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Chapter 10
γ -Ray and Neutrino Astronomy
R.E. Lingenfelter and R.E. Rothschild
10.1
10.1
Continuum Emission Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
10.2
Line Emission Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
10.3
Scattering and Absorption Processes . . . . . . . . . . 213
10.4
Astrophysical γ -Ray Observations . . . . . . . . . . . 216
10.5
Neutrinos in Astrophysics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
10.6
Current Neutrino Observatories . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
CONTINUUM EMISSION PROCESSES
Important processes for continuum emission at γ -ray energies are bremsstrahlung, magnetobremsstrahlung, and Compton scattering of blackbody radiation by energetic electrons and
positrons [1–6].
10.1.1
Bremsstrahlung
The bremsstrahlung luminosity spectrum of an optically thin thermal plasma of temperature T in a
volume V is [3]
1/2
32π e6 2π mc2
L(ν)brem =
Z 2 n e n i V g(ν, T ) exp(−hν/kT ),
3kT
3m 2 c4
where the index of refraction is assumed to be unity, m is the electron mass, Z is the mean atomic
charge, n e and n i are the electron and ion densities, and the Gaunt factor g(ν, T ) ≈ (3kT /π hν)1/2 for
hν > kT and T > 3.6 × 105 Z 2 K, or
L(ν)brem ≈ 6.8 × 10−38 Z 2 n e n i V g(ν, T )T −1/2 exp(−hν/kT ) erg s−1 Hz−1 .
207
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10.1.2
γ -R AY AND N EUTRINO A STRONOMY
Magnetobremsstrahlung
The synchrotron luminosity spectrum of an isotropic, optically thin nonthermal distribution of
relativistic electrons with a power-law spectrum, N (γ ) = N0 γ −S , interacting with a homogeneous
magnetic field of strength, H , is [5]
L(ν)synch ≈
or
10.1.3
0.8e3
3mc2
3e
4πmc
(S−1)/2
V N0 H (S+1)/2 ν (1−S)/2
L(ν)synch ≈ 3.60 × 10−23 V N0 H (S+1)/2 (4.2 × 106 /ν)(S−1)/2 erg s−1 Hz−1 .
Compton-Scattered Blackbody Radiation
The Compton-scattering (cs) luminosity spectrum of an optically thin, isotropic nonthermal distribution
of relativistic electrons with a power-law spectrum, N (γ ) = N0 γ −S , interacting with blackbody
photons having a temperature T is [5]
4e4
L(ν)cs ≈
3m 2 c3
or
h
3.6k
(3−S)/2
V N0 wbb T (S−3)/2 ν (1−S)/2
L(ν)cs ≈ 4.22 × 10−26 V N0 wbb T (S−3)/2 (7.5 × 1010 /ν)(S−1)/2 erg s−1 Hz−1 ,
where wbb is the energy density of the blackbody radiation.
10.2
LINE EMISSION PROCESSES
Important processes for line emission at γ -ray energies are electron–positron annihilation, nuclear
deexcitation, decay of radio nuclei, and radiative capture (see Tables 10.1–10.3).
10.2.1
Electron–Positron Annihilation Radiation
Positron annihilation can occur either via a direct interaction with a free electron or via positronium
formed by charge exchange with a bound electron or by radiative combination with a free electron
(e.g., [7–12]). See Figure 10.1.
Direct annihilation (da) leads to line emission, e+ e− → 2γ , at a mean energy,

Te 107 K,
+kTe /2,
2
hνda = m e c +3kTe /4, 107 < Te < 1010 K,

+kTe ,
Te > 1010 K,
where m e c2 = 510.9991 keV and Te is the temperature of the annihilating electrons and positrons.
The direct-annihilation line spectrum can be approximated by a Gaussian with a linewidth [12]
da ≈ 0.87(Te /104 K)0.50 keV, for Te 109 K, and at higher temperatures the width [10] da ≈ kTe ,
for Te 109 K.
The cross section for direct annihilation of a positron of energy γ m e c2 with an electron at rest [1] is
3σT
γ +3
γ 2 + 4γ + 1
2
σ (γ )da =
,
ln(γ + γ − 1) − 8(γ + 1)
γ2 − 1
γ2 − 1
where the Thomson cross section, σT = 8π e4 /(3m 2 c4 ) = 0.6652 barn (b).
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10.2 L INE E MISSION P ROCESSES / 209
Figure 10.1. Positron-annihilation rates in a thermal medium per unit density as a function of temperature,
for annihilation directly with free electrons (Rda /n e ) or with bound electrons (Rda /n H ), and via positronium
formation by radiative combination with free electrons (Rrc /n e ) or by charge exchange with neutral hydrogen
(Rce /n H ), from [8].
Annihilation via positronium formation leads to line emission only from the singlet parapositronium, para-Ps → 2γ , which forms 25% of the time. The mean energy of the positronium line,
hνps = m e c2 − (R/4n 2 ),
where the Rydberg R = 0.0136 keV, and n is 1 for the ground state.
The parapositronium annihilation line spectrum can be approximated by a Gaussian with a
linewidth rc ≈ 0.80(T /104 K)0.44 keV for radiative combination (rc), valid at least from 8 000 to
106 K, and a Gaussian linewidth ce ≈ 6.4 keV for charge exchange (ce), since the parapositronium
mean life of ∼ 10−10 s is much less than the energy loss time [12].
The total number of 511 keV line photons emitted per positron annihilation,
γ511 /e+ = 2 − 1.5 f ps ,
where f ps is the fraction of positrons that annihilate via positronium.
Annihilation via positronium formation leads to three-photon continuum emission from the triplet
orthopositronium, or tho-Ps → 3γ , which forms 75% of the time. The spectrum [7] of this emission is
η(1 − η) 2(1 − η)
2
2(1 − η)2
2−η
P(hν)3γ = 2
,
+
ln(1 − η) −
ln(1 − η) +
η
(π − 9)m e c2 (2 − η)2
η2
(2 − η)3
where η = hν/mc2 is the photon energy, and the spectrum is normalized to unity.
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Table 10.1. Nuclear deexcitation γ -ray lines.a,b
Energy
(MeV)
Emission
mechanism
Excitation
processes
Mean life
(s)
0.429 1
0.477 6
7 Be∗0.429 → g.s.
7 Li∗0.478 → g.s.
4 He(α, n)7 Be∗
0.718 3
10 B∗0.718 → g.s.
1.9 × 10−13
1.1 × 10−13
6.6 × 106
1.0 × 10−9
1.0 × 10−9
27.78
27.78
9.1 × 10−12
9.6 × 106
1.0 × 10−12
9.6 × 106
5.2 × 10−12
5.2 × 10−12
1.2 × 108
1.2 × 108
1.2 × 108
1.2 × 108
1.9 × 10−12
1.9 × 10−12
1.9 × 10−12
5.5 × 10−11
9.1 × 104
1.2 × 10−12
9.8 × 10−13
1.8 × 103
7.0 × 105
1.0 × 10−12
1.0 × 10−12
6.4 × 10−1
1.0 × 10−12
1.0 × 10−12
6.9 × 10−15
6.9 × 10−15
6.9 × 10−15
6.8 × 10−13
6.8 × 10−13
6.8 × 10−13
6.9 × 10−13
6.9 × 10−13
3.2 × 1013
3.2 × 1013
3.2 × 1013
2.4 × 10−13
2.4 × 10−13
9.8 × 10−14
9.8 × 10−14
101.9
8.7 × 10−14
101.9
4 He(α, p)7 Li∗
4 He(α, n)7 Be()7 Li∗ (10%)
12 C( p, x)10 B∗
16 O( p, x)10 B∗
12 C( p, x)10 C(e+ )10 B∗
0.846 8
56 Fe∗0.847 → g.s.
1.238 3
56 Fe∗2.085 → 56 Fe∗0.847
1.274 5
22 Ne∗1.275 → g.s.
16 O( p, x)10 C(e+ )10 B∗
56 Fe( p, p )56 Fe∗
56 Fe( p, n)56 Co(e+ ; )56 Fe∗
56 Fe( p, p )56 Fe∗
56 Fe( p, n)56 Co(e+ ; )56 Fe∗ (67%)
22 Ne( p, p )22 Ne∗
22 Ne(α, α’)22 Ne∗
22 Ne( p, n)22 Na(e+ ; )22 Ne∗
24 Mg( p, x)22 Na(e+ ; )22 Ne∗
25 Mg( p, x)22 Na(e+ ; )22 Ne∗
1.368 5
24 Mg∗1.369 → g.s.
1.408 3
55 Fe∗1.408 → g.s.
1.408 4
1.434 1
54 Fe∗1.408 → g.s.
52 Cr∗1.434 → g.s.
1.633 6
20 Ne∗1.634 → g.s.
28 Si( p, x)22 Na(e+ ; )22 Ne∗
24 Mg( p, p )24 Mg∗
24 Mg(α, α )24 Mg∗
28 Si( p, x)24 Mg∗
56 Fe( p, pn)55 Fe∗
56 Fe( p, 2n)55 Co(e+ ; )55 Fe∗ (18%)
56 Fe( p, x)54 Fe∗
56 Fe( p, x)52 Cr∗
56 Fe( p, x)52 Mn∗ (e+ ; )52 Cr∗
56 Fe( p, x)52 Mn(e+ ; )52 Cr∗
20 Ne( p, p )20 Ne∗
20 Ne(α, α )20 Ne∗
20 Ne( p, n)20 Na(e+ )20 Ne∗ (80%)
24 Mg( p, x)20 Ne∗
1.635 2
14 N∗3.948 → 14 N∗2.313
1.779 0
28 Si∗1.779 → g.s.
1.808 6
26 Mg∗1.809 → g.s.
28 Si( p, x)20 Ne∗
14 N( p, p )14 N∗
14 N(α, α )14 N∗
16 O( p, x)14 N∗
28 Si( p, p )28 Si∗
28 Si(α, α )28 Si∗
32 S( p, x)28 Si∗
26 Mg( p, p )26 Mg∗
26 Mg(α, α )26 Mg∗
26 Mg( p, n)26 Al(e+ ; )26 Mg∗
2.230 2
32 S∗2.230 → g.s.
2.312 6
14 N∗2.313 → g.s.
27 Al( p, pn)26 Al(e+ ; )26 Mg∗
28 Si( p, x)26 Al(e+ ; )26 Mg∗
32 S( p, p )32 S∗
32 S(α, α )32 S∗
14 N( p, p )14 N∗
14 N(α, α )14 N∗
14 N( p, n)14 O(e+ )14 N∗
16 O( p, x)14 N∗
16 O( p, x)14 O(e+ )14 N∗
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10.2 L INE E MISSION P ROCESSES / 211
Table 10.1. (Continued.)
