Matakuliah
: M0034 /Informasi dan Proses Bisnis
Tahun
Versi
: 2005
: 01/05
Pertemuan 12
Systems Analysis and Design of
a Business Event Driven System
Learning Outcomes
Pada akhir pertemuan ini, diharapkan
mahasiswa
akan mampu :
• Menjelaskan tahapan dalam menganalisa
dan merancang aplikasi TI
Outline Materi
• Model-model tahapan Analisis &
Perancangan Sistem Informasi
– Data Flow Diagrams
– Kamus Data
– Logical Models
– Data Modeling
Lanjutan Dari
Pertemuan 11
STEP I-B: Systems Analysis - Structuring
Systems Requirements Using Process Modeling

Some analysis methods create several versions of data
flow diagrams, including




context data flow diagrams,
data flow diagrams of the current physical system, data flow
diagrams of the current logical system, and
data flow diagrams of the proposed logical system.
Often, each data flow diagram
includes a thorough description
of each data flow.
Irwin/McGraw-Hill
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2000
Exhibit 4-4
Christopher Inc., Context Diagram
Order
A context
O diagramDesired
the circle represents
shows the
sources
and
Shipping/Bill
Information
Sales
/
Decision
computer processing
Customers
destinations
of the data that
collection
Makers
are outside
the boundaries
system
Payment
or scope of the system
Finally, Christopher
Inc.’s
Christopher
Inc. needs a system
being analyzed. that
Christopher
Inc.
needs
a
enables
communication
with
systems should allow
Shipping
Data
You
do not showsystem
the
that allows
them
to
customers
times
during
access byseveral
internal
agents
data stores and datathe
flows
send
shipping
data to their
process
(e.g., customers
send
(such
as
management
and
in order
wellreceive
as payment
within the boundaries
of data asand
carriers
Carriers Confirmation
otheranddecision-makers)
to
data,
Christopher
Inc. sends
the system.
shipment
confirmations
criticalsales,
data billing,
and and
back shipping,
from
their
carriers.
payment data).
information.
Irwin/McGraw-Hill
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2000
Exhibit 4-5 Christopher, Inc.
Level 0 Data Flow Diagram
1.0 Process
customer
orders
Shipping request data
Bill
Customers
2.0 Process
shipments
to
customers
Desired
information
Decision
makers
Payments due
data
3.0 Process
payments from
customers
Irwin/McGraw-Hill
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2000
Exhibit 4-6 Christopher Inc.,
Level 1 Data Flow Diagram
Order
1.1
Approve
and record
customer
order data
Shipping
Request
Data
Irwin/McGraw-Hill
Customer order data
Approved
Order
Order data
1.2
Generate
informatio
n about
orders
Desired
information
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2000
Context Dictionary

Some analysts like to add more detail to context and
other data flow diagrams, by providing the data
elements that comprise the data flows on the diagram.
We will refer to these data flow details as the context
dictionary. Each entry in the context dictionary is
separated from its definition by an equal sign (=) and is
defined using the following set of symbols:
– +
– {}
Irwin/McGraw-Hill
To connect elements of the definition
To identify repeating elements of the definition
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2000
Sample Context Dictionary Entries





