Dr JOHN WILLIAMS: Tel. 2404:
e-mail: john.williams@port.ac.uk
Environmental management means different things to different disciplines; this unit will take a
broad look at the techniques, issues and technical aspects associated with the subject.
Texts:
Kieley, Environmental Engineering
Development of the Sustainable Development Concept
1. Environmental Management
1.1.
Overview and History
Humankind has been practising environmental management since pre-historic times, since
people began felling trees and planting seeds. Traditionally environmental management has
been concerned oiiwith maximising production of goods from the environment. However, it is
only relatively recently that it has become more associated with environmentalism and the
new concepts such as sustainability.
1962 – Silent Spring - Rachael Carson1968 - Paul Ehrlich publishes book "Population Bomb" on the connection between human
population, resource exploitation and the environment.
1969 - Friends of the Earth
1969 - USA passes the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) creating the first national
agency for environmental protection - the EPA.
1971 - Greenpeace starts up in Canada
1972 - United Nations Conference on Human Environment held in Stockholm under the
leadership of Maurice Strong. The conference is rooted in the regional pollution and acid rain
problems of northern Europe. The Group of 77 and the Eastern bloc opposes this ecoagenda. Nevertheless, it provides the first international recognition of environmental issues.
The concept of sustainable development is cohesively argued to present a satisfactory
resolution to the environmental vs. development dilemma. The conference leads to the
establishment of numerous national environmental protection agencies and the United
Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).
1974 - Rowland and Molina release seminal work on CFCs in Nature magazine. They
calculated that if human use of CFC gases were to continue at an unaltered rate the ozone
layer would be depleted by many percent after some decades.
Late 1970s - Environmental catastrophes capture public attention. Eg. Amoco Cadiz oil spill
and Three Mile Island nuclear reactor leak. 80’s: Chernobyl, Bhopal
1979 - Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution is adopted.
1982 - The UN Convention on the Law of the Sea is adopted. It establishes material rules
concerning environmental standards as well as enforcement provisions dealing with pollution
of the marine environment.
1983 - World Commission on Environment and Development forms. Chaired by Norwegian
Prime Minister Gro Harlem Brundtland, the commission works for three years to weave
together a report on social, economic, cultural, and environmental issues.
1985 - antarctic ozone hole discovered by British and American scientists.
1987 - "Our Common Future" (Brundtland Report) published. It ties problems together and,
for the first time, gives some direction for comprehensive global solutions. It also popularizes
the term "sustainable development".
1987 - Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer is adopted.
1992 - U.N. Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) held in Rio de
Janeiro. It results in the publication the Convention on Biological Diversity, the Framework
Convention on Climate Change, the Rio Declaration, and a statement of non-binding Forest
Principles. The parallel NGO Forum signs a full set of alternative treaties.
It also results in Agenda 21, a 300-page plan for achieving sustainable development in the
21st century. The United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD) was
created in December 1992 to ensure effective follow-up of UNCED;
This conference was attended by 110 world leaders + 43 other country representatives, 2,500
NGOs, 8,000 journalists + 30,000 others.
1997. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the
Kyoto Protocol
2000: In a specially commissioned survey for UNEP's Global Environment Outlook 2000
(GEO-2000), 200 scientists from 50 countries, identified water as the most pressing
environmental issue for the next century. Although climate change (51%) was the leading
single issue, taken together, freshwater scarcity (29%) and freshwater pollution (28%) ranked
higher.
2002: U.N. Conference on Sustainable Development: Johannesburg (Rio+10) (also known
as World Summit on SD (WSSD)).
WHAT DOES SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT MEAN TO YOU?
Thinking that SD is a good idea is easy but defining it is very difficult, there are many levels to
consider.
1. SCALES OF SD
Global: here the picture is striking. A quarter of the world's people have to survive on
incomes of less than US$1 a day. A fifth have no access to health care. This is obviously
unsustainable, as poor people have often no choice but to use natural resources in an
unsustainable ways. E.g. Unstaianable deforestation for domestic fuel in Africa (UK before
IR)
The average American consumes about fifty-three times more goods and services than
someone from China. The United States contains 5 percent of the world’s population but
accounts for 22 percent of fossil fuel consumption, 24 percent of carbon dioxide emissions,
and 33 percent of paper and plastic use. A child born in the United States will create thirteen
times as much ecological damage over the course of his or her lifetime than a child born in
Brazil. He or she will drain as many resources as thirty-five natives of India
National: National Governments (like the UK) have recognised that SD is vital for their future
and the timescale extends beyond usual government lifetimes.
“All countries should “Encourage and promote the development of a 10 year framework of
programmes in support of regional and national initiatives to accelerate the shift towards
sustainable consumption and production to promote social and economic development within
the carrying capacity of ecosystems...”
Local: local communities can be more or less sustainable depending on their infrastructure
for food, transport etc. A compact town like Portsmouth (with people using Public Transport,
bicycles etc) has more chance of being sustainable than a sprawling spread out new town
with poor public transport.
One of the main outcomes of Rio was Agenda 21, a 40 chapter report on what was wrong
with the world and what should be done to correct it.
Agenda 21 is effectively a long term plan to integrate environment and development and
requires governments and local authorities to develop sustainable development strategies.
Examples of successful national campaigns include the UK's Voluntary Local Agenda 21
campaign, which recruited 60% of local governments to Local Agenda 21 planning in just
three years. Sweden, where every local government has or is in the process of adopting a
Local Agenda 21
Professional: Many professions have developed a code of conduct for the ethics of SD.
More Later
Individual: We are all responsible for more than average consumption. For example, the UK
is currently fifteenth in the top twenty consuming nations, and UK personal consumption is
eleventh in the top twenty consuming nations. Western Europe as a whole is second in
consumption pressure out of the seven regions of the world. And each of the 60.2 million
inhabitants of the UK currently has a consumer footprint (the amount of land required to feed,
clothe, house and generally support them) of 5.3 hectares. To be sustainable this must be
reduced to 1.6 hectares. See http://www.wwf.org.uk/filelibrary/pdf/livingplanet2002.pdf for
more information abut Ecological Footprints.