Energy
(MeV)
Emission
mechanism
Excitation
processes
Mean life
(s)
2.613 8
20 Ne∗4.248 → 20 Ne∗1.634
20 Ne( p, p )20 Ne∗
20 Ne(α, α )20 Ne∗
9.2 × 10−14
9.2 × 10−14
9.2 × 10−14
9.2 × 10−14
1.8 × 10−13
3.5 × 10−14
3.5 × 10−14
6.8 × 10−11
6.8 × 10−11
6.1 × 10−14
6.1 × 10−14
6.1 × 10−14
6.1 × 10−14
6.1 × 10−14
6.1 × 10−14
1.1 × 10−15
1.1 × 10−15
6.3 × 10−12
6.3 × 10−12
6.3 × 10−12
6.3 × 10−12
2.7 × 10−11
2.7 × 10−11
2.7 × 10−11
2.6 × 10−12
2.6 × 10−12
6.8 × 10−15
6.8 × 10−15
1.2 × 10−14
1.2 × 10−14
24 Mg( p, x)20 Ne∗
2.741 2
2.754 0
16 O∗8.872 → 16 O∗6.130
24 Mg∗4.123 → 24 Mg∗1.369
3.736 5
40 Ca∗3.737 → g.s.
4.438 0
12 C∗4.439 → g.s.
28 Si( p, x)20 Ne∗
16 O( p, p )16 O∗
24 Mg( p, p )24 Mg∗
24 Mg(α, α )24 Mg∗
40 Ca( p, p )40 Ca∗
40 Ca(α, α )40 Ca∗
12 C( p, p )12 C∗
12 C(α, α )12 C∗
14 N( p, x)12 C∗
14 N(α, x)12 C∗
16 O( p, x)12 C∗
4.443 9
11 B∗4.445 → g.s.
5.104 9
14 N∗5.106 → g.s.
16 O(α, x)12 C∗
12 C( p, 2 p)11 B∗
12 C(α, x)11 B∗
14 N( p, p )14 N∗
14 N(α, α )14 N∗
16 O( p, x)14 N∗
6.129 1
16 O∗6.130 → g.s.
6.877 8
28 Si∗6.879 → g.s.
6.917 4
16 O∗6.919 → g.s.
7.115 2
16 O∗7.117 → g.s.
16 O(α, x)14 N∗
16 O( p, p )16 O∗
16 O(α, α )16 O∗
20 Ne( p, x)16 O∗
28 Si( p, p )28 Si∗
28 Si(α, α )28 Si∗
16 O( p, p )16 O∗
16 O(α, α )16 O∗
16 O( p, p )16 O∗
16 O(α, α )16 O∗
Notes
a Updated from Ramaty, R., Kozlovsky, B., & Lingenfelter, R.E. 1979, ApJS, 40, 487, with data
from Firestone, R.B. et al. 1996, Table of Isotopes (Wiley, New York).
b Because of recoil the observed γ -ray energy hν = hν(1 − hν/2Mc2 ), where hν is the transition
energy and M is nuclear mass.
Table 10.2. Nucleosynthetic radioactive decay lines.a
Radioactive
decay
56 Ni()56 Co
Dominant decay
mean life
Line energy
(MeV)
Branching ratio
(%)
8.80 days
0.1584
0.8119
0.7500
0.2695
0.4805
1.5618
98.8
86.0
49.5
36.5
36.5
14.0
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γ -R AY AND N EUTRINO A STRONOMY
Table 10.2. (Continued.)
Radioactive
decay
Dominant decay
mean life
Line energy
(MeV)
Branching ratio
(%)
48 V(e+ ; )48 Ti
23.0 days
0.9835
1.3121
0.5110
100.
96.6
50.0n c
56 Co(e+ ; )56 Fe
111.3 days
0.8468
1.2383
0.0064b
0.5110
2.5986
1.7715
1.0379
3.244
2.029
99.9
68.4
21.7
19.0n c
17.4
15.5
14.1
12.4
11.3
65 Zn(e+ ; )65 Cu
352.4 days
1.1155
0.0080
50.6
34.2
57 Co()57 Fe
392.1 days
0.1221
0.0064
0.1365
0.0144
85.5
48.9
10.3
9.5
22 Na(e+ ; )22 Ne
3.754 yr
1.2745
0.5110
125 Sb(e− )125 Te
3.979 yr
0.0274
0.4279
0.6006
0.6360
0.4634
62.1
29.4
17.8
11.3
10.5
44 Ti()44 Sc
91 ± 4 yr
0.0679
0.0783
0.0041
1.1570
0.5110
100
99.3
16.7
99.9
94.0n c
44 Sc(e+ ; )44 Ca
(0.236 day)
99.9
89.4n c
60 Co(e− )60 Ni
60 Fe(e− )60 Co
2.2 × 106 yr
(7.60 yr)
0.0586
1.3325
1.1732
26 Al(e+ ; )26 Mg
1.03 × 106 yr
1.8086
0.5110
99.7
82.1n c
40 K()40 Ar
1.84 × 109 yr
1.4608
10.7
2.0
100
99.9
Notes
a Based on data from Browne E., & Firestone, R.B. 1986, Table of Radioactive
Isotopes (Wiley, New York), Firestone, R.B. 1996, Table of Isotopes (Wiley, New
York), and Norman, E.B. et al. 1997, Nuc. Phys., A621, 92 for the 44 Ti mean-life.
b Bracketted line energies are the mean of two or more close lines.
c The number of 0.5110 MeV photons per positron annihilation, n = 2 − 1.5 f ,
ps
where f ps is the fraction of annihilation occurring via positronium formation.
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10.3 S CATTERING AND A BSORPTION P ROCESSES / 213
Table 10.3. Radiative capture γ -ray lines.a
Radiative
capture
1 H(n, γ )2 H
Thermal
cross section (b)
Line energy
(MeV)
0.332
2.2233
100
2.6
0.0144
7.6316
7.6456
0.3525
5.9205
6.0185
1.7252
64
30
24
12
9
9
9
56 Fe(n, γ )57 Fe
Branching ratio
(%)
Note
a Based on data Nuclear Data Group, 1973, Nuclear Level Schemes
A = 45 through A = 257 from Nuclear Data Sheets (Academic Press,
New York).
10.3
SCATTERING AND ABSORPTION PROCESSES
γ -Ray emission spectra can be modified by several processes: photoelectric absorption, electron–
positron pair production, Compton scattering, and Landau-level electron scattering in intense magnetic
fields [1–4, 13–21]. See Figure 10.2.
10.3.1
Photoelectric Absorption
The cross section for photoelectric absorption of a photon by the ejection of a K -shell electron from
an atom of nuclear charge Z is [1]
5
3σT Z 5 α 4 mc2
σ (hν) K =
(γ 2 − 1)3/2
2
hν
4 γ (γ − 2)
1
γ + γ2 − 1
×
+
1−
ln
,
3
γ +1
2γ γ 2 − 1
γ − γ2 − 1
where the Thomson cross section, σT = 8π e4 /(3m 2 e4 ) = 0.665 2 b, and the Lorenz factor of the
ejected electron γ = 1 + hν/mc2 .
10.3.2
Pair Production
The cross section for electron–positron pair production (pp) by a photon in the presence of a nucleus
of charge Z is [14]
109
2hν
3α Z 2 σT 7
σ (hν)pp =
−
ln
2π
9
54
mc2
for no screening when 1 hν/mc2 1/α Z 1/3 , and
1
3α Z 2 σT 7
183
σ (hν)pp =
−
ln
2π
9
54
Z 1/3
for complete screening when hν/mc2 1/α Z 1/3 .
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γ -R AY AND N EUTRINO A STRONOMY
Figure 10.2. Macroscopic cross sections for γ -ray attenuation by photoelectric absorption, Compton scattering
and pair production in hydrogen, air, NaI, and Ge, as a function of photon energy from [21].
The cross section for electron–positron pair production by the interaction of two photons of energy
hν and hν when hνhν > m 2 c4 is [1]
σ (hν, hν )pp
3σT
1+β
2
2
4
=
(1 − β ) 2β(β − 2) + (3 − β ) ln
,
16
1−β
where β = (1 − m 2 c4 / hνhν )1/2 .
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10.3 S CATTERING AND A BSORPTION P ROCESSES / 215
The attenuation coefficient for electron–positron pair production by a photon in a strong magnetic
field, in the limit h 2 ν 2 /2m 2 c4 B∗ 1 with B∗ = B/4.414 × 1013 G, is [15]

4


0.377
exp
−
, χ 1,
αmc
3χ
R1γ =
B∗ sin θ =

2h
0.6χ −1/3 ,
χ 1,
where χ ≡ (hν/2mc2 )B∗ sin θ and the threshold energy is 2mc2 / sin θ .
10.3.3
Compton Scattering
The cross section for Compton scattering (cs) of photons by electrons is [13]
1 4
3σT
2η + 2
1
σ (hν)cs =
ln(2η
+
1)
+
,
1−
+
−
8η
2 η 2(2η + 1)2
η2
where η = hν/mc2 is the initial photon energy.
