vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER
1
2
TITLE
PAGE
DECLARATION
ii
DEDICATIONS
iii
ACKNOWLEDEGMENTS
iv
ABSTRACT
v
ABSTRAK
vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
vii
LIST OF TABLES
x
LIST OF FIGURES
xii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
xvii
LIST OF APPENDICES
xix
INTRODUCTION
1
1.1
Background
1
1.2
Problem Statement
5
1.3
Goal
7
1.4
Objectives
7
1.5
Scope of the Study
8
1.6
Significance of the Study
11
LITERATURE REVIEW
13
2.1
Introduction
13
2.2
Water Quality
17
2.3
River Morphology/Hydrology
19
2.4
Bio-Assessment and Bio-Indicators
21
2.5
Calculation of Indices
25
viii
2.5.1
Diversity Index
25
2.5.2
Evenness Index
25
2.5.3
Richness Index
26
2.5.4
Index of Dominance
26
2.5.5
Ephermeroptera, Plecoptera, and
Trichoptera Index (EPT Index)
3
2.6
Habitat Characteristics
27
2.7
Urbanization
30
2.8
Logging
32
2.9
Agriculture
34
METHODOLOGY
36
3.1
Research Design and Procedure
36
3.1.1
Sampling Site
36
3.1.2
Sampling Station
37
3.1.3
Sampling Procedure
43
3.2
Operational Framework
46
3.3
Data Sources
47
3.4
Instrumentation and Data Analyses
47
3.4.1
Water Quality
47
3.4.2
Hydrology
50
3.4.3
Macro-invertebrate Sampling
and Analysis
52
3.4.4
Habitat Assessment
57
3.4.5
Correlation and Relationship
Analysis
3.5
4
27
Integration of the River Ecosystem Attributes
RESULTS
4.1
4.2
63
65
66
Physico-Chemical Properties
For Water Quality
66
River Morphology/Hydrology
78
4.2.1
River Discharge
79
4.2.2
Riverbed Deformation
81
ix
4.3
4.4
Habitat Assessment
85
4.3.1
Sediment Sizes Distribution
86
4.3.2
River Riparian Cover
and Compositions
96
4.3.3
Canopy Cover
97
4.3.4
River Meanders
101
4.3.5
Large Woody Debris
101
Benthic Macro-Invertebrates
4.4.1
Benthic Macroinvertebrate
Compositions
103
4.4.2
Biological Diversity Index
108
4.4.3
Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera,
Trichoptera (EPT) Index
4.5
102
115
Correlation Between Habitat Characteristics,
Physicochemical Water Quality and Biological
Index
117
5
DISCUSSION
123
6
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
136
6.1
Conclusion
136
6.2
Recommendations
137
REFERENCES
Appendices A - K
142
164- 340
x
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE NO.
TITLE
PAGE
1.1
Flow for the Proposed Project
10
3.1
Sampling Site Descriptions
37
3.2
Vegetative Coding System Used in Categorizing
Riparian Vegetation
63
3.3
Coding for Categorical Data
64
4.1
Rainfall Data for Sungai Mengkibol, Madek, Dengar and
Hulu Dengar from 2008 to 2010
4.2
80
River Discharges between November 2008 to June 2010
for all the rivers
81
4.3
River Substrate Median Sizes (D50)
86
4.4
Benthic Macro-invertebrate Composition for
Different Land Uses
105
4.5
EPT Indices from November 2008 to June 2010
117
4.6
Correlation between Physicochemical Water Quality and
Biological Index
4.7
Correlation between Physicochemical Water Quality and
Physical Characteristics
4.8
120
Correlation between Large Woody Debris (LWD) and
Biological Index
4.11
119
Correlation between Substrate Composition (D50) and
Biological Index
4.10
119
Correlation between Canopy Cover and
Biological Index
4.9
118
121
Correlation between Riparian Composition and
Biological Index
121
xi
4.12
Correlation between River Discharge and
Biological Index
6.1
Recommended River Health Standard for
Malaysian Rivers
6.2
139
Recommended Biodiversity Index for River
Health Assessment
6.3
122
140
Recommended Habitat Characteristics for River
Health Assessment
140
xii
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE NO.