Sales-Invoice = Invoice # + Sale-Date + Register # + Customer
Name + Salesperson Name + {Merchandise Name + Qty-Sold +
Price + Item-Total} + Sale-Total
Customer-Profile = Report-Date + Name + State + Birth date +
Telephone + {Merchandise Description + Qty-Sold}
Product-Sales = Report-Date + {Merchandise # + Merchandise
Description + Qty-Sold + %Margin + $ Contribution}
Accounting-Revenue = Report-Date + Reporting-Period +
Revenue for Reporting-Period
Sales-by-Salesperson = Report-Date + {Salesperson Name +
{Merchandise-Description +
Qty-Sold + $ Contribution} +
Total Sales + Total Contribution
Irwin/McGraw-Hill
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2000
Additional Prototyping Steps
When you are creating data flow diagrams or work-flows for
The number
of reporting
required
for anmany
application
is a
a business
process,processes
how do you
know how
recording,
function
of the number
views required
by information
maintaining,
andofreporting
processes
you need customers.
for an IT You
will need
one reporting process for each required output view. To
application?
help you plan, determine how many of the following three types of
Yououtput
can use
youryour
REAL
model and
the context
diagram as a
reporting
views
information
customers
need:
guide.
- Source
documents:
printed
electronic transmission of event data documentation
•contextordiagram
- Preformated
reports:
•inflows
andrecording
outflowsprocess
to
You
need
one
ininyour
ITIT
application
forfor
Youreports
need one
maintenance
process
your
application
that
are
regularly
informationREAL
customers
Record
event
dataused
each business
event
object
in thebyapplication’s
model
each
resource,
agent,
and
location
object
in
the
application’s
-Ad hoc reports:
Maintain resource, agent, location data
REAL
model
reports
that
information
customers queries,
design and
request to provide
Report
source documents,
reports
a new view or a view that is rarely used
Irwin/McGraw-Hill
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2000
McKell's Retail Sale Store Case
Checkpoint
Reporting
toexample,
handle key
functions:
Four
processes
Usingmaintenance
our processes
retail sale
themanagement
IT application
••Maintain
Sales Invoice
- the customer's
bill;
Customer
Data,
would
have:
••Maintain
CustomerMerchandise
Profile - a report
that provides information
Data,
•One recording process (i.e., Record Sale Data) to
about customers and their purchasing habits;
•Maintain
and
record theSalesperson
one event ofData,
interest
• Product Sales - a report that provides the margin and
•Maintain Register Data
contribution for each merchandise items type sold;
to
keep
our
resource,
agent,
and
location
data
up
to
• Accounting Revenue - a report that provides a calculation
date
andrevenue
valid for a specific period;
of sales
• Sales by Salesperson - a report that details the
merchandise and contribution to sales revenue for each
salesperson)
Irwin/McGraw-Hill
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2000
Step 1-C Structuring Systems
Requirements Using Logical Models




After completing data flow diagrams that graphically show the
flow of data to fulfill the system requirements, many analysts
use logic models to represent the logic of the information
processes denoted in the data flow diagram(s).
Their objective is to produce structured descriptions and
diagrams that enumerate the logic contained in each process
denoted in the data flow diagram(s).
Techniques used during this step include structured English,
decision tables, decision trees, and state-transition diagrams or
tables.
We will overview just one of these techniques: Structured
English.
Irwin/McGraw-Hill
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2000
Structured English


Structured English is used to plan and document the steps of a
computer instruction set (a program) without using a
programming language. Structured English is used to define the
detailed logic of each information process (Exhibit 4-7).
Structured English focuses on conciseness and clarity to
document the essence of an information process and eliminates:







Adjectives.
Adverbs.
Compound sentences.
Non-imperative expressions.
All but a limited set of conditional and logic structures.
Most punctuation.
Footnote type details.
Irwin/McGraw-Hill
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2000
Exhibit 4-7
Structured English Example
Data
Input
Process
Output
Irwin/McGraw-Hill
For each Customer-Order do the following:
1. Search for Customer-Name
if found
Confirm customer info with customer
if not found
Enter customer data
2. Check for availability of inventory requested
if available
Confirm ship-to-information
if not available
Inform customer with Order-Confirmation
3. Provide customer with Order-Confirmation
4. Send notification to packing agents
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2000
Business Event Risks

In addition to including the logic for completing a desired task,
this step provides an opportunity for thinking about ways
information technology can be used to help reduce business and
information risks
 An operating event occurring at the wrong time or sequence.
 An operating event occurring without proper authorization.
 An operating event involving the wrong internal agent.
 An operating event involving the wrong external agent.
 An operating event involving the wrong resource.
 An operating event involving the resource amount.
 An operating event occurring at the wrong location.
Irwin/McGraw-Hill
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2000
Information Event Risks