The angular distribution of the scattered photons, in terms of the scattering angle φ, is
3σT
(1 + η + η2 − η cos φ)(1 + cos2 φ) − 2η2 cos φ
f (cos φ) =
.
8σ (hν)cs
(1 + η − η cos φ)3
The energy of the Compton-scattered photon hν relative to the initial photon energy hν is
r = hν hν = 1/(1 + η − η cos φ),
and the energy distribution of the Compton-scattered photons is
3σT
1 (ηr + r − 1)2
f (r ) =
r −1+ +
,
8ησ (hν)cs
r
η2 r 2
for 1/(2η + 1) ≤ r ≤ 1, corresponding to scattering angles 0◦ ≤ φ ≤ 180◦ , and f (r ) = 0 for other
values of r .
In a magnetic field, where the electron energies are quantized in Landau states, the total scattering
cross section for unpolarized photons in the Thomson limit is [16]
σT
h2ν2
h2ν2
2
2
1
σ =
,
+
sin θ + 2 (1 + cos θ)
2
(hν + hν B )2
(hν − hν B )2
where θ and hν are the angle and energy of the incident photon with respect to the magnetic field in
the electron rest frame, and hν B = eB/mc is the cyclotron frequency. When (hν/ hν B )B > 1012 G,
relativistic effects modify the cross section [17, 18].
10.3.4
Cyclotron Absorption
In a magnetic field, the cross section for absorption of photons by electron scattering from ground state
to higher Landau levels is [19]
απ 2 h̄ 2 c2
e−Z Z n−1
Z
n
2
2
σabs (θ ) =
δ(hν − hνn )
(1 + cos θ) + sin θ ,
En
(n − 1)!
n
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γ -R AY AND N EUTRINO A STRONOMY
where Z = h 2 ν 2 sin2 θ/2mc2 B∗ , E n = (m 2 c4 + h 2 ν 2 cos2 θ + 2n B∗ m 2 c4 )1/2 , and B∗ = B/4.414 ×
1013 G. The photons are absorbed at the resonant energies
hνn = mc2 [(1 + 2n B∗ sin2 θ)1/2 − 1]/ sin2 θ.
In the nonrelativistic limit, n B∗ = n B/4.414 × 1013 G 1, the absorption cross section is [20]
n
σabs
(θ )
απ 2 h̄ 2 c2
≈
m
n2
B∗ sin2 θ
2
n−1
1 + cos2 θ
,
(n − 1)!
where photons are absorbed at harmonics hνn = neB/mc.
10.4
ASTROPHYSICAL γ -RAY OBSERVATIONS
The γ -ray sky is extremely variable. Unlike the sources seen at longer wavelengths, most of the
astrophysical γ -ray sources have been seen only in their transient emission. Out of roughly a thousand
γ -ray sources less than 10% are relatively steady, persistent sources. The latter include a wide variety
of sources such as the Sun, supernova remnants, the interstellar medium, and the cosmic background
emission, but they are mostly compact objects: radio pulsars, accreting neutron stars, and blackhole
candidates, ranging from stellar mass objects in our own galaxy to supermassive, active galactic nuclei.
Figure 10.3. Total Crab Nebula and pulsar emission from 10 keV to 2 GeV. The Crab flux is the de facto standard
for the expression of source fluxes, e.g., 10 milliCrabs. This figure is provided to relate Crab fluxes at various
energies to the more useful photons cm−2 s−1 −1 keV. The plot is from Graser, U., & Schönfelder, V. 1982, ApJ,
263, 677, and references to observations contained within the plot can be found in that paper.
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10.4 A STROPHYSICAL γ -R AY O BSERVATIONS / 217
The vast majority of γ -ray sources, however, have been seen only briefly for times as short as a few
milliseconds to as much as 1000 s. These are collectively known as γ -ray bursts, but because of their
diverse properties, they may arise from a variety of sources and processes.
General reviews of astrophysical γ -ray sources are given in [22–25]. Figure 10.3 displays the
famous Crab Nebula spectrum.
Many γ -ray bursts are reviewed in [26–31].
The locations and properties of selected galactic and extragalactic γ -ray sources are listed in
Tables 10.4–10.9 and basic data on the major hard X-ray and γ -ray instruments are included in
Tables 10.10–10.12.
Table 10.4. Selected galactic sources > 100 keV.
Source
name
Typea
periodb
αc
δ
lI I d
bI I
Dist.e
Flux f
4 × 10−5
1 × 10−5
Lum.g
Refs.
30 keV
100 keV
8 × 1032
2 × 1033
[1]
[1]
Energy
X Persei
0352+308
XRBe
835 s
58.06
+30.90
163.08
−17.14
0.35
0422+328
BHC
64.63
+32.79
165.89
−11.91
2
2 × 10−2
2 × 10−3
1 × 10−4
30 keV
100 keV
300 keV
1 × 1037
1 × 1037
6 × 1036
[2]
[2]
[2]
Crab (total)
0531+219
SNR and
Pulsar
82.88
+21.98
184.56
−5.79
2
8 × 10−3
6 × 10−4
5 × 10−5
5 × 10−6
2 × 10−8
6 × 10−11
2 × 10−13
30 keV
100 keV
300 keV
1 MeV
10 MeV
100 MeV
1 GeV
5 × 1036
5 × 1036
3 × 1036
4 × 1036
2 × 1036
5 × 1035
2 × 1035
[3]
[3]
[3]
[3]
[3]
[3]
[3]
Crab (pulsar)
0531+219
Pulsar
0.0332 s
82.88
+21.98
184.56
−5.79
2
1 × 10−3
1 × 10−4
2 × 10−5
6 × 10−7
5 × 10−9
2 × 10−11
2 × 10−13
1 × 10−15
3 × 10−21
30 keV
100 keV
300 keV
1 MeV
10 MeV
100 MeV
1 GeV
10 GeV
1 TeV
7 × 1035
8 × 1035
1 × 1036
5 × 1035
4 × 1035
2 × 1035
2 × 1035
8 × 1034
2 × 1033
[4]
[3]
[3]
[3]
[3]
[3]
[3]
[5]
[6]
0535+262
XRBe
104 s
84.06
+26.32
181.47
−2.54
1.8
1 × 10−2
5 × 10−5
30 keV
100 keV
6 × 1036
3 × 1035
[7]
[7]
SN1987A
0536−693
SNh
(in LMC)
83.96
−69.30
279.71
−31.94
50
2 × 10−4
4 × 10−5
7 × 10−6
30 keV
100 keV
300 keV
1 × 1038
2 × 1038
3 × 1038
[8]
[8]
[8]
0620−00
BHC
95.05
−0.32
209.96
−6.54
0.87
3 × 10−3
2 × 10−4
30 keV
100 keV
4 × 1035
3 × 1035
[9]
[9]
Geminga
0630+178
Pulsar
0.2371 s
97.75
+17.81
195.14
+4.27
< 0.4†
3 × 10−11
6 × 10−13
100 MeV
1 GeV
< 6 × 1033
< 2 × 1034
[10]
[10]
Sp.-V/AQuan/1999/10/07:19:58
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218 / 10
γ -R AY AND N EUTRINO A STRONOMY
Table 10.4. (Continued.)
Typea
αc
δ
lI I d
bI I
Pulsar
0.0892 s
128.40
−45.05
1009−45
BHC
1055−52
Nova Muscae
1124−684
Source
name
periodb
Vela (pulsar)
0833−45
Dist.e
Flux f
Energy
Lum.g
Refs.
263.58
−2.82
0.5
4 × 10−7
2 × 10−7
1 × 10−8
3 × 10−9
6 × 10−10
1 × 10−10
2 × 10−12
100 keV
300 keV
3 MeV
10 MeV
30 MeV
100 MeV
1 GeV
2 × 1032
1 × 1033
5 × 1033
2 × 1034
3 × 1034
5 × 1034
8 × 1034
[11]
[11]
[11]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
153.37
−45.06
275.85
+9.35
3†
1 × 10−4
7 × 10−6
100 keV
300 keV
2 × 1036
1 × 1036
[13]
[13]
Pulsar
164.50
−52.45
286.00
6.65
1.53
2 × 10−12
100 MeV
1 × 1034
[14]
BHC
171.08
−68.40
295.31
−7.07
1†
4 × 10−3
2 × 10−4
1 × 10−5
30 keV
100 keV
300 keV
7 × 1035
4 × 1035
2 × 1035
[15]
[15]
[15]
1509−58
Pulsar
0.1502 s
227.50
−58.95
320.33
−1.16
1†
3 × 10−5
4 × 10−6
8 × 10−7
30 keV
100 keV
300 keV
5 × 1033
8 × 1033
1 × 1034
[16]
[16]
[16]
1543−47
BHC
235.96
−47.56
330.92
+5.43
4
8 × 10−3
2 × 10−4
30 keV
100 keV
2 × 1037
6 × 1036
[17]
[17]
1655−40
BHC
253.50
−39.85
344.98
+2.46
3.2
2 × 10−4
1 × 10−5
100 keV
300 keV
4 × 1036
2 × 1036
[13]
[13]
Her X−1
1656+354
LMXB
1.24 s
254.01
+35.42
58.15
+37.52
5
1 × 10−3
1 × 10−5
3 × 10−20
30 keV
100 keV
1 TeV
4 × 1036
5 × 1035
1 × 1035
[18]
[18]
[6]
GX 339−4
1659−487
BHC
254.76
−48.72
338.94
−4.33
10†
2 × 10−3
2 × 10−4
1 × 10−5
30 keV
100 keV
300 keV
4 × 1037
4 × 1037
2 × 1037
[17]
[17]
[17]
HMXB
255.14
−37.78
347.76
+2.17
1.7
1 × 10−3
3 × 10−5
30 keV
100 keV
5 × 1035
2 × 1035
[19]
[19]
BHC
256.29
−25.03
358.59
+9.06
10†
2 × 10−3
1 × 10−4
30 keV
100 keV
3 × 1037
2 × 1037
[20]
[20]
1706−44
Pulsar
0.1024 s
256.52
−44.42
343.10
−2.68
1.82
7 × 10−12
1 × 10−13
100 MeV
1 GeV
3 × 1034
6 × 1034
[5]
[5]
1716−249
BHC
259.94
−24.97
0.20
+6.99
2.4
4 × 10−4
2 × 10−5
100 keV
300 keV
5 × 1036
2 × 1036
[13]
[13]
Terzian 2
1724−308
LMXB
261.08
−30.76
356.32
+2.30
14†
2 × 10−4
3 × 10−5
40 keV
100 keV
1 × 1037
1 × 1037
[21]
[21]
GX 1+4
1728−247
LMXB
114 s
262.15
−24.70
1.90
+4.87
10†
2 × 10−3
4 × 10−5
30 keV
100 keV
3 × 1037
8 × 1036
[19]
[19]
BHC
264.48
−29.52
358.97
+0.52
10†
1 × 10−3
4 × 10−4
30 keV
100 keV
2 × 1037
8 × 1037
[22]
[22]
1700−37
Nova Oph ‘77
1705−250
1737.9−2952
Sp.-V/AQuan/1999/10/07:19:58
Page 219
10.4 A STROPHYSICAL γ -R AY O BSERVATIONS / 219
Table 10.4. (Continued.)