The concept of ‘voluntary simplicity’ is promoted by pressure groups and some people are
responding. However, ideology, inequalities and residual poverty in developed countries
mean that Governments are not inclined to introduce legal restrictions on consumption.
THINKING GLOBALLY, ACTING LOCALLY
These factors of course intertwined
1.1. Economic, Social and Environmental (and Technical) Factors
Therefore it is not only environmental indicators that are important but also economic, social
and technical issues.
Conventional Economics: Economics is not a thing in itself – just a means of placing a value
we place on social and environmental goods. Incluidng SD in economic decisonmaking
requires some way of placing vale on the goods and services of the environment.
Social: social inclusion is important in establishing sustaianable societies. Inequalities
(international e.g. economic refugees and national) create unsustainability.
Technical: if the LDC continue to develop using the polluting technologies used by the DC,
there is potential for worsening environmental conditions. That is why technology transfer is
important.
We will encounter these later when we consider the UK response to SD.
Some comentators also consider that several other factors made the US and Europe
Industrial Revoloutions sucessful but not SD:
Resources and Development – Europe IR on Resources Overseas Colonies
Protectionism and Economics – Europe IR with import duties and interest rates 0.25%
Patents – Europe IR no real patent enforcement
Pollution – Europe IR no real pollution control – Whol ‘Public Health in Victorian Britian’
1.2. Environmental Management and Sustainability:
There are some people who would prefer the word ‘DEVELOPMENT’ to be removed from SD
as it has assocaitions with ‘ECONOMIC GROWTH’ (e.g. anti-capilaist and anti-globalisation
protesters). Most governements and people are
There are hundreds of definitions of sustainable development. However, the starting point for
most people has been the definition prepared by the UN World Commission on Environment
and Development (the Brundtland Commission) in its report Our Common Future (Oxford:
Oxford University Press, 1987):
"Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It contains within it
two key concepts:
the concept of needs, in particular the essential needs of the world's poor, to which overriding
priority should be given; and
the idea of limitations imposed by the state of technology and social organisation on the
environment's ability to meet present and future needs."
There are various models to show the interaction of society, economy and the environment.
One model shows a Venn diagram:
A simpler version was shown at an ICE seminar I attended earlier in the year:
Economy
Labour Relations
Standard of
Living ?
EMS
Resources
SD
Society
Environment
Environmental Health
Pollution
Economic
Success
Unhappy
people / war
Ruined
environment
Sustainable
Development
Social
Success
Does not proceed,
or economic loss
High
Environmental
Quality
All models stress the importance of not just Environmental Factors, but Economic and Social
ones too.
The definitions and predictions of what a sustainable society would be like, one vision
presented at a conference I attended had calculated that a communal house, a shared fridge
and one trip in a bus to the next town per month was sustainable.
The progress towards sustainability will require transfer of technology to enable the poor to
establish sustainable livelihoods and adjustment of the pricing system for resources.
2.
PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS?
There are many environmental problems facing the world, many of which we will encounter
during the course. However there are some major issues of a more general nature, which are
at the cutting edge of the Sustainability Debate.
http://www.odci.gov/cia/publications/factbook/index.html
The CIA has identified the worlds problems as: ‘large areas subject to overpopulation,
industrial disasters, pollution (air, water, acid rain, toxic substances), loss of vegetation
(overgrazing, deforestation, desertification), loss of wildlife, soil degradation, soil depletion,
erosion‘)
2.1. GLOBAL ISSUES
2.1.1 Population
Population expansion, and the technologies and resources required by this population, is the
underlying cause of the major environmental problems facing the world.
Global population has risen from about 2.5bn at the middle of the century to about 6.2bn
today. The rate of growth has also been increasing especially in the less developed countries
(LDCs) whereas in the developed countries populations have stabilised. Approximately 4/5 of
the total population of the world live in LDCs where the high rates of infant mortality and
malnutrition mean that people are understandably more concerned with survival than
environmental pollution. In Africa as a whole the UN estimates that infant mortality is 20%
and 33% of the population are malnourished.
Homo sapiens as a species evolved about 100,000 years ago.
For most of this time a steady population
12 000 –10 000 BP environmental management by agriculture began
This has lead to an exponential increase in population
Billions
Human Population Growth
6
4
2
0
-12000
-7000
-2000
Years BP
Billions
Human Population Growth
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0
500
1000
Years BP
General form for an exponential population growth is:
X t  X 0e
Xt = population at time t
X0 = starting population
e = base of natural logarithms
rt
1500
2000
t = time
r = constant expressing the intrinsic rate of increase
This can be applied to any organism undergoing exponential population increase e.g.
bacteria, rabbits or humans.
If we consider the graph of human population against time:
The increases can be dramatically seen:
Bn
1
2
3
4
5
6
Year
1800
1930
1960
1975
1987
2000
Years to add 1bn.
100,000y
130
30
15
12
12
The model of exponential population growth;
i) Based on the patterns of human population growth over the last 200 years solve this
equation to find r.
ii) Predict the population in (i) 50 and (ii) 100 years time if this rate of growth continues
(i.e. same value of r).
Population bn.
high fertility (2.5)
20
15
medium fertility (2.06)
10
5
low fertility (1.7)
2000
2050
year
2100
Predicted world population growth over the next 100 years
The main worry is that the carrying capacity of the world will be exceeded. In microbiological
cultures exhaustion of food stocks results in a population crash, this was predicted as early as
1798 by Malthus. However, despite the malnutrition in many parts of the world it has been
predicted that the world can feed a population of 10bn so the limits may not be food but
environmental degradation, with pollution limiting life expectancy.
The impact of poverty on the environment can be seen in an analysis carried out by the World
Bank comparing environmental indicators with income levels around the world.
However the per capita environmental impact of populations in the developed countries is
higher due to higher energy consumption of more than 10x LDCs. The role of human
population on environmental change has been summarised as:
I=PAT
where:
I = impact on the environment
P = size of population
A= per capita affluence or consumption
T = technologies used to supply each unit of consumption
As P increases so too does T as resources must be obtained from less accessible sources,
either further away or deeper ores etc.
The per capita use of energy is increasing in LDCs at a rate of 0.035% per annum so the
pressures will increase. However the rate of growth per capita in energy consumption in
developed countries is more than twice this rate, so although the P is not increasing AT is.