Information event risks include the risks associated with
incomplete, inaccurate, or unauthorized recording, maintaining,
and reporting information activities:



Recording risks - Recording risks include recording incomplete,
inaccurate, or invalid data about an operating event. Incomplete data
results in not recording all of the relevant characteristics about an
operating event in the data stores. Inaccuracies arise from recording data
that does not accurately represent the event. Invalid refers to data that are
recorded about a fabricated event.
Maintaining risks - Maintaining risks are essentially the same as
recording risks. The only difference is that the data maintained relates to
resources, agents, and locations rather than operating events.
Reporting risks - Reporting risks include data that are improperly
classified, improperly summarized, provided to unauthorized parties, or
not provided in a timely manner.
Irwin/McGraw-Hill
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2000
STEP I-D: Systems Analysis: Structuring Systems
Requirements Using Conceptual Data Modeling



To focus on the specific data you want to capture to
describe reality and generate needed outputs we use a
conceptual data model.
Conceptual data models represent the entities or objects
you want to collect data about, and rules about the
meaning and interrelationships among these data
objects.
To complete this step, most analysts use one of two
modeling techniques: Entity-Relationship (E-R) or
Object Oriented (OO).
Irwin/McGraw-Hill
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2000
ERD

Data Entity



anything, real or abstract, about which we
want to store data.
synonyms include entity type, entity class
or object
Entity
Name
Data relationship


a natural association that exists between one
or more entities
business activities or events that link one or
more entities
Irwin/McGraw-Hill
Relationship
Name
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2000
Example
Customer
Places/ or
Is Placed By
Orders
Contains or
Is Contained By
Supplies
Irwin/McGraw-Hill
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2000
Entities


AGENTS
Entities that describe roles played in a system. They
usually represent people or organizations.

ACCOUNT, AGENCY, ANIMAL, APPLICANT,
BORROWER, CHILD, CLASS, CLIENT, CONTRACTOR,
CREDITOR, DEPARTMENT, EMPLOYEE, EMPLOYER,
INSTRUCTOR, MANAGER, OFFICE, SALESPERSON,
SUPPLIER, TEAM, VENDOR
Irwin/McGraw-Hill
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2000
Entities


RESOURCES
Entities that describe tangible things. Most tangible
things are easy to identify because you can see them.

BOOK, CHEMICAL, COURSE, DISK, EQUIPMENT,
MACHINE, MATERIAL, METAL ,PART, PRODUCT,
PROGRAM, SERVICE, SUBSTANCE, VEHICLE
Irwin/McGraw-Hill
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2000
Entities



EVENTS
Most events are easy to identify because the business
records data on forms or files.
Events are characterized by the fact that they happen or
have duration

AGREEMENT, APPLICATION, APPOINTMENT, ASSIGNMENT,
BACKORDER, BUDGET, CLAIM, CONTRACT, DEPOSIT,
DISBURSEMENT, FORECAST, INVOICE, JOB, LICENSE,
PAYMENT, PURCHASE ORDER, REGISTRATION, RESERVATION,
RESUME, SEMESTER, SHIPMENT, STEP, TASK, TEST, WORK
ORDER
Irwin/McGraw-Hill
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2000
Entities


LOCATIONS
Entities that describe locations

BRANCH, BUILDING, CAMPUS, CITY, COUNTRY,
COUNTY, ROOM, ROUTE, SALES REGION, SCHOOL
ZONE, PROVINCE, STORAGE BIN, VOTER DISTRICT,
WAREHOUSE ZONE
Irwin/McGraw-Hill
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2000
Entities and Entity Classes or Groups






Entities of a given type are grouped into an entity class
Thus, the EMPLOYEE entity class is the collection of all
EMPLOYEE entities
Entity classes are described by their structure
An instance of an entity is the representation of a particular
entity such as Customer 1234 and is described by its values of
the attributes
Name entities with nouns that describe above (singular)
INVOICE
Instances of the entity are referred to in the plural - Invoices
Irwin/McGraw-Hill
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2000
Attributes