Source
name
Typea
periodb
αc
δ
lI I d
bI I
Dist.e
Flux f
Energy
Lum.g
Refs.
1740.7−2942
BHC
265.18
−29.71
359.12
−0.10
10†
5 × 10−4
7 × 10−5
1 × 10−5
40 keV
100 keV
300 keV
2 × 1037
1 × 1037
2 × 1037
[23]
[23]
[23]
“Galactic
Center”
1742−294
BHC
266.24
−29.38
359.89
−0.71
10†
3 × 10−3
1 × 10−4
2 × 10−5
30 keV
100 keV
300 keV
5 × 1037
2 × 1037
3 × 1037
[24]
[24]
[25]
1743−322
XRT
265.44
−32.21
357.13
−1.61
10†
6 × 10−4
4 × 10−5
30 keV
100 keV
1 × 1037
8 × 1036
[19]
[19]
GX 5−1
1758−250
LMXB
269.51
−25.08
5.08
−1.02
10†
8 × 10−4
4 × 10−5
30 keV
100 keV
1 × 1037
8 × 1036
[19]
[19]
1758−258
BHC
269.53
−25.74
4.52
−1.36
10†
4 × 10−4
6 × 10−5
3 × 10−6
30 keV
100 keV
300 keV
7 × 1036
1 × 1037
5 × 1036
[25]
[25]
[25]
1915+105
BHC
288.80
+10.95
45.37
−0.22
12.5
8 × 10−5
2 × 10−6
100 keV
300 keV
3 × 1037
6 × 1036
[13]
[13]
Cyg X−1
1956+350
BHC
299.04
+35.05
71.29
+3.12
2.5
9 × 10−3
1 × 10−3
4 × 10−5
1 × 10−5
30 keV
100 keV
300 keV
1 MeV
1 × 1037
1 × 1037
4 × 1036
1 × 1037
[26]
[26]
[27]
[27]
2000+25
BHC
300.18
+25.10
63.38
−3.00
2†
2 × 10−3
2 × 10−4
2 × 10−5
30 keV
100 keV
300 keV
1 × 1036
2 × 1036
1 × 1036
[28]
[28]
[28]
2023+338
BHC
305.53
+33.71
73.13
−2.09
2†
1 × 10−2
1 × 10−3
1 × 10−4
30 keV
100 keV
300 keV
7 × 1036
8 × 1036
7 × 1036
[13]
[13]
[13]
Cyg X−3
2030+407
HMXB
307.52
+40.76
79.76
+0.77
10†
1 × 10−3
2 × 10−5
5 × 10−20
2 × 10−26
30 keV
100 keV
1 TeV
1 PeV
2 × 1037
4 × 1036
1 × 1036
4 × 1035
[18]
[18]
[6]
[6]
Notes
a BHC, black hole candidate; HMXB, high mass X-ray binary; LMXB, low-mass X-ray binary system; SN,
supernova; SNR, supernova remnant; XRBe denotes Be star plus collapsed object binary system; XRT, X-ray transient.
b Pulsar periods in seconds are from Taylor, J.H., Manchester, R.N., & Lyne, A.G. 1993, ApJS, 88, 529, and an update
to be found at pulsar.princeton.edu. Binary pulse periods are from Nagase, F. 1989, PASJ, 41, 1.
c Celestial coordinates in degrees from Wood, K.S. et al. 1984, ApJS, 56, 507, except for SN1987A (West, R. 1987,
ESO Workshop on the SN1987A, 5); A0620−00 (Boley, F.I. et al. 1976, ApJ, 203, L13); Geminga (Bignami, G.F. et
al. 1983, ApJ, 272, L9); Vela Pulsar (Forman, W.R. et al. 1978, ApJS, 38, 357); Nova Muscae (West, R. 1991, IAU
Circ. No. 5165); GRS1227+0229 (Jourdain, E. et al. 1991, Int. Cosmic Ray Conf., 1, 173); PSR1509−58 (Princeton
Pulsar List, 1992); A1524−62 (Murdin, P. et al. 1977, MNRAS, 178, 27); 4U1700−37 (Forman, W.R. et al. 1978, ApJS,
38, 357); PSR1706−44 (Princeton Pulsar List, 1992); Terzian 2 (Hertz, P.L., & Grindlay, J.E. 1983, ApJ, 275, 105);
1740.7−2942 (Hertz, P.L., & Grindlay, J.E. 1984, ApJ, 278, 137); GRS1758−258 (Sunyaev, R. et al. 1991, Sov. Astron.
Lett., 17, 50); Briggs Source (Briggs, M.S. et al. 1995, ApJ, 442, 638); GS2000+25 (Tsunemi, H. et al. 1989, ApJ, 337,
L81); GS2023+338 (Wagner, R.M. et al. 1989, IAU Circ. No. 4783).
d Galactic coordinates in degrees.
e All distances in kiloparsecs. Those marked with a dagger (†) are assumptions, some of which are based on optical
limitations and some of which are unknown in which case the value of 10 kpc is used. Known distance references
are Crab (Trimble, V. 1968, AJ, 73, 535); X Persei (Brucato, R.J., & Kristian, J. 1972, ApJ, 173, L105); A0535+26
(Giangrande, A. et al. 1980, A&AS, 40, 289); SN1987A (Arnett, W.D. et al. 1989, ARA&A, 27, 629); A0620−00 (Oke,
Sp.-V/AQuan/1999/10/07:19:58
Page 220
220 / 10
γ -R AY AND N EUTRINO A STRONOMY
J.B. 1977, ApJ, 217, 181); Vela (Grenier, I.A. et al. 1988, A&A, 204, 117); A1524−62 (Murdin, P. et al. 1977, MNRAS,
178, 27); Her X-1 (Bahcall, N.A. 1973, Sixth Texas Symp., 224, 178); 4U1700−37 (Bradt, H.V., & McClintock, J.E.
1983, ARA&A, 21, 13); Terzian 2 (Malkan, M.A. et al. 1980, ApJ, 237, 432); GX 1+4 (Davidsen, A.F. et al. 1977, ApJ,
211, 866); Cyg X-1 (Margon, B.H. et al. 1973, ApJ, 185, L117); Cyg X-3 (Breas, L.L.E. et al. 1973, NaturePS, 242,
66).
f Observed flux in photons/cm2 s keV.
g Inferred luminosity per logarithmic interval assuming isotropic emission, E 2 × (Flux) = E 2 (keV2 ) ×
Distance2 (kpc2 ) × Flux (phot./cm2 s keV) × 2 × 1035 erg/s ln E.
h Peak flux from supernova explosion in the Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC).
References
1. Worrall, D.M. et al. 1981, ApJ, 247, L31
2. Paciesas, W.S. et al. 1992, IAU Circ. No. 5580; Harmon, B.A. et al. 1992, IAU Circ. No. 5584; McCrosky, R.E.
1992, IAU Circ. No. 5597
3. Graser, U., & Schonfelder, V. 1982, ApJ, 263, 677
4. Knight, F.K. 1982, ApJ, 260, 538
5. Kniffen, D.A. et al. 1992, ApJ, 383, L49
6. Weekes, T.C. 1988, Phys. Rep., 160, 1; Weekes, T.C. 1992, Space Sci. Rev., 59, 315
7. Ricker, G.R. et al. 1976, ApJ, 204, L73
8. Sunyaev, R. et al. 1988, Sov. Astron. Lett., 14, 247
9. Coe, M.J. et al. 1976, Nature, 259, 544
10. Hermsen, W. 1980, Ph.D. thesis, Leiden University; Bertsch, D.L. et al. 1992, Nature, 357, 306
11. Strickman, M.S. et al. 1996, ApJ, 460, 735
12. Hermsen, W. et al. 1992, AIP Conf. Proc., 280, 204
13. Grove, J.E. et al. 1997, AIP Conf. Proc., 410, 122
14. Thompson, D.J. et al. 1995, ApJS, 101, 259
15. Sunyaev, R. et al. 1992, ApJ, 389, L75
16. Ulmer, M.P. et al. 1992, ApJ, 417, 738; Matz, S.M. et al. 1994, ApJ, 434, 288; Marsden, D.C. et al. 1996, ApJ, 491,
L39
17. Harmon, B.A. et al. 1992, AIP Conf. Proc., 280, 314, 350
18. Trumper, J. et al. 1978, ApJ, 219, L105
19. Levine, A.M. et al. 1984, ApJS, 54, 581
20. Wilson, C.S., & Rothschild, R.E. 1983, ApJ, 274, 717
21. Barret, P.E. et al. 1991, ApJ, 379, L21
22. Grindlay, J.E. et al. 1992, A&AS, 97, 155
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25. Sunyaev, R. et al. 1991, Sov. Astron. Lett., 17, 50
26. Nolan, P.L., & Matteson, J.L. 1983, ApJ, 265, 389
27. Ling, J.C. et al. 1987, ApJ, 321, L117
28. Sunyaev, R. et al. 1988, Sov. Astron. Lett., 14, 327
Table 10.5. Brightest annihilation and nuclear line sources.