The growth of population over the next century has been predicted by the UN under several
scenarios of fertility. The high fertility model of 2.5 children per couple would see a
quadrupling of population over the next 100 years.
%
100
%
70
Without safe water
Without adequate sanitation
60
40
50
20
0
0
100
1000
10000
per capita income
100000
1000
10000
per capita income
100000
microg/cub. m
microg/cub. m
50
1800
900
100
air particulates (urban)
25
air SO2 (urban)
0
100
0
1000
10000
per capita income
100000
kg
100
1000
10000
per capita income
100000
t
600
16
solid waste per capita
CO2 emissions per capita
8
300
0
100
0
1000
10000
per capita income
100000
100
1000
10000
per capita income
100000
Environmental indicators at different income levels (US $) (1Bn people live on less than
$1 /day
The main problem is therefore managing population. People only tend to move towards
smaller families when they are economically confident in the future and they do not require
children to care for them in old age. It will require significant effort and investment from
developed countries to help the extremely poor.
The issue of population was the main issue at the UN International Conference on Population
and Development in Cairo in 1994. The objectives of the Programme of Action from the
conference recognise the link between population control and development. It is recognised
that people only move towards smaller families when they feel economically secure. The
goals are: sustained economic growth in the context of sustainable development; education,
especially for girls; gender equity and equality; infant, child and maternal mortality reduction;
and the provision of universal access to reproductive health services, including family
planning and sexual health. The overall aim is to stabilise population to 7.8 billion by 2050.
Again the link between economic and social security is stresssed – sustainable societies.
2.1.2. Climate Change
Climate change, or global warming, is another of the major environmental problems facing the
world. The Earth's climate is driven by a continuous flow of energy from the sun. This energy
arrives mainly in the form of visible light. About 30% is immediately scattered back into space,
but most of the 70% which is absorbed passes down through the atmosphere to warm the
earth's surface. The earth must send this energy back out into space in the form of infrared
radiation. Being much cooler than the sun, the earth does not emit energy as visible light.
Instead, it emits infrared, or thermal radiation.
Gases that absorb infrared radiation reflected by the earth cause the greenhouse effect. The
main greenhouse gases (in order of total contribution to the problems are:
CO2: which occurs naturally in the atmosphere at about 0.033%. However fossil fuel
combustion has raised the atmospheric levels from about 315 to 350 ppm between 1960 and
1990. In the developed world 5 to 10t of CO2 are produced per capita per year. This is most
important greenhouse gas and production is mainly linked to energy consumption.
CFCs are man made chloro flouro carbons used in aerosols, foams, refrigerants and solvents.
Although the use of CFCs is being phased out under the Montreal Protocol these compounds
have long residence times because they are inert and atmospheric concentrations will
continue to rise over the next decade. Although present in smaller quantities than CO 2
certain CFCs (e.g. CFC-11) are more than 7000x more powerful as greenhouse gases than
CO2. CFCs also are major contributors to the other global problem of ozone depletion in the
upper atmosphere increasing UV intensities.
CH4 : methane is 11 times more powerful as a greenhouse gas than CO2. It is a product of
anaerobic degradation and is produced from cattle, landfill, rice paddies, termites, coal and
gas production
N2O is produced during N cycling activities (such as wastewater treatment) and combustion, it
is 200x as powerful a greenhouse gas as CO2
Water Vapour is a powerful greenhouse gas, however the human contribution to atmospheric
water vapour is minuscule compared to evaporation.
These gases are released directly during combustion, but we must also consider the
Embodied Energy in materials.
Carbon
dioxide
Methane
CFC11
CFC12
Nitrous
Oxide
Atmospheric conc.
ppm
ppb
ppt
ppt
ppb
Pre-industrial (17501800)
280
700
0
0
275
Present day
370
1720
280
484
312
Rate of change per year
1.5
10
9.5
17
0.8
50-200
10
65
130
150
Atmospheric lifetime
(yrs.)
ppm= parts per million ppb= parts per billion ppt = parts per trillion
Changes in Atmospheric Composition since the Industrial Revolution
Increases in Atmospheric Green House Gas Concentrations
2.1.2.1. Impacts
Humanity's greenhouse gas emissions have already disturbed the global energy budget by
about 2.5 Watts per square metre. This equals about one percent of the net incoming solar
energy that drives the climate system. One percent may not sound like much, but added up
over the earth’s entire surface, it amounts to the energy content of 1.8 million tonnes of oil
every minute, or over 100 times the world's current rate of commercial energy consumption.
The potential impacts of this energy are difficult to predict because of the complexity of the
biosphere and potential feed back systems. Global average surface temperatures have
increased by between 0.3° and 0.6°c since the late nineteenth century and could rise by
about a further 2°c by 2100.
Low-lying ground could be flooded as sea levels rise due to oceans expanding as they warm
up and polar ice-caps melt and swell their waters. Global sea levels have now risen between
10 and 25cm a further rise of about 50 cm by 2100 is predicted with and uncertainty range of
15 to 95 cm
Increases in Atmospheric Green House Gas Concentrations
IPCC Scenarios (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change)
This will create more evaporation of water and create a wetter world, however the distribution
of this water is difficult to predict. In certain areas the effects of global warming may be
positive, increasing crop yields for example, but other areas may experience dramatic and
unpredictable changes in weather.
2.1.2.2. Solutions
The solutions to global warming require cuts in green house gas emissions and increases in
carbon sinks such as forests.
The Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change adopted
in December 1997, contains emissions targets for developed countries.
The developed countries commit themselves to reducing their collective emissions of six key
greenhouse gases by at least 5%. This group target will be achieved through cuts of 8% by
Switzerland, most Central and East European states, and the European; 7% by the US; and
6% by Canada, Hungary, Japan, and Poland. Russia, New Zealand, and Ukraine are to
stabilise their emissions, while Norway may increase emissions by up to 1%, Australia by up
to 8%, and Iceland 10%. The six gases are to be combined in a "basket", with reductions in
individual gases translated into "CO2 equivalents" that are then added up to produce a single
figure.
