fen vegetation can be identified by Black Bog Rush (seen to the right of the
image below) and Purple Moor-grass with some sedges and rushes.
MSS
Features to manage
Features to enhance
•Getting the grazing right is a key tool to
maintaining a dynamic mix of fen habitats.
• Sustainable grazing maintains an open sward.
Stocking density can vary from 0.5 up to 2 LU/ha.
Maintain summer grazing between July to October
(0.5 cattle per hectare). Increase the grazing if it
looks like reeds are getting out of control.
•Remove cattle before October if the ground
becomes very waterlogged.
•If present, excess bracken and rushes must be
controlled. Top rushes in autumn, and follow up
with a sustainable level of cattle grazing (no more
than 0.5 LU per hectare).
•Put cattle on the field to allow aftermath grazing
and a little trampling from their hooves will help
to control bracken.
•If scrub is desired, small
sections (about 10%) at
the edge of the fen
should not be grazed or
cut, to allow scrub to
develop.
Do
not,
however, allow the scrub
to encroach on other
important areas within
the fen.
•Abandoned or neglected
fens can be restored by
incorporating grazing or
cutting on a three-four
year rotation. Remove
toppings.
Fen vegetation
Great Fen Sedge
Marsh
Helleborine
MSS
Butterwort
Wild Iris
CM
29
Natterjack Toad, Kerry
Acknowledgements
We thank several contributors for allowing
us to use their images in this booklet. All
credited photos are as follows: David
Bourke (DB), Brendan Canning (BC),
Gemma Carlin (GC), Tom Carlin (TC1),
Tom Cuffe (TC2), Martin Gammell (MG),
Yvonne Gammell (YG), Muriel Hayden
(MH), Gesche Kindermann (GK), Caitriona
Maher (CM), Daire Ó hUallacháin (DOH),
Micheline
Sheehy-Skeffington
(MSS),
Caroline Sullivan (CS) and Kay Synott
(KS). All uncredited photos were provided
by Caitriona Carlin.
This booklet was produced as a result of a
joint project between Teagasc and NUI
Galway.
Funding was provided under the National
Development Plan, through the Research
Stimulus Fund, administered by the
Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and
Food.
Freshwater Pearl Mussel in
Owenriff river, Oughterard
Spring Gentian, The Burren
YG
Machair grassland
GK
30
Further Information
Bug life Ponds and Ditches:
http://www.buglife.org.uk/OneStopCMS/Core/CrawlerResourceServer
.aspx?resource=72AFED3F-FEDE-442E-AEBEFB39494B30D4&mode=link&guid=7ea3d09b0c35414ead89bbe1aa60
227c
Farming in the Burren best practice guidance: www.burrenlife.com/
Forestry Commission Life in the deadwood:
http://www.forestry.gov.uk/pdf/lifeinthedeadwood.pdf/$FILE/lifeinthedead
wood.pdf
Invasive Species Ireland best practice management guidance:
http://invasivespeciesireland.com/files/public/BPM%20Guidance/Japanese
%20knotweed%20BPM.pdf
Japanese knotweed: Galway County Council factsheet:
http://www.galway.ie/en/Services/Environment/AlienSpecies/BrochuresMa
psDownloads/11045%20NUI%20People%20%20Nature%20Project%
20Japanese%20Knotweed%20Brochure.pdf
Natural England (2005). Protecting rivers, streams and ditches, grassland.
Environmental Stewardship Guidance 004:
http://naturalengland.etraderstores.com/NaturalEnglandShop/ESG00
4
Northern Ireland leaflets on farming for migratory birds and
yellowhammer:
http://www.ruralni.gov.uk/8.5_swans_fd.pdf;
www.ruralni.gov.uk/yellowhammer_cmb.pdf
People’s Trust for Endangered Species: Traditional orchards: a guide to
wildlife and management.
http://www.ptes.org/files/712_orchard_guide_edition2.pdf
Pond conservation advice sheets explaining how to create a pond:
http://www.pondconservation.org.uk/advice/makeapond/
RSBP Ditch Management:
http://www.rspb.org.uk/ourwork/conservation/managingreserves/ha
bitats/index/management.asp?view=print
RSPB Farming for Barn Owl leaflet:
http://www.barnowltrust.org.uk/content_images/pdf/RSPB_Leaflet_Farmi
ng_for_Birds_Barn_Owl_small_file_size.pdf
The Wildlife Trusts (UK) Ditch Management:
http://www.derbyshirewildlifetrust.org.uk/files/ditchmanagement.pdf
31
Selected Bibliography
Gibb H., Pettersson R.B., Hjältén J.,
Hilszczański J., Ball J.P., Johansson T.,
Atlegrim O. & Danell K. (2006) Conservationoriented forestry and early successional
saproxylic beetles: Responses of functional
groups to manipulated dead wood substrates.
Biological Conservation 129, 437-450.
Humbert, J-Y., Ghazoul, J. & Walter, T.
(2009). Meadow harvesting techniques and
their impacts on field fauna. Agriculture,
Ecosystems and Environment 130:1–8.
Ockinger, E., Anna K. Eriksson A.K. & Smith,
H.G.
(2006)
Effects
of
grassland
abandonment, restoration and management
on butterflies and vascular plants. Biological
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Potts, S.G., Woodcock B. A., Roberts, S. P.
M., Tscheulin, T., Pilgrim, E. S., Brown, V. K.
and Tallowin, J. R. (2009). Enhancing
pollinator biodiversity in intensive grasslands.
Journal of Applied Ecology 46 369–379.
Ross, S., Adamson, H. and Moon, A. (2003).
Evaluating management techniques for
controlling Molinia caerulea and enhancing
Calluna vulgaris on upland wet heathland in
northern
England,
UK.
Agriculture,
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Tallowin, J.R.B., Rook, A.J. and Rutter, S.M.
(2005). Impact of grazing management on
biodiversity of grasslands. Animal Science 81,
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Thompson, D.B.A., MacDonald, A.J. Marsden,
J.H. & Galbraith, C.A. (1995) Upland heather
moorland in Great Britain: a review of
international importance, vegetation change
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Trueman, I.C. & Millett, P. (2003). Creating
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MG
Teagasc
Environment Research Centre
Johnstown Castle
Wexford
Ireland
Tel 00 353 (0)53 917200
www.teagasc.ie
The Applied Ecology Unit
Centre for Environmental
Science
School of Natural Sciences
NUI Galway
Galway
Ireland
www.nuigalway.ie/appliedecolo
gyunit/farmlandhabitatsguide
ISBN 978-0-9537544-2-7
CS