Process
Line E
(MeV)
FWHM
(keV)
Line
source
Max. flux
(ph./cm2 s)
Lum.
(erg/s)
Refs.
1.5 × 10−3 a
2 × 10−3
2 × 10−2
100
1 × 10−2
6 × 10−3
7 × 10−3
7 × 10−3
2 × 10−2
7 × 10−4
2 × 10−3
7 × 1036
1 × 1037
5 × 1019
2 × 1043
6 × 1037
6 × 1035 d
2 × 1036
6 × 1035 d
2 × 1037
2 × 1034
7 × 1034 d
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[6]
e± Annihilation Radiation
Redshifted
Redshifted
Redshifted
Redshifted
Redshifted
Blueshifted
Backscattered
Backscattered
0.511
0.511
0.511
0.430
0.480
0.481
0.404
0.413
0.500–2.0
0.170
0.19
2
3
< 10c
100
240
60
3
15
12
40
Interstellar gas
BH? near GCb
Solar flares
GBS 0526−66
1E 1740.7−2942
Nova Muscae
CrabPulsar transient
10June74 transient
Cygnus X-1
BH? near GCb
Nova Muscae
Sp.-V/AQuan/1999/10/07:19:58
Page 221
10.4 A STROPHYSICAL γ -R AY O BSERVATIONS / 221
Table 10.5. (Continued.)
Process
Line E
(MeV)
FWHM
(keV)
Line
source
Max. flux
(ph./cm2 s)
Lum.
(erg/s)
Refs.
1×10−3
1×10−3
3×10−4
2×10−4
4×10−5
4×10−5
4×10−5
4×10−5
4.5 × 10−4 a
4 × 1038
6 × 1038
4 × 1038
3 × 1038
3 × 1036
4 × 1033
5 × 1033
8 × 1034
8 × 1036
[11]
[11]
[12]
[12]
[13]
[14]
[14]
[15]
[16]
3 × 10−2
3 × 10−2
1 × 10−2
5 × 10−3
1 × 10−2
2 × 10−2
4 × 10−2
5 × 10−2
5 × 10−2
4 × 10−2
6 × 1019
7 × 1019
4 × 1019
2 × 1019
6 × 1019
1 × 1020
3 × 1020
4 × 1020
1 × 1021
1 × 1021
[17]
[17]
[2]
[2]
[2]
[2]
[2]
[2]
[2]
[2]
∼1
1.5 × 10−2
3 × 10−2
1.5 × 10−2
1 × 1022
6 × 1036 d
1 × 1037 d
2 × 1037 d
[2, 18]
[8]
[8]
[8]
Radioactive Decay
56 Co(γ , β + γ )56 Fe
57 Co(γ )57 Fe
44 Ti(γ )44 Sc
44 Sc(γ , β + γ )44 Ca
26 Al(β + γ )26 Mg
0.847
1.238
2.598
3.244
0.122
0.068
0.078
1.157
1.809
∼9
∼ 11
∼ 26c
∼ 32c
∼ 1c
∼ 2c
∼ 2c
∼ 30c
5.4
0.429
0.478
0.847
1.023
1.238
1.369
1.634
1.779
4.438
6.129
25c
30c
5c
30c
7c
15c
22c
20c
97c
114c
2.223
2.223
1.790
5.947
< 0.1c
70
95
25
Supernova 1987A
Supernova 1987A
Supernova 1987A
Supernova 1987A
Supernova 1987A
SN Remnant CasA
SN Remnant CasA
SN Remnant CasA
Interstellar medium
Nuclear Excitation
4 He(α, n)7 Be∗
4 He(α, p)7 Li∗
56 Fe( p, p γ )
12 C, 16 O( p, x)10 B∗
56 Fe( p, p γ )
24 Mg( p, p γ )
20 Ne( p, p γ )
28 Si( p, p γ )
12 C( p, p γ )
16 O( p, p γ )
Solar flares
Solar flares
Solar flares
Solar flares
Solar flares
Solar flares
Solar flares
Solar flares
Solar flares
Solar flares
Neutron Capture
1 H(n, γ )2 H
Redshifted
56 Fe(n, γ )57 Fe
Solar flares
10June74 transient
10June74 transient
10June74 transient
Redshifted
Notes
a Per radian of longitude in the Galactic Plane.
b Black hole? Near Galactic Center.
c Theoretical widths for unresolved lines.
d For a nominal distance of 1 kpc.
References
1. Haymes, R.C. et al. 1975, ApJ, 201, 593; Leventhal, M. et al. 1978, ApJ, 225, L11; Riegler, G.R. et al. 1981,
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13.
14.
15.
16.
Tueller, J. et al. 1990, ApJ, 351, L41; Leising, M.D., & Share, G.H. 1990, ApJ, 357, 638
Kurfess, J.D. et al. 1992, ApJ, 399, L137
Rothschild, R.E. et al. 1998, NucPhys B Proc. Suppl. 69, 68
Iyudin, A.F. et al. 1994, A&A, 284, L1
Mahoney, W.A. et al. 1984, ApJ, 286, 578; Harris, M.J. et al. 1990, ApJ, 362, 135; Diehl, R. et al. 1995, A&A.
298, 445; Naya, J. et al. 1991, Nature, 384, 44
17. Murphy, R. et al. 1990, ApJ, 351, 299
18. Hudson, H.S. et al. 1980, ApJ, 236, L91; Prince, T.A. et al. 1982, ApJ, 255, L81
Table 10.6. Cyclotron line sources.
Source
name
Object
type
α (deg)
δ (deg)
l (deg)
b (deg)
Centroid
(keV)
FWHM
(keV)
0115+634
X ray
Binary
19.82
+63.82
126.00
+1.11
12.1 ± 0.2
22.6 ± 0.4
0332+530
X ray
Binary
53.75
+53.18
146.05
−2.19
NP0531
0531+219
Pulsar
83.63
+22.01
0535+262
X ray
Pulsar
Vel X-1
0900−403
Field
(1012 G)
Refs.
3.1 ± 0.6
4.3 ± 0.9
1.0
[1]
28.5 ± 0.5
52.6 ± 1.4
11.0 ± 0.9
10 ± 3
2.5
[2]
184.56
−5.79
73.3 ± 1.0a,b
< 4.9
6.7
[3]
83.95
+26.29
181.09
−3.24
∼ 55
∼ 110
4.3
[4]
X ray
Binary
135.53
−40.56
263.06
3.93
25.6 ± 0.9
57.9 ± 1.0
7.2 ± 2.6
24.0 ± 1
2.2
[5]
Cen X-3
1119−603
X ray
Binary
170.31
−60.62
292.09
0.34
28.5 ± 0.5
6.3 ± 2.0
2.5
[6]
1538−522
X ray
Binary
235.60
−52.39
327.42
+2.16
20.9 ± 0.2c
5.1 ± 0.3c
1.7
[7]
4U1626−67
1627−673
X ray
Binary
248.07
−67.46
321.79
−13.09
∼ 7 ± 1b
∼ 18 ± 1b
36.5 ± 1.0
···
∼ 15
7 ± 2.8
∼3
[8]
Her X-1
1656+354
X ray
Binary
254.46
+35.34
58.15
+37.52
34.7 ± 0.9c
12.0 ± 2.0c
2.9
[9]
1907+097
X ray
Binary
287.41
+9.83
43.74
0.48
20.0 ± 1.0
4.1 ± 2.6
1.7
[10]
Cep X-4
2137+579
X ray
Binary
324.88
+57.99
99.68
+4.06
30.5 ± 0.4
15.0 ± 1.4
2.6
[11]
GRB870303
γ burst
···
···
20.4 ± 0.7
40.6 ± 2.6
3.5 ± 2.7
12.3 ± 6.3
∼ 1.7
[12]
GRB880205
γ burst
···
···
19.3 ± 0.7
38.6 ± 1.6
4.1 ± 2.2
14.4 ± 4.6
∼ 1.7
[12]
GRB890929
γ burst
···
···
26.3 ± 1.5
46.6 ± 1.7
7.5+4.5
−4.1
12.7+5.8
−5.1
∼ 2.1
[13]
Notes
a Transient line seen between 73 and 79 keV.
b Emission line.
c Line centroid and width are observed to vary with pulse phase.