If compared to the year 2000, the total cuts will equal about 10%. This is because many
industrialised countries have not succeeded in meeting their earlier non-binding aim of
returning emissions to 1990 levels by the year 2000, so that their emissions have in fact risen
since 1990. Compared to the emissions levels that would be expected by 2010 without
emissions-control measures, the Protocol target represents a 30% cut.
The Protocol encourages governments to cooperate with one another and to improve energy
efficiency, reform the energy and transportation sectors, promote renewable forms of energy,
phase out inappropriate fiscal measures and market imperfections, limit methane emissions
from waste management and energy systems, and protect forests and other carbon "sinks".
Under the Convention, both developed and developing countries agree to take measures to
limit emissions; promote technology transfer; cooperate on scientific and technical research;
and promote public awareness, education, and training. The Protocol also reiterates the need
to provide "new and additional" financial resources to meet the "agreed full costs" incurred by
developing countries in carrying out these commitments. However problems are arising from
the accounting of sinks.
This year the future of the protocol was called into doubt when the USA withdrew in March
2001. However the other 170 countries managed to save the agreement with the target of
5.2% from 1990 to 2008-12 being agreed upon and carbon accounting being identified as a
means of achieving this.
To meet the commitments to the protocol the UK Governement intoduced a Climate Change
levy (or tax) in April 2001. The levy will appies to sales of electricity, coal, natural gas, and
Liquified Petroleum Gas to the business and public sectors at the equivalent of the following
rates:
Energy Product
Electricity*
Coal
Natural Gas
Liquid Petroleum Gas
Rate (2001-02) p/kWh
0.43
0.15
0.15
0.07
* Electricity generated from ‘new’ renewable sources of energy (excluding large scale hydro)
and in good quality combined heat and power plants will be exempt from the levy.
It is expected to save 1mt of releases in the first year rising at least 5 million tonnes a year by
2010. The levy will therefore form an integral part of the Government’s climate change
programme, helping put the UK on track to meet its Kyoto target and moving beyond that
towards the Government’s domestic goal of a 20 per cent cut in carbon dioxide emissions.
The levy is forecast to raise around £1 billion in 2001/02, all of which will be returned to
business through a 0.3 percentage point cut in employers’ NICs and £150m of additional
support for energy efficiency measures.
However the enginering sector believes this is insufcient and is an ‘all stick and no carrot’
approach. Ut is estimated that the costs to UK engineering will be £90 m (Professional
Engineer, Sept 2001).
See New Scientist 2/8/03 for latest development in Energy Policy
3. Environmental Management Techniques and Principles
3.1. International Law
Many of the environmental problems identified above highlight the international if not global
impact of pollution and long-term timescale of many of these problems. Examples include:
Chernobyl
Acid Rain
The Greenhouse Affect
Environmental law is evolving to manage such problems which address pollution at a
continental or global level. These agreements are termed Soft Law and contain flexible
wording which steadily commits all parties to international obligations shaming by ngo and
international pressure
Such international laws include:
The Stockholm Agreement (1972) which includes 109 declarations on environmental issues
including the dumping of wastes and sludges at sea.
The Montreal Protocol (1987-90) on eliminating all CFCs and other ozone deleting chemicals
by 2000.
The Rio Summit (1992) with objectives on sustainable development and covering biodiversity,
climate change and tropical rain forests.
However, not all countries, especially LDCs, are party to these agreements. Many LDCs feel
that many of these agreements would be impediments to development and the subsequent
alleviation of poverty.
In practice, environmental impacts are often externalities to economic decision making.
However, natural ecosystems provide great economic benefit to humanity. There are various
techniques which are used to try to bring them in to the economic sphere. However,
environmental objectives are usually met by direct government control.
3.2. Implimentation of Soft Law
Eventually the Targets agreed in soft law need to be implimented.
The polluter pays principle has been well accepted since it was adopted by Organisation for
Economic Co-operation and Development in 1972. However there are several mechanisms
by which the polluter can be charged.
Emission Charges: direct charges on the quantity and quality of discharge (e.g. MOGDEN
for sewer discharges)
User Charges: fixed charge to recover treatment, disposal or administrative costs (i.e. landfill
tax)
Product Charges: levied on each unit of polluting product used. discharge (e.g. proposed EU
and US carbon taxes on fuels)
Marketable Permits: ambient environmental targets are set and a fixed number of permits
issued which can be traded ( e.g. proposed international carbon permits)
There are criticisms about charges that in giving a “licence to pollute” they legitimise pollution.
However a sliding scale of charges on a liquid discharge may offer an incentive for a polluter
to reduce discharges lower than a minimum discharge consent.
3.3. European Environmental Legislation
GLOBAL
AGREEMENTS
EU Legislation
National
Legislation
Local
Regulations
Levels of Environmental Legislation in the EU
In Europe there is a level of environmental legislation set by the Commission of the European
Union. Powers to legislate directly on environmental standards have only been available
since the Single European Act, however legislation has been enacted since 1970 under
powers to ensure similar regulations for trading. EU legislation is often then incorporated into
national legislation. Nation States can set more stringent environmental standards (e.g.
Germany and Denmark) but are not allowed to set less stringent. A final level of
environmental legislation is found at the local city/county level.
By 1992, the EC had enacted >200 pieces of legislation relating to pollution of air soil, water,
waste management, EIA, product specification and marine protection. Action is through a
range of legal acts, but the most common are Directives.
DIRECTIVES: These bind Member States to achieve certain results but allow them to choose
the form and method for doing so. There is generally a requirement for Member States to
adopt the directive in some form of domestic legislation. This is the most often used act in the
environmental field. These usually establish Environmental Quality Objectives, usually as
concentrations of substances that must be fulfilled (now or in the future) in air soil and water
i.e.
The legislation can be considered as covering water, air, land and more general
environmental considerations.
Water
EU water quality standards exist for:
-Potable Waters
-Raw Water Sources
-Waters for Fish and Bathing
-Wastewaters (both municipal and industrial)
Framework Directive 2000
Air
Waste
Hazardous Waset
Landfill Directive
General
The EIA Directive 1985 requires an assessment of the impacts of projects such as
motorways, hazardous waste disposals, oil; refineries, power stations and airports. Projects
are assessed on a range of issues such as:
Human health and environment
Quality of life
Biodiversity
This will be covered in more detail next week.