Data attributes are characteristics that are common to
all or most all instances of a particular entity.
Synonyms include: properties, data elements,
descriptors, and fields
Attributes take on values for each occurrence of an
entity. An attribute must have more than one legitimate
value otherwise it is a constant.
Irwin/McGraw-Hill
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2000
Identifier


Identifier is an attribute or combination of attributes
that uniquely identifies one, and only one occurrence of
an entity.
Synonyms include key or primary key




For example, Employee instances could be identified by a
SocialInsuranceNumber, EmployeeNumber or
EmployeeName
Identifiers of an entity instance consists of one or more of the
entity’s attributes
An identifier may be either unique or non-unique
Identifiers that consist of two or more attributes are called
composite identifiers
Irwin/McGraw-Hill
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2000
Relationships


Entities can be associated with one another in relationships.
A relationship can include many entities; and the number of
entities in a relationship is a degree of the relationship.
 Degree 2 relationships are common and are called binary
relationships
 1:1
one to one AUTO-ASSIGNMENT
 1:N
one to many DORM-OCCUPANT
 N:M
many to many STUDENT-CLUB
Irwin/McGraw-Hill
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2000
Relationship Degree
SALESPERSON
FATHER
MOTHER
PARENT
SP-ORDER
Irwin/McGraw-Hill
ORDER
CHILD
Degree 2
Degree 3
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2000
Three Types of Binary Relationships
may or may not
These are
often called
HAS A
relationships
EMPLOYEE
1:1
AUTO
AUTO-ASSIGNMENT
must exist
DORMITORY
1:N
STUDENT
DORM-OCCUPANT
Shows
MAXIMUM
cardinality
STUDENT
N:M
CLUB
STUDENT-CLUB
Irwin/McGraw-Hill
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2000
Other relationships
Minimum cardinality
DORMITORY
1:N
STUDENT
DORM-OCCUPANT
Recursive relationship
STUDENT
1:N
ROOMS-WITH
Weak Relationships
EMPLOYEE
ID Dependent
entity
Irwin/McGraw-Hill
BUILDING
1:N
DEPENDENT
1:N
APARTMENT
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2000
ERD:
Semantic Object Model (SALSA)
CUSTOMER
SALESPERSON
N:1
I:N
SALES-ORDER
I:N
LINEITEM
I:N
ITEM
Access Database Relationships
Irwin/McGraw-Hill
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2000
REAL Diagram
(1,1)
Product-Item
(Resource)
(0,*)
(1,1)
List Items
Ordered (Event)
(0,*)
Take Order
(Event)
(0,*)
(1,*)
Customer
(Agent)
(0,*)
SalesPerson
(1,1) (Agent)
CUSTOMER
SALESPERSON
(Customer#, CustomerName, Street, City, State, Zip)
ITEM
(Item#, Name, Description)
(SalesPerson#, SalesPersonName)
SALES-ORDER
(Order#, Date, [Customer#], [SalesPerson#],Subtotal,
Tax, Total)
ITEMS-ORDERED (LineItem#, [Order#],Quantity, [Item#], ExtendedPrice)
Irwin/McGraw-Hill
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2000
Exhibit 4-8
Recursive Relationship Example
Employee
Irwin/McGraw-Hill
manages
Employee
manages
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2000
Relationships


Described by verbs or verb phrases
Multiple relationships are possible between two entities
Is Being
Taken by
COURSE
STUDENT
Was Taken by
Irwin/McGraw-Hill
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2000
Ordinality



Defines whether the relationship between entities is
mandatory or optional.
Ordinality determines the minimum number of
occurrences of one entity relative to another.
Ordinality must be defined in both directions
Irwin/McGraw-Hill
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2000
Cardinality


Defines the maximum number of occurrences of one
entity for a single occurrence of the related entity
This is the number to the right of the colon below.
Ordinality is the number to the left of the colon.
0:M
Order
Customer
1:1
Places
Irwin/McGraw-Hill
0:M
Products
Contains
1:M
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2000
Relationships That Can Be Described
by Data