Sp.-V/AQuan/1999/10/07:19:58
Page 223
10.4 A STROPHYSICAL γ -R AY O BSERVATIONS / 223
References
1. Nagase, F. et al. 1991, ApJ, 375, L49
2. Makishima, K. et al. 1990, ApJ, 365, L59
3. Ling, J.C. et al. 1979, ApJ, 231, 896; Ayre, C.A. et al. 1983, MNRAS, 205, 285
4. Grove, J.E. et al. 1995, ApJ, 438, L25; Maisack, M. et al. 1997, A&A, 325, 212
5. Makishima, K., & Mihara, T. 1992, Frontiers of X-Ray Astronomy (University Academy Press, Tokyo)
p. 23; Mihara, T. 1995, Thesis, University of Tokyo; Kretschmar, P. et al. 1997, A&A, 325, 623; Dal
Fiume, D. et al. 1998, Nuc Phys B Proc. Suppl., 69, 145
6. Dal Fiume, D. et al. 1998, Nuc Phys B Proc. Suppl., 69, 145
7. Clark, G.W. et al. 1990, ApJ, 353, 274
8. Pravdo, S.H. et al. 1979, ApJ, 231, 912; Orlandini, M. 1998, ApJ, 500, L163
9. Mihara, T. et al. 1990, Nature, 346, 250
10. Makishima, K., & Mihara, T. 1992, Frontiers of X-Ray Astronomy (University Academy Press, Tokyo)
p. 23; Mihara, T. 1995, Thesis, University of Tokyo
11. Mihara, T. et al. 1991, ApJ, 379, L61
12. Murakami, T. et al. 1988, Nature, 335, 234
13. Yoshida, A. et al. 1991, PASJ, 43, L69
Table 10.7. γ -Ray burst source positions < 100 arcmin2 .a,b
Burst
source
Date
(yr mo day)
Time
(s)
F > 30 keV
(erg/cm2 )
GBS0010−160
GBS0026−630
GBS0117−289
GBS0502+118
GBS0526−661
GBS0615−461
GBS0625−346
GBS0653+793
GBS0702+388
GBS0723−271
GBS0813−326
GBS0836−189
GBS0847−361
GBS0912−510
GBS1028+459
GBS1104−229
GBS1156+652
GBS1205+239
GBS1257+592
GBS1327+375
GBS1330−164
GBS1400−468
GBS1407+353
GBS1412+789
GBS1450−693
GBS1528+196
GBS1625−583
GBS1630−765
GBS1703+006
GBS1730+491
GBS1756−261
GBS1806−207
79 11 16
98 01 09e
78 11 19
97 02 28d
79 03 05bc
79 03 13
79 10 14
97 05 08d
98 03 29d
91 11 09
92 05 01
98 03 26d
92 03 11
91 05 22
79 03 29
91 11 18
97 12 14d
78 11 24
97 12 27d
92 07 20
92 05 17
79 03 07
91 11 04
79 06 13
97 04 02e
97 01 11e
91 07 17
79 01 13
78 11 21a
96 07 20
91 04 21
79 01 07c
51 400
4 341
34 021
10 681
57 125
62 636
40 412
78 106
13 478
12 458
76 695
76 733
08 423
44 036
80 512
68 252
84 041
14 130
30 187
11 524
11 875
80 330
54 282
50 755
80 352
35 040
16 378
27 360
05 736
41 813
33 246
20 155
2 × 10−4
4 × 10−6
3 × 10−4
1 × 10−5
1 × 10−3
6 × 10−5
1 × 10−5
4 × 10−6
5 × 10−5
7 × 10−6
4 × 10−5
1 × 10−6
1 × 10−4
3 × 10−5
7 × 10−5
5 × 10−5
1 × 10−5
4 × 10−5
7 × 10−7
2 × 10−5
4 × 10−5
2 × 10−4
1 × 10−5
4 × 10−7
∼ 10−5
∼ 10−5
7 × 10−6
1 × 10−4
9 × 10−5
3 × 10−6
4 × 10−6
1 × 10−6
α
(deg)
δ
(deg)
l
(deg)
b
(deg)
Error box
(arcmin2 )
3.20
6.48
19.72
75.43
81.51
94.1
96.7
103.37
105.65
110.8
123.34
129.14
131.8
137.9
157.8
166.0
179.13
181.94
194.31
201.8
202.6
210.69
211.8
213.1
222.53
232.06
246.3
249.2
256.4
262.65
268.9
272.17
−15.69
−63.02
−28.64
+11.78
−66.08
−46.1
−34.6
+79.29
+38.84
−27.1
−32.59
−18.86
−36.1
−51.0
+45.6
−22.9
+65.20
+23.65
+59.40
+37.5
−16.4
−46.99
+35.3
+78.9
−69.33
+19.60
−58.3
−76.6
+0.5
+49.10
26.1
−20.41
82.85
307.50
228.50
188.91
276.09
253.8
242.6
134.94
178.12
240.6
250.80
242.37
257.8
271.9
169.9
272.9
132.02
229.93
121.55
89.2
316.3
315.37
64.4
118.0
313.11
29.63
328.1
314.7
20.7
75.76
51.5
10.0
−75.46
−53.86
−83.75
−17.95
−33.24
−25.0
−19.7
+26.71
+18.65
−5.6
+0.96
+13.03
+4.5
−1.9
+56.6
+33.6
+50.95
+79.54
+57.71
+77.2
+45.5
+14.15
+71.9
+37.7
−8.84
+53.39
−6.3
−19.2
+23.6
+33.09
+23.2
−0.24
4
50
8
2
0.05
24
82
28
3
6
4
80
4
4
41
20
48
48
7
6
12
10
16
0.8
2
28
10
78
∼ 100
28
∼ 100
6
Sp.-V/AQuan/1999/10/07:19:58
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224 / 10
γ -R AY AND N EUTRINO A STRONOMY
Table 10.7. (Continued.)
Burst
source
Date
(yr mo day)
Time
(s)
F > 30 keV
(erg/cm2 )
GBS1808+593
GBS1810+314
GBS1847+728
GBS1900+145
GBS1912−577
GBS1926+036
GBS2000−427
GBS2006−216
GBS2142−414
GBS2252−025
GBS2311+319
GBS2311−499
GBS2320+128
97 08 28e
79 03 25b
92 07 11
79 03 24c
92 04 06
79 03 31
92 05 25
78 11 04b
79 06 22
79 11 05b
79 05 04
79 04 06
92 03 25
63 877
49 500
58 166
58 010
09 915
76 172
12 427
58 667
02 665
48 862
31 464
42 447
62 261
∼ 10−5
5 × 10−5
8 × 10−6
1 × 10−6
1 × 10−4
8 × 10−5
1 × 10−4
3 × 10−4
7 × 10−5
1 × 10−5
6 × 10−6
1 × 10−6
3 × 10−5
α
(deg)
δ
(deg)
l
(deg)
b
(deg)
Error box
(arcmin2 )
272.13
273.0
281.8
286.83
288.0
292.0
300.0
302.2
326.4
343.55
348.4
348.51
349.9
+59.13
+31.4
+72.8
+9.45
−57.7
+3.7
−42.7
−21.5
−41.2
−2.26
+32.1
−49.66
+12.8
87.95
58.2
103.7
43.08
339.0
40.4
357.2
21.1
0.3
69.45
99.9
336.03
90.8
+28.45
+21.6
+26.1
+0.81
−25.3
−6.4
−30.1
−26.2
−49.6
−52.51
−26.3
−60.74
−44.3
0.8
2
100
7
4
20
6
14
∼ 100
35
58
0.3
7
Notes
a Quiescent X-ray counterparts have been suggested for the three repeater burst sources GBS0526−661,
GBS1806−207 and GBS1900+145, which are associated with supernova remnants N49, G10.0−0.3, and G42.8+0.6
(see note c below and Rothschild, R.E., & Lingenfelter, R.E. 1996, High Velocity Neutron Stars and Gamma-Ray Bursts
(AIP, New York)). No quiescent counterparts have been identified for the “classical” bursts, but fading afterglow sources
have been seen following several bursts (see note d) and underlying “host” galaxies have been reported.
b Locations (2000 coordinates) for bursts prior to 1990 are based on catalog of Atteia, J.L. et al. 1987, ApJS, 64, 305,
and fluences from Mazets, E.P. et al. 1981, Ap&SS, 80, 1, except as follows: GBS1550+762 data from Hueter, G.J.
1987, Ph.D. Dissertation, University of California, San Diego; GBS1806−207 position from Atteia, J.L. et al. 1987,
ApJ, 320, L110, and private communication; GBS1900+145 position also from Mazets, E.P. et al. 1981; GBS0746−672
data from Katoh, T. et al. 1984, in AIP Conf. Proc. 115, 390; locations of bursts after 1990 are from Hurley, K., private
communication on behalf of the 3rd Interplanetary Network; and from BeppoSAX burst detections listed in notes d and
e. Fluences are from Third BATSE Catalog (Meegan, C.A. et al. 1996, ApJS, 106, 65, and the online update of that
catalog.
c Repeaters: 17 bursts have been observed from the source GBS0526−661 (Golenetskii, S.V. et al. 1979, Sov. Astron.
Lett., 13, 166) associated with supernova remnant N49 in LMC and possibly an X-ray source at α 05h 26m 0.55s , δ
−66◦ 4 35.56 (Rothschild, R.E., Kulkarni, S.R., & Lingenfelter, R.E. 1994, Nature, 368, 432); > 100 bursts from
GBS1806−204 (Atteia, J.L. et al. 1987, ApJ, 320, L105; Laros, J.G. et al. 1987, ApJ, 320, L111) associated with
Galactic supernova remnant G10.0−0.3 and an X-ray source at α 18h 8m 40.34s , δ −20◦ 24 41.67 (Murakami, T. et
al. 1994, Nature, 368, 127), and six bursts from GBS1900+145 (Mazets, E.P. et al. 1979, Sov. Astron. Lett., 5, 343;
Kouveliotou, C. et al. 1993, Nature, 362, 728; Hurley, K. et al. 1994, ApJ, 431, L31) associated with Galactic supernova
remnant G42.8+0.6 and possibly an X-ray source at α 19h 7m 17s , δ +9◦ 19 18 (Vasisht, G. et al. 1994, ApJ, 431, L35).
d Fading optical sources have been observed for GRB0502+118 (Costa, E. et al. 1997, IAU Circ. No. 6572) at
V = 21.3 discovered 0.9 days after burst at α 05h 01m 46.61s , δ +11◦ 46 53.4 (van Paradijs, J. et al. 1997, Nature,
386, 686); GRB0653+793 (Heise, J. et al. 1997, IAU Circ. No. 6654) at V = 20.5 discovered 1.28 days after burst
at α 06h 53m 49.43s , δ +79◦ 16 19.6 (Bond 1997, IAU Circ. No. 6654) and red-shifted absorption lines observed with
z = 0.835 (Metzger, M.R., et al. 1997, Nature, 387, 878); GBS0702+388 (in’t Zand, J. et al. 1998, IAU Circ.