3.4. Water and Environmental Management in the UK
Environmental management by legislation has a long history in the UK,
the Alkali Act of 1862 and Rivers Pollution Act of 1876 were enacted in response to
pollution in London. A great many subsequent Acts have been passed giving a complex set
of legal tools (very characteristic of UK law). In the last decade this has been simplified by
new acts which have brought existing regulations together. This has included:
1990 Environmental Protection Act : which established the principles of Integrated Pollution
Control in to UK regulation.
1995 Environment Act which established a single body, the Environment Agency to regulate
environmental issues.
Most UK Environmenmtal Management is achieved through Regulation by the EA.
Regulation is concerned with regulating activities and pollutant discharges. This is often in
the form of licences to do (or not to do) something. This is usually to attain an environmental
quality objective or standard.
Examples include: discharge consents placed on wastewater treatment works to attain a
particular river water quality. I.e. BOD, SS NH4 95%ile values.
Therefore some judgement has to be made as to the required environmental quality. As it not
considered viable to set limits so low that the cost of meeting the standards is economically
prohibitive for the company a framework for decision making is required. The UK approach to
making decisions about regulating pollution is based around several principles:
BATNEEC: best available technology not entailing excessive cost
BEO: best environmental option
ALARP: as low as reasonably practicable
This allows a degree of flexibility in establishing the technologies and strategies employed.
Case by case/local coinditions
3.4.1. The Environment Agency
The Environment Agency is a non-departmental public body which has taken over the
functions of its predecessors, the National Rivers Authority, Her Majesty's Inspectorate of
Pollution, Waste Regulatory Authorities and some parts of the Department of the
Environment.
The responsibilities of the Agency are:
Regulating over 2000 industrial processes with the greatest polluting potential, using the
best available techniques not entailing excessive cost (BATNEEC) to prevent or minimise
pollution;
Advising the Environment Secretary on the Government's National Air Strategy, and
providing guidance to Local Authorities on their local Air Quality Management Plans;
Regulating the disposal of radioactive waste at more than 8000 sites, including nuclear sites,
and the keeping and use of radioactive material and the accumulation of radioactive waste at
non-nuclear sites only;
Regulating the treatment and disposal of controlled waste, involving 8000 waste
management sites and some 70,000 carriers so as to prevent pollution or harm to human
health;
Implementing the Government's National Waste Management Strategy for England and
Wales in its Waste Regulation work;
Preserving and improving the quality of rivers, estuaries and coastal waters through its
pollution control powers, including 100,000 water discharge consents and regulation of
more than 6000 sewage works;
Action to conserve and secure proper use of water resources, including 50,000 licensed
water abstractions;
Supervising all flood defence matters, involving over 43,000 kms of defence works;
Maintenance and improvement of salmon, trout, freshwater and eel fisheries, including issue
of some 1,000,000 angling licences;
Conserving the water environment, including areas of outstanding natural beauty or
environmental sensitivity extending to nearly 4 million hectares, and promoting its use for
recreation;
Maintaining and improving non-marine navigation, including licensing of some 40,000 boats;
Regulating the management and remediation of contaminated land designated as special
sites;
Providing independent and authoritative views on a wide range of environmental issues
which may involve analysis and comment
beyond the Agency's specific regulatory remit;
Liaison with international counterparts and Governments, particularly within the European
Union, to help develop consistent environmental policies and action world wide.
3.5. Sustainable Development Policies
3.5.1.
International
UN Commission on SD (http://www.un.org/esa/sustdev/csd/csd12/csd12.htm) – created
after Rio
This has established policies for the range of issues covered in the chapters of Agenda 21:
Agriculture
International law
Atmosphere
International cooperation for an enabling
environment
Biodiversity
Institutional arrangements
Biotechnology
Land management
Capacity-building
Major groups
Consumption and production patterns
Mountains
Demographics
Oceans and seas
Desertification and drought
Poverty
Education and awareness
Science
Energy
Small islands
Finance
Sustainable tourism
Forests
Technology
Freshwater
Toxic chemicals
Health
Trade and environment
Human settlements
Transport
Indicators
Waste (hazardous)
Industry
Waste (radioactive)
Information for decision-making and participation
Waste (solid)
Integrated decision-making
These policies eventaully result in targets being set. The WSSD Johannesburg was
(IMHO) most sucessful in setting targets for the Freshwater issue. These were:
Halve, by the year 2015, the proportion of people without access to safe drinking water
- Halve, by the year 2015, the proportion of people who do not have access to basic
sanitation
- Combat desertification and mitigate the effects of drought and floods
- Develop integrated water resources management and water efficiency plans by 2005, with
support to developing countries
- Support developing countries and countries with economies in
monitor and assess the quantity and quality of water resources
transition in their efforts to
However, many other organisations (e.g. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development) are involved in setting international policies and targets from a range of
perspectives.
3.5.2. EU Strategy
On 5/5/2003 the EU Strategy on SD was Adopted
(http://europa.eu.int/eur-lex/en/com/cnc/2001/com2001_0264en01.pdf)
This aims to put SD at the centre of EU activity by:
i. All polices to have SD at core (policy coherence)
Review: Common Agricultural, Fisheries, Transport and Cohesion Policies
ii. Support R+D in to SD
6th Framework over 2,000mEur
Intended to strengthen the scientific and technological capacities needed for Europe to be
able to implement sustainable development, and integrating its environmental, economic and
social objectives with particular regard to renewable energy, transport, and sustainable
management of Europe's land and marine resources.
iii)
Companies (>500 employees) invited to Submit a Triple Bottom line
Adoption of OECD guidelines for reporting not just on on economic prosperity, but also
environmental quality and the element which business had tended to overlook social justice.
iv.
EU Energy Tax/CO2 Trading System
v.
Others: Strategies
Public Health
Resourse Use
Transport
Land Use
Implimenting the Lisbon Strategy for Combating Poverty and Social Incluisions. 1 in 6
Europeans live in Poversty – especially single/old women also to address the issues of an
aging population.