TITLE
PAGE
1.1
Study Area and Sampling Station
9
3.1
Sampling Stations at Sungai Mengkibol
39
3.2
Sampling Stations at Sungai Madek
40
3.3
ampling Stations at Sungai Dengar
41
3.4
Sampling Stations at Sungai Hulu Dengar
42
3.5
Sampling Stations at Sungai Gunung Berlumut
43
3.6
Research Flowchart
46
3.7a
Channel Cross Sectional Diagram
51
3.7b
Conducting River Flow Measurement
52
3.8
Surber Net
53
3.9
Sampling of Benthic Macro-invertebrate
Using Surber Net
54
3.10
Pool and Riffle Diagram
59
3.11
Measuring Pebble Count
59
3.12
Schematic Diagram of Assessing Particle Size
During Pebble Count
60
3.13
Schematic Diagram of Assessing Canopy Cover
62
4.1
issolved Oxygen (DO) Concentrations at All
the Sampling Stations and Events
67
4.2
pH Readings at All the Sampling Stations and Events
68
4.3
Turbidity Concentrations at All the Sampling Stations
and Events
69
4.4
Salinity at All the Sampling Stations and Events
70
4.5
Temperature Readings at All the Sampling Stations
and Events
70
xiii
4.6
Conductivity at All the Sampling Stations and Events
4.7a
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) at All the
Sampling Stations and Events
4.7b
73
Ammoniacal Nitrogen (NH3-N) at All the Sampling
Stations and Events
4.7d
72
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) at All the
Sampling Stations and Events
4.7c
71
74
Suspended Solids (SS) at All the Sampling
Stations and Events
75
4.8a
Nitrate at All the Sampling Stations and Events
76
4.8b
Phosphate at All the Sampling Stations and Events
77
4.9
Water Quality Index (WQI) at All the Sampling Stations
and Events
78
4.10
Riverbed changes of Sungai Mengkibol
78
4.11
Riverbed changes of Sungai Madek
83
4.12
Riverbed changes of Sungai Dengar
84
4.13
Riverbed changes of Sungai Hulu Dengar
85
4.14
Sediment Size Distribution for Sungai Mengkibol
Upper Reach (Left) and Lower Reach (Right),
Sampling on 07 November 2008
4.15
88
Sediment Size Distribution for Sungai Mengkibol
Upper Reach (Left) and Lower Reach (Right),
Sampling on 20 March 2009
4.16
88
Sediment Size Distribution for Sungai Mengkibol
Upper Reach (Left) and Lower Reach (Right),
Sampling on 16 June 2009
4.17
89
Sediment Size Distribution for Sungai Mengkibol
Upper Reach (Left) and Lower Reach (Right),
Sampling on 08 August 2009
4.18
89
Sediment Size Distribution for Sungai Mengkibol
Upper Reach (Left) and Lower Reach (Right),
Sampling on 27 March 2010
89
xiv
4.19
Sediment Size Distribution for Sungai Mengkibol
Upper Reach (Left) and Lower Reach (Right),
Sampling on 19 June 2010
4.20
90
Sediment Size Distribution for Sungai Madek
Upper Reach (Left) and Lower Reach (Right),
Sampling on 09 November 2008
4.21
90
Sediment Size Distribution for Sungai Madek
Upper Reach (Left) and Lower Reach (Right),
Sampling on 22 March 2009
4.22
90
Sediment Size Distribution for Sungai Madek
Upper Reach (Left) and Lower Reach (Right),
Sampling on 18 June 2009
4.23
91
Sediment Size Distribution for Sungai Madek
Upper Reach (Left) and Lower Reach (Right),
Sampling on 09 August 2009
4.24
91
Sediment Size Distribution for Sungai Madek
Upper Reach (Left) and Lower Reach (Right),
Sampling on 28 March 2010
4.25
91
Sediment Size Distribution for Sungai Madek
Upper Reach (Left) and Lower Reach (Right),
Sampling on 20 June 2010
4.26
92
Sediment Size Distribution for Sungai Dengar
Upper Reach (Left) and Lower Reach (Right),
Sampling on 08 November 2008
4.27
92
Sediment Size Distribution for Sungai Dengar
Upper Reach (Left) and Lower Reach (Right),
Sampling on 21 March 2009
4.28
92
Sediment Size Distribution for Sungai Dengar
Upper Reach (Left) and Lower Reach (Right),