No. 6854) at 250 µJy at 8.4 GHz discovered 2.9 days after burst at α 07h 02m 38.02170s , δ +38◦ 50 44.0170 (Taylor,
G.B. et al. 1998, GCN. No. 40) and at K = 21.4 after 4 days (Metzger, M.R. et al. 1998, IAU Circ. No. 6874)
GBS0836−189 (Celidonio, G. et al. 1998, IAU Circ. No. 6851) at R = 21.7 discovered 0.5 days after burst at
α 8h 36m 34.28s , δ −18◦ 51’23.9” (Groot, P.J. et al. 1998, IAU Circ. No. 6852) GRB1156+652 (Heise, J. et al. 1997,
IAU Circ. No. 6787) at I = 21.2 discovered 0.5 days after burst at α 11h 56m 26.4s , δ +65◦ 12 00.5 (Halpern, J. et
al. 1997, IAU Circ. No. 6788) and red-shifted emission lines observed with z = 3.4 (Kulkarni, S. et al. 1998, Nature,
393, 35) GBS1257+592 (Piro. L. et al. 1997, IAU Circ. No. 6797) at R = 19.5 discovered 0.6 days after burst at
α 12h 57m 10.6s , δ +59◦ 24 43 (Castro-Tirado, A.J. et al. 1997, IAU Circ. No. 6800)
e No fading optical sources were observed for GBS0026−630 (in’t Zand, J. et al. 1998, IAU Circ. No. 6805) with
I < 21 (Sahu, K.C., & Sterken, C. 1998, IAU Circ. No. 6808) GBS1450−693 (Piro. L. et al. 1997, IAU Circ. No. 6617)
with V < 22.5 (Pedersen, H. et al. 1997, IAU Circ. No. 6628) GBS1528+196 (in’t Zand, J. et al. 1997, IAU Circ.
No. 6569) with R < 22.6 (Castro-Tirado, A.J. et al. 1997, IAU Circ. No. 6598) GBS1808+593 (Murakami, T. et al.
1997, IAU Circ. No. 6732) with R < 24.5 (Odewahn, S.C. et al. 1997, IAU Circ. No. 6735)
Sp.-V/AQuan/1999/10/07:19:58
Page 225
10.4 A STROPHYSICAL γ -R AY O BSERVATIONS / 225
Table 10.8. γ -Ray burst properties.a
Property
Observed values
Energy range
∼ 1 keV–1 MeV
Energy spectra
Comments
References
“Soft” Repeating Bursts
Emission features
φ(hν) ∝ exp(−hν/)
γ –γ opacity
constraints
with ≥ 25 keV
[1]
∼ 430 keV
Redshifted e− e+
[2]
[1]
Annihilation radiation
Size < 60 km
Rise times
As short as 0.2 ms
Durations
∼ 10−2 –∼ 102 s
[3]
Periodicity
8.0 s
∼ 23 ms
Burst GB790305b
Burst GB790305b
[3, 4]
[5]
Source
Off-center in
Supernova remnants
high-velocity
neutron stars?
[6]
Energy range
∼ 1 keV–20 GeV
Energy spectra
φ(hν) ∼ (hν)s
φ(hν) ∼ (hν)s
E o ∼ 50–1000 keV
Absorption features
20–50 keV
Cyclotron absorption
∼ few 1012 G fields
Rise times
As short as 0.2 ms
Size < 60 km
Durations
∼ 10−2 –∼ 104 s
[1]
“Classical” Bursts
γ –γ opacity
constraints
with s ≤ −1 for (hν)s < E o
with s ≤ −2 for (hν)s > E o
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[7]
V /Vmax 0.33 ± 0.01
Spatially nonuniform
[11]
cos θ Galactocentric angle θ
−0.01 ± 0.02
Isotropic = 0
[11]
Source
Optical transient
and host galaxies?
for several bursts
at z ∼ 0.8–3.4
[12]
[12]
Note
a For general reviews, see also Higdon, J.C., & Lingenfelter, R.E. 1990, ARA&A, 28, 401;
Harding, A.K. 1991, Phys. Rep., 206, 327; Fishman, G.J., & Meegan, C.A. 1995, ARA&A, 33, 415;
Rothschild, R.E., & Lingenfelter, R.E. 1995, High Velocity Neutron Star and Gamma-Ray Bursts
(American Institute of Physics, New York) 282 pp.; Kouveliotou, C., Briggs, M.F., & Fishman, G.J.
1996, Gamma-Ray Bursts (American Institute of Physics, New York) 1008 pp.
References
1. Mazets, E.P. et al. 1981, Ap&SS, 80, 1; Mazets, E.P., & Golenetski, S.V. 1981, Ap&SpPhysRev,
1, 205; Mazets, E.P. et al. 1982, Ap&SS, 82, 261; Atteia, J.L. et al. 1987, ApJ, 320, L105; Laros,
J.G. et al. 1987, ApJ, 320, L111; Murakami, T. et al. 1994, Nature, 368, 127
2. Mazets, E.P. et al. 1982, Ap&SS, 84, 173
3. Cline, T.L. et al. 1980, ApJ, 237, L1
4. Mazets, E.P. et al. 1979, Nature, 282, 587; Barat, C. et al. 1979, A&A, 79, L24
5. Barat, C. et al. 1983, A&A, 126, 400
6. Rothschild, R.E., & Lingenfelter, R.E. 1995, High Velocity Neutron Star and Gamma-Ray Bursts
(American Institute of Physics, New York) 282 pp.; and previous Table 10.7
7. Mazets, E.P. et al. 1981, Ap&SS, 80, 1; Mazets, E.P., & Golenetski, S.V. 1981, Ap&SpPhysRev,
1, 205; Meegan, C.A. et al. 1996, ApJS, 106, 65; Hurley, K. et al. 1979, Nature, 372, 652
8. Mazets, E.P. et al. 1981, Ap&SS, 80, 1; Band, D. et al. 1993, ApJ, 413, 281; Higdon, J.C., &
Lingenfelter, R.E. 1986, ApJ, 307, 197
9. Murakami, T. et al. 1988, Nature, 335, 234; Mazets, E.P. et al. 1982, Ap&SS, 82, 261; Hueter,
G.J. 1987, Ph.D. thesis, University of California, San Diego
10. Walker, K.C., & Schaefer, B.E. 1998, “Gamma Ray Bursts,” AIP Conf. Proc., 428, edited by C.
Sp.-V/AQuan/1999/10/07:19:58
Page 226
226 / 10
γ -R AY AND N EUTRINO A STRONOMY
Meegan, R. Preece, and T. Koshut (AIP, New York) p. 34
11. Meegan, C.A. et al. 1996, ApJS, 106, 65
12. See previous Table 10.7
Table 10.9. Extragalactic hard X-ray or γ -ray sources.a
Source
name
Object
type
αb
δ
z
dc
Fluxd
Energy
Lum.e
100 keV
5 × 1046
[1]
Refs.
NGC 253
0045−255
Starburst
galaxy
11.27
−25.56
0.6
0.0036
2 × 10−3
4C+15.05
0202+149
QSO
blazar
30.53
+15.00
0.833
3.25
3 × 10−9e
100 MeV
1 × 1047
[2]
0208−512
QSO
blazar
32.24
−51.25
1.003
6.0
5 × 10−8
7 × 10−9
1 × 10−9
1 × 10−10
2 × 10−11
30 MeV
100 MeV
300 MeV
1 GeV
3 GeV
3 × 1047
5 × 1047
6 × 1047
7 × 1047
1 × 1048
[3]
[3]
[3]
[3]
[3]
3C 66A
0219+428
BL Lac
34.88
+42.81
0.833
3.25
1 × 10−9 f
100 MeV
1 × 1046
[4]
4C+28.07
0234+285
BL Lac
38.73
+28.59
1.213
3.97
3 × 10−9 f
100 MeV
3 × 1047
[4]
0235+164
BL Lac
38.97
+16.40
0.94
5.6
2 × 10−8
6 × 10−9
8 × 10−10
8 × 10−11
1 × 10−11
50 MeV
100 MeV
300 MeV
1 GeV
3 GeV
3 × 1047
4 × 1047
4 × 1047
5 × 1047
6 × 1047
[5]
[5]
[5]
[5]
[5]
NGC 1275
0316+413
Seyfert-2
49.12
+41.33
0.0172
0.10
2 × 10−1
3 × 10−2
5 × 10−3
30 keV
100 keV
300 keV
3 × 1044
6 × 1044
1 × 1045
[6]
[6]
[6]
CTA 26
0336−019
QSO
blazar
54.25
−1.94
0.852
3.29
1 × 10−8 f
100 MeV
5 × 1048
[4]
3C 111
0415+379
Seyfert-1
63.75
+37.90
0.0485
0.283
3 × 10−3 f
100 keV
5 × 1044
[7]
OA 129
0420−014
QSO
blazar
65.18
−1.46
0.915
5.5
4 × 10−9 f
100 MeV
2 × 1047
[2]
3C 120
0433+052
Seyfert-1
67.63
+5.25
0.0330
0.194
3 × 10−3 f
100 keV
2 × 1044
[7]
NRAO 190
0440−003
QSO
blazar
70.02
−0.39
0.844
3.27
9 × 10−9 f
100 MeV
4 × 1047
[4]
0454−463
QSO
73.60
−46.34
0.86
5.2
3 × 10−9 f
100 MeV
1 × 1047
[2]
4C−02.19
0458−020
QSO
blazar
74.67
−2.06
2.286
4.98
3 × 10−9 f
100 MeV
1 × 1048
[4]
0521−365
BL Lac
81.00
−36.49
0.055
0.32
2 × 10−9 f
100 MeV
4 × 1044
[4]
Sp.-V/AQuan/1999/10/07:19:58
Page 227
10.4 A STROPHYSICAL γ -R AY O BSERVATIONS / 227
Table 10.9. (Continued.)