3.5.3. UK Government Approach
The UK Government is of the firm belief that economic growth is not an option for SD, and
that it is necessary to improve living standards and for environmental protection. Many
initiatives talk of establishing a sustainable economy.
The policy is based on :
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Putting people at the centre. Sustainable development must enable people to enjoy
a better quality of life, now and in the future. In the words of the Rio Declaration, 'human
beings are at the centre of concerns for sustainable development. They are entitled to a
healthy and productive life in harmony with nature.'
Taking a long term perspective. Sustainable development thinking cannot restrict
itself to the life of a Parliament, or the next decade. Radical improvements have to begin now
to safeguard the interests of future generations. At the same time we must meet today's
needs - for example, people need warm homes, which, at present, means using
predominantly fossil fuels.
Taking account of costs and benefits. Decisions must take account of a wide
range of costs and benefits, including those, which cannot easily be valued in money terms.
In pursuing any single objective, we should not impose disproportionate costs elsewhere.
Public values, the timing of costs and benefits and risks and uncertainties should be taken
into account.
Creating an open and supportive economic system. Sustainable development
requires a global economic system which supports economic growth in all countries. We need
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to create conditions in which trade can flourish and competitiveness can act as a stimulus for
growth and greater resource efficiency.
Combating poverty and social exclusion. Eradicating poverty is indispensable for
sustainable development. We must help developing countries to tackle widespread abject
poverty. In this country, everyone should have the opportunity to fulfil their potential, through
access to high quality public services, education and employment opportunities, decent
housing and good local environments.
Respecting environmental limits. Serious or irreversible damage to some aspects
of the environment and resources would pose a severe threat to global society. Examples are
major climate change, overuse of freshwater resources, or collapse of globally significant fish
stocks. In these cases, there are likely to be limits which should not be breached. Defining
such limits is difficult, so precautionary action needs to be considered.
The precautionary principle. The Rio Declaration defines the precautionary
principle as 'where there are threats of serious or irreversible damage, lack of full scientific
certainty shall not be used as a reason for postponing cost-effective measures to prevent
environmental degradation'. Precautionary action requires assessment of the costs and
benefits of action, and transparency in decision-making.
Using scientific knowledge. When taking decisions, it is important to anticipate
early on where scientific advice or research is needed, and to identify sources of information
of high calibre. Where possible, evidence should be reviewed from a wide-ranging set of
viewpoints.
Transparency, information, participation and access to justice. Opportunities for
access to information, participation in decision-making, and access to justice should be
available to all.
Making the polluter pay. Much environmental pollution, resource depletion and
social cost occurs because those responsible are not those who bear the consequence. If the
polluter, or ultimately the consumer, is made to pay for those costs, that gives incentives to
reduce harm, and means that costs do not fall on society at large. At the same time, it may
not always be possible for everyone to bear all such costs, particularly for essential goods
and services.
The main issues are:
achieving major long-term cuts in greenhouse gas emissions whilst ensuring
secure, diverse supplies of energy at competitive prices in environmentally-acceptable ways;
improving the quality of our air;
safeguarding freshwater resources and water quality, at a time when pressures
from climate change and household demand are likely to increase;
safeguarding the health and productivity of the seas around our shores;
minimising the loss of our soil resource, and maintaining and enhancing soil quality;
reversing trends of damage to our landscape and wildlife;
reducing the spread of persistent or diffuse pollutants and improving
management of waste; working with others to combat global challenges such as climate
change and threats to biodiversity, oceans and forests.
To address these issues a series of targets and indicators has been established for:
Economic output
Investment
Employment
Poverty and social exclusion
Education
Health
Housing
Crime
Climate change
Air quality
Road traffic
River water quality
Wildlife
Land use
Waste
For example:
e.g. 1 River water quality
Objective: Improving river quality
Indicator: Rivers of good or fair quality
e.g. 2 Transport
Objective: Improve choice in transport; improve access to education, jobs, leisure and
services; and reduce the need to travel
Indicator: Road traffic
3.5.4. ICE Approach
“A major obstacle to sustainable development for much of the world remains a lack of
scientific and technical capacity” Kofi AnnanCivil Engineers are in a powerful position to
influence SD because they are often involved with large, energy and resource intensive
projects with direct environmental consequences. However, often good intentions are often
lost due to Conflicts within the industry (designers, clients, contractors) and economic factors
(the bottom line)
Several Focus Groups and Governement initiatives have identified Strategies to move the
Construction Industry towsrds a more sustainable construction industry in future:
Building A Better Quality of Life,A Strategy for Sustainable Construction (DETR 2000)10
Themes for Action
•Reuse existing built assets
•Design for minimum waste
•Aim for lean construction
•Minimise energy in construction
•Minimise energy in use
•Do not pollute
•Preserve and enhance biodiversity
•Conserve water resources
•Respect people and their local environment
•Set targetsTowards Sustainability
A Strategy for the Construction Industry Sustainable Construction Focus Group, 2000Steps to
Sustainability
•Promoting awareness and educating people
•Collecting information on sustainability initiatives
•Collecting practical examples of sustainability in action
•Monitoring and observing performance
•Demonstrating a clear business case for more sustainable buildings and construction
•Stakeholder dialogue
•Spreading best practice
•Setting and promoting targets
•Establishing a voluntary code of reporting
•Reviewing performance
•Learning from failures
However converting this into action can be difficult.
The ICE have established Environment and Sustaianabilty Board and Groups in each of the
regions (NOTE 13TH NOV PORTLAND ‘ Sustaianble Construction Meeting + food)
3.5.4.1. INDIVIDUAL ENGINEERS
How the individual Engineer fits into the process has been addressed by the model:
Our
Institutions
Code of
Conduct
Our
Organisations
Core
Values
Individual
Engineer
Sustainable
Outcome
Professionalism
Sustainability = thinking wider – affects our ethics
The Institution recognises the vital role played by its members in meeting the needs of
society. In identifying those needs, in devising and delivering solutions that are affordable and
meet society’s aspirations, civil engineers contribute to the well being of society, to economic
growth and to improved standards of living.
The Institution equally recognises the need to protect the environment and to use resources
in a way that provides for future generations.