Normally relationships are not described by data
attributes
However if Cardinality is many in both directions, the
relationship itself is frequently described by data
attributes.
“Many to Many” relationship
An associative entity is a data entity whose attributes
describe a relationship between two or more
fundamental entities
Irwin/McGraw-Hill
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2000
Many to Many
Service
1:M
Shipment
Requested
Service
Is
Placed
For
0:M
0:M
1:1
OR
Order
AND
1:1
1:M
Product
Irwin/McGraw-Hill
Ordered
Product
0:M
Is
Placed
For
0:M
Invoice
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2000
Linking Objects with
Many to Many (*:*) Relationships
Create a separate table
that includes the key attributes
from both object tables.
Irwin/McGraw-Hill
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2000
Linking Objects with One to One (1:1)
Relationships
Create a
separate table
that includes
the key attributes
from both objects
OR
Put the
key attribute
of either object
in the table
of the other
When you are linking two events with a 1:1 relationship,
either put the key of the prior event table
into the subsequent event table
or create a third table.
Irwin/McGraw-Hill
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2000
Linking Objects with One to Many (1:*) or
Many to One (*:1) Relationships
Post the key attribute of the object
with the 1 side of the cardinality
into the table of the
many (*) side of the cardinality.
If you follow the specified rule and find that
you would post the key of the event that occurs
second into the table of the event that occurs first,
create a separate table that includes the key attributes
from both event tables.
Irwin/McGraw-Hill
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2000
Exhibit 4-9 Christopher Inc. REAL Model
Resources
Agents
Events
(1,1)
(1,*)
(0,*)
Inventory
(1,*)
Receive
customer
order
(0,*)
(1,1)
(0,*)
(0,*)
Ship
Order
(0,*)
(0,*)
(0,*)
(1,*)
Bank
is kept
at
(1,1)
(0,*)
Customer
(1,1)
(1,1)
(0,*)
increases
Cash
(1,1)
(0,*)
Collect
payment
(0,*)
Shipping
personnel
Shipping
firm
sends
(0,*)
(1,1)
Irwin/McGraw-Hill
(1,1)
(1,1)
(1,1)
(0,*)
Order
personnel
Cashier
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2000
Exhibit 4-10 Different Notations to Represent
Relationships Cardinalities
(1,1)
(1,*)
(0,1)
(0,*)
Irwin/McGraw-Hill
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2000
Exhibit 4-11
Entity Attributes in an ER diagram
Inventory
Item #
Inventory
Item #
Inventory
Item #
Inventory
Item #
Irwin/McGraw-Hill
Inventory
Item #
Inventory
Inventory
Item #
Inventory
Item #
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2000
Exhibit 4-12
Example Relational Database Table
Customer Table
Customer # Last
Name
1001
Mays
1002
McCovey
1003
Bonds
Irwin/McGraw-Hill
First
Name
Willie
Willie
Bobby
Address
Telephone
112 Say Hey Ave.
147 Fencebuster Way
301 Out-of-here Blvd.
242-4242
999-9999
123-4567
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2000
SALES table
(without a separate table for the sale-inventory *:* relationship):
Sales
Event #
Terms
of Sale
Salesperson Customer Inventory Inventory Price
ID
ID
Item #
Quantity each
Date
1
2/5
2 10,
net 30
4
3654
987
5
2.50
1
2/5
2 10,
net 30
4
3654
785
4
1.75
1
2/5
2 10,
net 30
4
3654
562
15
1.99
2
2/5
2 10,
net 30
6
746
998
27
2.95
2
2/5
2 10,
net 30
6
746
624