Sampling on 17 June 2009
4.29
93
Sediment Size Distribution for Sungai Dengar
Upper Reach (Left) and Lower Reach (Right),
Sampling on 10 August 2009
93
xv
4.30
Sediment Size Distribution for Sungai Dengar
Upper Reach (Left) and Lower Reach (Right),
Sampling on 29 March 2010
4.31
93
Sediment Size Distribution for Sungai Dengar
Upper Reach (Left) and Lower Reach (Right),
Sampling on 21 June 2010
4.32
94
Sediment Size Distribution for Sungai Hulu Dengar
Upper Reach (Left) and Lower Reach (Right),
Sampling on 17 June 2009
4.33
94
Sediment Size Distribution for Sungai Hulu Dengar
Upper Reach (Left) and Lower Reach (Right),
Sampling on 10 August 2009
4.34
95
Sediment Size Distribution for Sungai Hulu Dengar
Upper Reach (Left) and Lower Reach (Right),
Sampling on 29 March 2010
4.35
95
Sediment Size Distribution for Sungai Hulu Dengar
Upper Reach (Left) and Lower Reach (Right),
Sampling on 21 June 2010
96
4.36
Biodiversity Index in November 2008
98
4.37
Biodiversity Index in March 2009
98
4.38
Biodiversity Index in June 2009
99
4.39
Biodiversity Index in August 2009
99
4.40
Biodiversity Index in March 2010
100
4.41
Biodiversity Index in June 2010
100
4.42
The Density of LWD in all the Stations
at Every Sampling Event
102
4.43
Biodiversity Index in November 2008
112
4.44
Biodiversity Index in March 2009
113
4.45
Biodiversity Index in June 2009
113
4.46
Biodiversity Index in August 2009
114
4.47
Biodiversity Index in March 2010
114
4.48
Biodiversity Index in June 2010
115
xvi
5.1
Interaction between physicochemical water quality
with riparian composition, canopy cover, LWD and
channel deformation
5.2
129
Interaction between benthic macroinvertebrate
with substrate compositions, riparian composition,
physicochemical water quality, river discharge, LWD
and canopy cover
5.3
131
The Interplay of Various Ecological Factors on Aquatic
Life Forms – An Important Determinant
for a Healthy River
6.1
133
Recommended River Classification Based on
River Health
138
xvii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
WQI
-
Water Quality Index
INWQS
-
Interim National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia
EPT
-
Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera and Trichoptera
LWD
-
Large Woody Debris
DOE
-
Department of Environment
NTU
-
Nephelometric Turbidity Unit
NPK
-
Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium
USEPA
-
United States Environmental Protection Agency
PNMAP
-
Pacific Northwest Aquatic Monitoring Partnership
BOD
-
Biochemical Oxygen Demand
COD
-
Chemical Oxygen Demand
DO
-
Dissolved Oxygen
NH3-N
-
Ammoniacal Nitrogen
SS
-
Suspended Solids
CBOD
-
Carbonaceous Biochemical Oxygen Demand
K2Cr2O7
-
Potassium Dichromate
H2SO4
-
Sulfuric Acid
TS
-
Total Solids
TDS
-
Total Dissolved Solids
+
H
-
Hydrogen ions
H3O+
-
Hydronium ions
OH-
-
Hydroxide ions
Fe
-
Ferum
Al
-
Aluminium
Mn
-
Manganese
NO3-N
-
Nitrate Nitrogen
NH4-N
-
Ammonium Nitrogen
xviii
PO4-P
-
Orthophosphate
AN
-
Ammoniacal Nitrogen
YSI
-
Yellow Springs Instrumentations
APHA
-
Standard Methods for the Examination of Water
and Wastewater
CREAS
-
Christchurch River Environment Assessment Survey
xix
LIST OF APPENDICES
APPENDIX
TITLE
PAGE
A
Regulation and Guidelines
164
B
River Gauging Data Sheet
167
C
Wolman’s Pebble Count
193
D
Summary of Biodiversity Index
259
E
Graft of Biodiversity Index
263
F
Comparison between Biological Index, D50,
Water Quality Index (WQI) and River Classes
267
G
Taxonomy
273
H
River Physical Characteristics
279
I
Results of One-way ANOVA and Chi-square Test
283
J
Rainfall Data
326
K
Field Study Form
340