To achieve these objectives requires solutions which strike an informed balance in terms of
cost, benefits, sustainability and acceptability within the broader legislative framework, and
involves an evaluation of whole life costs.
To ensure that due weight is given to sustainability and acceptability, all grades of
membership should aim to develop and maintain a high standard of environmental awareness
and to continuously improve environmental performance within their professional activities. In
their professional activities, members should be guided by the Engineering Council Code of
Practice on the Environment.
The Institution believes:
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every member should foster and promote the concepts of sustainable development
and environmental protection and the need to achieve an appropriate balance
between environmental and economic factors;
case histories of good practice should be collated and disseminated;
learned society activities should promote continuing improvement in environmental
performance and sustainability of design, construction and maintenance of civil
engineering projects and raise the environmental standards of the industries in which
civil engineers operate;
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members at all grades should receive education and training in environmental
legislation, design techniques and concepts of sustainability;
its members should promote and influence debate on environmental issues
associated with civil engineering projects with Government, public authorities, other
institutions and societies, the general public and other bodies and organisations in the
UK and internationally;
its members should formulate, promote and disseminate views on environmental
matters related to civil engineering concerns;
its own environmental performance should be monitored and enhanced through
formulation of a corporate environmental policy.
The Institution will strive to actively support and assist its members in achieving these aims.
3.5.4.2. PROJECTS
Civil Engineering Projects also do not sit in isolation, a similar model has been proposed for
how projects relate to SD:
Sustainable
Projects
Sustainable
Development
Sustainable
Society
Sustainable
Outcome
In addittion to legal processess, such as EA, the ICE have intoduced the Civil Engineering
Environmental Quality Awards (CEEQUAL) in August 2003.
CEEQUAL Award Types
Whole Project Award
Design Award
Construction Process Award
Design and Build Award
CEEQUAL Assessment Criteria
Project Environmental Management
Land Use
Landscape Issues
Ecology
Archaeology and Cultural Heritage
Impacts on Water Resources
Energy
Material Use
Waste Management
Transport
Nuisance to Neighbours
Community Relations and Joy in Use
CEEQUAL Awards
Awards are assessed independently and realted to the extent that the projects have
exceeded thje regulatory minimum standards,
e.g.
25% Pass
40% Good
60% Very Good
75% excellent
In September the first 8 Awards were announced with 4 excellent and 3 very good awards
announced.
What is CEEQUAL?
CEEQUAL is an awards scheme assessing the environmental quality of civil
engineering projects - a civil engineering equivalent to BREEAM for buildings. It is
being promoted by ICE, BRE, CIRIA and a group of committed industry
organisations. Its objective is to encourage the attainment of environmental
excellence in civil engineering projects, and thus to deliver improved
environmental performance in project specification, design and construction.
CEEQUAL uses a credit-based assessment framework, which is applicable to any
civil engineering project and includes environmental aspects such as the use of
water, energy and land as well as ecology, landscape, nuisance to neighbours,
archaeology, waste minimisation and management, and community amenity.
A CEEQUAL award publicly recognises the achievement of high environmental
performance. Awards are made to projects in which the clients, designers and
contractors go beyond the legal and environmental minima to achieve distinctive
environmental standards of performance.
Benefits of CEEQUAL
CEEQUAL:
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provides a benchmark standard for environmental performance
demonstrates the commitment of the civil engineering industry to
environmental quality
celebrates the achievement of high environmental standards in civil
engineering projects.
A CEEQUAL Award for your civil engineering project will identify you as an
organisation that:
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measures and compares standards of performance,
respects people and the society in which it operates,
undertakes its work in an ethical and sustainable manner,
acts in a socially and environmentally responsible way,
protects and enhances the environment,
and is concerned about the major impacts of construction on the environment
and the earth’s resources.
How does CEEQUAL work?
CEEQUAL is based on a self-assessment, carried out by a trained CEEQUAL
Assessor, who may be on the staff of – or contracted in by – the applicant. The
assessment is validated by an external Verifier appointed by CEEQUAL, who
works to support the Assessor, and the result and award recommendation is
checked and ratified by the CEEQUAL organisation.
The applicant organisation receives a copy of the latest version of the CEEQUAL
Manual and a spreadsheet scoring table, for use by their Assessor. The issues and
questions relevant to the project are scoped in consultation between the Assessor
and the Verifier.
The Assessor addresses the questions, completes the scoring spreadsheet and
gathers all the required supporting evidence. This may be done as a rolling
activity throughout the life of the project, or near the end of the project. For large
or long-term projects it is recommended that a decision on applying for CEEQUAL
assessment is taken early in the project life so that a CEEQUAL file of evidence
can be compiled without difficulty as the project progresses.
The Verifier reviews the scores and evidence in dialogue with the Assessor,
usually undertaking a site visit for this purpose. The final score and award
recommendation is checked and ratified by the CEEQUAL organisation, and signed
CEEQUAL Award certificates are presented to all the project partners, in a public
ceremony.
The Manual (without the scoring spreadsheets) can be purchased for £50 from
CEEQUAL. It can be used as a checklist to improve the environmental
performance of a project, without applying for an award or in order to apply for
an award at a later stage.
Who is it for?
The award is relevant to clients of civil engineering projects, civil engineering
design companies and civil engineering construction companies including:
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Contractors
Designers
Design-and-Build consortia
Private sector clients - developers and end-users of civil engineering
projects including water and wastewater treatment plants, energy plants,
railways, ports and roads
Public sector clients
Funders and regulators of construction schemes - who may want
reassurance that projects are carried out in an environmentally
responsible way.
Awards
Four types of award are available:
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Whole Project Award, which can be applied for jointly by the client,
designer and principal contractor(s)
Design Award, applied for by the principal designer(s) only
Construction Process Award, which can be applied for by the principal
contractor(s)
Design & Build Award for Design & Build and other partnership contracts.
The latter three awards have been made available for designers and/or
contractors who either wish to have their own contribution assessed alongside a
Whole Project Award or have a client who does not wish to apply.
What level of achievement merits a CEEQUAL Award?
CEEQUAL assesses the extent to which the project has exceeded the statutory
and regulatory minima, and it is unlikely that a 100% score is achievable in any
single project.