94
1.05
3
2/5
COD
8
2956
847
18
9.99
3
2/5
COD
8
2956
112
29
5.75
3
2/5
COD
8
2956
413
8
3.00
3
2/5
COD
8
2956
335
57
7.50
Sales Event Table
Sales
Event #
1
2
3
Date
2/5
2/5
2/5
Salesperson
Terms
ID
2 10, net 30 4
2 10, net 30 6
COD
8
Customer
ID
3654
746
2956
(*:*) Sale-Inventory Table
Sales
Event #
1
1
1
2
2
3
3
3
3
Inventory
Item #
987
785
562
998
624
847
112
413
335
Inventory
Quantity
5
4
15
27
94
18
29
8
57
Price
each
2.50
1.75
1.99
2.95
1.05
49.99
15.75
16.00
17.50
Exhibit 4-13 Christopher Inc.
Event Logical Structures - Order Taking
CUSTOMER
Customer #,
Name,
Street Address,
City, State, Zip,
Telephone#
Credit Rating,
Credit Limit
EMPLOYEE,
Employee #,
Name, Address
Telephone #,
BirthDate
Start date,
Salary,
Irwin/McGraw-Hill
RECEIVE CUSTOMER
ORDER
Sales Order #,
[Customer #],
[Customer Order
Representative Employee #],
Date, Time, Instructions,
Cancel by Date, Location or
order
ORDER/INVENTORY
[Sales Order #],
[Inventory item #],
Quantity Ordered
INVENTORY
Inventory Item #,
Description,
Product Specification,
Reorder Point,
Current Price,
Beginning Quantity,
Beginning Quantity Date
Legend
RELATION
Primary Key
[Foreign Key]
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2000
Exhibit 4-13 Christopher Inc.
Event Logical Structures - Shipping
Sales Order
Customer
Employee
SHIPPING FIRM,
Shipping Firm ID#,
Shipping Firm
Name,
Address
Telephone #,
Contact Person
Rate Information
Irwin/McGraw-Hill
SHIP ORDER
Invoice #,
[Sales Order #],
[Customer #],
[Shipping Personnel
Employee #],
[Shipping Firm ID #],
Date, Time, Shipment
tracking #, Sales Tax
SHIP/INVENTORY
[Invoice #],
[Inventory Item #],
Quantity Shipped,
Price Each
Inventory
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2000
Exhibit 4-13 Christopher Inc.
Event Logical Structures - Cash Collection
BANK
CASH
Bank #,
Bank Name,
Address
Cash Account #,
[Bank #],
Type of Account
Beginning Balance
Date
Shipping Order
COLLECT PAYMENT
[Invoice #],
[Cash Receipt #],
Amount applied to this
Invoice
Customer
Employee
Irwin/McGraw-Hill
Cash Receipt #,
[Cash Account #],
[Customer #],
[Cashier Employee #],
Date, Time, Amount Received,
Electronic Funds Transfer #
SHIP/COLLECT
PAYMENT
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2000
Exhibit 4-14 Linking the Order Recording
Process with the Data Repository
INVENTORY
ORDER
Order-Data
Record
Sale
CUSTOMER
ORDER PERSONNEL
ORDER-INVENTORY
Irwin/McGraw-Hill
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2000
Exhibit 4-15
Sample Maintenance Processes and Data Access
Register-Data
Customer-Data
Salesperson-Data
Merchandise-Data
Irwin/McGraw-Hill
Update
Bank
Data
BANK
Update
Customer
Data
CUSTOMER
Update
Shipping
firm
Data
SHIPPING FIRM
Update
Inventory
Data
INVENTORY
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2000
Exhibit 4-16
Example fo Generating a Sales-by-Salesperson
Report
MERCHANDISE
Request Sales-bySalesperson report
Sales-bySalesperson
SALE
Report
Sale
SALESPERSON
SALE-MERCHANDISE
Sales-by-Salesperson = Report-Date + {Salesperson Name +
{Merchandise-Description + Qty-Sold + $ Contribution} Total
Sales + Total Contribution
Irwin/McGraw-Hill
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2000
Tugas
Agar perkuliahan pada
pertemuan 14 bisa berjalan
dengan lancar, Setiap
mahasiswa diwajibkan untuk
mendownload dan mencetak
kasus pada pertemuan 14
Berlanjut ke
Pertemuan 13