The Award thresholds, based on the maximum possible score for that project as
scoped by the Assessor and Verifier, are:
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Exceeded by
Exceeded by
Exceeded by
Exceeded by
Certificate),
25%
40%
60%
75%
–
–
–
–
Pass
Good
Very Good
Excellent (the actual score is given on the Award
How much will a CEEQUAL assessment and award cost?
The CEEQUAL organisation charges a fee to cover the cost of the Verifier and the
administration and progressive development of the CEEQUAL Scheme. The fee is
based on the civil engineering value of the project at contract award. The
minimum fee is £1000 for small projects up to £1 million, rising non-linearly to a
maximum of £10 000 for projects with a contract value of £200 million or more.
In addition, the applicant organisation will need to train or contract in a CEEQUAL
Assessor: the training fee is £600.What are CEEQUAL's objectives in relation
to other environmental tools?
The ICE and Project Partners' objective, in setting up CEEQUAL, has been to
encourage the attainment of environmental excellence in civil engineering
projects, and thereby to deliver improved environmental performance in project
specification, design and construction. In this, CEEQUAL complements current
Government strategy and guidance, including Building a Better quality of Life: a
Strategy for More Sustainable Construction (DETR 2000) and other government
initiatives such as the Government Construction Clients Panel's Sustainability
Action Plans and Toolkit.
Account has been taken of the substantial body of current research and
experience relating to sustainable construction, including the successful Building
Research Establishment Environmental Assessment Method (BREEAM), an award
scheme that has achieved a voluntary improvement in the environmental
specification, construction and performance of buildings. However, unlike the
BREEAM scheme for buildings, where there are specific schemes for different
types of building, CEEQUAL has been developed to be applicable to any civil
engineering project, including roads, railways; airports; coast, canal and river
works; water supply and wastewater treatment; power stations; and retail and
business parks.
CEEQUAL complements statutory requirements for Environmental Impact
Assessments and Environmental Statements by operating towards the end of
design or construction and assessing what is built and how it is built.
Target Alliance (Thames Water, Black & Veatch and Taylor Woodrow
Construction):
Reading Sewage Treatment Plant
Design and construction of the new Reading sewage treatment works is being
undertaken by an Alliance consisting of the client Thames Water Utilities Limited,
Taylor Woodrow and Black & Veatch. The main drivers for the £80m project are
to meet new regulated standards for effluent discharge and sludge disposal in
addition to eliminating odour nuisance.
The foundations for the project's CEEQUAL success lay in Thames Water's
determination to set very high standards of environmental performance as one of
the initial project objectives - a fact illustrated by the contractual emphasis on
environmental management and the presence in the project team of a dedicated
Environmental Manager. A thorough Environmental Impact Assessment,
completed prior to commencement, contained extensive mitigation measures for
the construction phase and enhancement proposals as part of the scheme design
- important environmental aspects of civil engineering which are highlighted by
the CEEQUAL process. Examples of the former are the air quality and landscape
strategies agreed with Reading Borough Council whilst enhancements include
creation of mounding as invertebrate sub-strate and the planting of over 20,000
native trees.
The Alliance made an early decision to operate an Environmental Management
System (EMS) with the aim of gaining certification to ISO14001. Having achieved
certification it is no surprise that the 'Project Environmental Management' section
of CEEQUAL was one of the project's highest scoring elements.
Although a somewhat detailed design was required for Planning purposes, thus
constraining total design freedom, the scheduling and tracking of decisions on all
environmental design matters once on site ensured that nothing 'slipped through
the net' in the course of making the many decisions that a project of this
complexity requires. The 'Environmental Design Checklist' is reviewed every two
months and all decisions and changes signed off once implications and
agreements are reached. This process, and the results from it, is a further
contributory factor to the high scoring in the CEEQUAL assessment.
From the early days of extensive site remediation, when an unexpected colony of
water voles was successfully relocated under a licence from English Nature, to
site controls as part of the EMS, the project to date has a very good
environmental record.
Northern Ireland Roads Service, Scott Wilson & Ferguson McIlveen, and
Whitemountain Quarries:
A5 Newtownstewart Bypass
Following the Good Friday Agreement the Chancellor announced a package of new
road schemes for Northern Ireland. As part of the implementation of this
package, the Department for Regional Development - Roads Service, appointed
Scott Wilson (Scotland) Ltd. / Ferguson McIlveen LLP in Joint Venture as
Consultants for the Newtownstewart Bypass at the end of 1998.
Working closely with Roads Service (Western Division), the team progressed the
scheme through the statutory procedures in accordance with the primary
legislation for Trunk Road schemes in Northern Ireland, The Roads (NI) Order.
This has included the production and publication of an Environmental Statement,
Direction Order and Vesting Order which were all subject to Statutory and Public
consultation.
The bypass crosses the scenic and environmentally sensitive Strule River valley
and significant measures were adopted to integrate the road into the landscape
and to mitigate environmental impacts both during construction and when the
road is in service. With a fish farm a short distance downstream and as an
important fishing river in its own right, protection of water quality in the Strule
was a major factor from the design viewpoint.
The Roads Service procured the works through a Design & Build Contract,
awarded to Whitemountain Quarries and their designers, Parkman, in June 2001.
The £7 million project involved 2.6km of single carriageway trunk road bypass,
some 900m of side roads, two composite bridges over the River Strule,
construction of a reinforced concrete box culvert beneath the new bypass to to
form a grade separated junction, and construction of 200m of retaining walls and
a reinforced concrete pedestrian underpass. The scheme also incoporated the
innovative use of a Sustainable Urban Drainage System (SUDS), which has no
kerbs, an open stone filter with perforated pipe at its base being installed along
both sides of the road. Surface water is led from these drains to five detention
basins. These are planted with reeds which can neutralise contaminants in normal
flows. Water from the basins is discharged to the river via penstocks which can be
closed in the event of a serious spillage.
The Newtownstewart bypass not only features many civil engineering techniques,
but was also the first contract in Northern Ireland to be carried out with an
integrated management system for quality, environmental and safety standards.
The bypass opened in December 2003, two months ahead of schedule.