Source
name
Object
type
αb
δ
z
dc
0528+134
QSO
blazar
82.03
+31.50
2.06
12.4
0537−441
BL Lac
84.34
−44.11
MCG 8-11-11
0551+464
Seyfert-1
0716+714
Fluxd
Energy
Lum.e
3 × 10−7
2 × 10−8
1 × 10−9
4 × 10−11
3 × 10−12
30 MeV
100 MeV
300 MeV
1 GeV
3 GeV
8 × 1048
6 × 1048
3 × 1048
1 × 1048
8 × 1047
[8]
[8]
[8]
[8]
[8]
0.894
5.4
2 × 10−9
2 × 10−10
2 × 10−11
100 MeV
300 MeV
1 GeV
1 × 1047
1 × 1047
1 × 1047
[9]
[9]
[9]
87.79
+46.43
0.0205
0.12
2 × 10−1
6 × 10−2
2 × 10−2
6 × 10−3
3 × 10−5
30 keV
100 keV
300 keV
1 MeV
10 MeV
5 × 1044
2 × 1045
5 × 1045
2 × 1046
1 × 1046
[10]
[10]
[10]
[10]
[10]
BL Lac
109.05
+71.44
···
2 × 10−9
100 MeV
···
[2]
OI 158
0735+178
BL Lac
113.81
+17.82
0.424
2.04
3 × 10−9 f
100 MeV
4 × 1046
[4]
0827+243
QSO
blazar
127.80
+24.05
2.046
4.83
7 × 10−9 f
100 MeV
2 × 1048
[4]
OJ 49
0829+046
BL Lac
127.30
+4.66
0.18
0.98
2 × 10−9 f
100 MeV
5 × 1045
[4]
4C+71.07
0836+710
QSO
blazar
129.09
+71.07
2.172
4.92
3 × 10−9 f
100 MeV
1 × 1048
[2]
0917+449
QSO
blazar
139.43
+44.91
2.18
4.51
3 × 10−9 f
100 MeV
1 × 1048
[4]
MCG -5-23-16
0945−307
Seyfert-2
146.37
−30.72
0.0485
0.283
4 × 10−3 f
100 keV
2 × 1043
[7]
4C+55.17
0954+556
QSO
blazar
148.56
+55.62
0.909
3.42
5 × 10−9 f
100 MeV
3 × 1047
[4]
0954+658
BL Lac
148.74
+65.80
0.368
1.82
2 × 10−9 f
100 MeV
1 × 1046
[4]
MRK 421
1101+384
BL Lac
165.42
+38.48
0.0308
0.18
1 × 10−1
4 × 10−2
7 × 10−9
2 × 10−9
2 × 10−10
2 × 10−11
2 × 10−12
3 × 10−17 f
30 keV
100 keV
50 MeV
100 MeV
300 MeV
1 GeV
3 GeV
500 GeV
6 × 1044
3 × 1045
1 × 1044
1 × 1044
1 × 1044
1 × 1044
1 × 1044
5 × 1043
[11]
[11]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[12]
[13]
4C+29.45
1156+295
QSO
blazar
179.24
+29.52
0.729
2.99
2 × 10−8 f
100 MeV
7 × 1047
[4]
Refs.
Sp.-V/AQuan/1999/10/07:19:58
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228 / 10
γ -R AY AND N EUTRINO A STRONOMY
Table 10.9. (Continued.)
αb
Source
name
Object
type
NGC 4151
1208+396
Seyfert-1
182.00
+39.68
W Comae
1219+285
BL Lac
4C+21.35
1222+216
δ
z
dc
Fluxd
Energy
Lum.e
Refs.
0.003
0.018
2 × 10−1
5 × 10−2
1 × 10−2
8 × 10−3
30 keV
100 keV
300 keV
1 MeV
1 × 1043
3 × 1043
6 × 1043
5 × 1044
[14]
[14]
[14]
[14]
184.76
+28.51
0.102
0.58
5 × 10−9 f
100 MeV
4 × 1045
[4]
QSO
blazar
185.60
+21.66
0.435
2.08
5 × 10−9 f
100 MeV
7 × 1046
[4]
NGC 4388
1223+126
Seyfert-2
185.81
+12.94
0.00842
0.051
6 × 10−3 f
100 keV
3 × 1043
[7]
3C 273
1226+023
QSO
186.64
+2.33
0.158
0.95
1 × 10−1
1 × 10−2
5 × 10−3
2 × 10−4
2 × 10−5
2 × 10−6
2 × 10−7
1 × 10−8
1 × 10−9
3 × 10−11
30 keV
100 keV
300 keV
1 MeV
3 MeV
10 MeV
30 MeV
100 MeV
300 MeV
1 GeV
2 × 1046
2 × 1046
8 × 1046
3 × 1046
3 × 1046
3 × 1046
3 × 1046
2 × 1046
2 × 1046
5 × 1045
[15]
[15]
[16]
[17]
[17]
[17]
[17]
[17]
[17]
[17]
1227+023
QSO
186.83
+2.41
0.57
3.4
3 × 10−1
2 × 10−2
40 keV
100 keV
1 × 1048
5 × 1047
[18, 19]
[18, 19]
4C−02.55
1229−021
QSO
blazar
187.36
−2.13
1.045
3.68
2 × 10−9 f
100 MeV
1 × 1047
[4]
M87
1228+124
NELG
187.08
+12.67
(0.0042)
0.025
1 × 10−1
6 × 10−3
30 keV
100 keV
1 × 1043
7 × 1042
[20]
[20]
3C 279
1253−055
QSO
193.40
−5.52
0.538
3.2
2 × 10−5
3 × 10−6
2 × 10−7
2 × 10−8
3 × 10−9
3 × 10−10
4 × 10−11
4 × 10−12
3 MeV
10 MeV
30 MeV
100 MeV
300 MeV
1 GeV
3 GeV
10 GeV
4 × 1047
6 × 1047
4 × 1047
4 × 1047
5 × 1047
6 × 1047
7 × 1047
8 × 1047
[17]
[17]
[21]
[21]
[21]
[21]
[21]
[21]
X Comae
1257+286
Seyfert-1
194.49
+28.67
0.092
0.55
2 × 10−1
3 × 10−2
30 keV
100 keV
1 × 1046
2 × 1046
[22]
[22]
1313−333
QSO
blazar
198.33
−33.39
1.21
3.96
2 × 10−9 f
100 MeV
3 × 1047
[4]
Cen A
1322−427
Radio
galaxy
200.74
−42.71
1 × 100
1 × 10−1
2 × 10−2
2 × 10−3
7 × 10−5
30 keV
100 keV
300 keV
1 MeV
10 MeV
1 × 1043
1 × 1043
2 × 1043
2 × 1043
7 × 1043
[23]
[23]
[23]
[24]
[24]
OP 151
1331+170
QSO
blazar
202.79
+17.07
1 × 10−9 f
100 MeV
3 × 1047
[4]
(0.001825)
0.0073
2.084
4.86
Sp.-V/AQuan/1999/10/07:19:58
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10.4 A STROPHYSICAL γ -R AY O BSERVATIONS / 229
Table 10.9. (Continued.)
αb
Source
name
Object
type
MCG -6-30-15
1314−340
Seyfert-1
203.26
−34.04
IC 4329A
1346−300
Seyfert-1
MRK 279
1348+700
δ
z
dc
Fluxd
Energy
Lum.e
0.00775
0.048
5 × 10−3 f
100 keV
2 × 1043
[7]
206.62
−30.06
0.01605
0.094
7 × 10−3 f
100 keV
1 × 1044
[7]
Seyfert-1
207.97
+69.55
0.0294
0.175
3 × 10−3 f
100 keV
2 × 1044
[7]
OQ−010
1406−076
QSO
blazar
211.58
−7.64
1.494
4.34
1 × 10−8 f
100 MeV
2 × 1048
[4]
NGC 5548
1415+255
Seyfert-1
214.50
+25.14
0.0168
0.100
4 × 10−3 f
100 keV
8 × 1043
[7]
1424−418
QSO
blazar
216.00
+41.80
1.522
4.37
6 × 10−9 f
100 MeV
1 × 1048
[4]
OR−017
1510-089
QSO
blazar
227.54
−8.91
0.361
1.79
5 × 10−9 f
100 MeV
5 × 1046
[4]
4C+15.54
1604+159
BL Lac
241.21
+15.99
0.357
1.78
4 × 10−9 f
100 MeV
4 × 1046
[4]
OS 319
1611+343
QSO
blazar
242.95
+34.34
1.401
4.23
7 × 10−9 f
100 MeV
1 × 1048
[4]
1622−253
QSO
blazar
245.68
−25.35
0.786
3.14
7 × 10−9 f
100 MeV
3 × 1047
[4]
1622−297
QSO
blazar
246.36
−29.92
0.815
3.21
3 × 10−8 f
100 MeV
1 × 1048
[4]
4C 38.41
1633+382
QSO
248.38
+38.24
1.814
10.9
2 × 10−8
6 × 10−9
7 × 10−10
8 × 10−11
1 × 10−11
1 × 10−12
50 MeV
100 MeV
300 MeV
1 GeV
3 GeV
10 GeV
1 × 1048
1 × 1048
1 × 1048
2 × 1048
2 × 1048
2 × 1048
[25]
[25]
[25]
[25]
[25]
[25]
NRAO 530
1730−130
QSO
blazar
262.56
−13.05
0.902
3.40
1 × 10−8e
100 MeV
6 × 1047
[4]
4C+51.37
1739+522
QSO
blazar
264.87
+52.22
1.375
4.19
4 × 10−9 f
100 MeV
5 × 1047
[4]
OT−68
1741−038
QSO
blazar
265.34
−3.81
1.054
3.70
4 × 10−9 f
100 MeV
3 × 1047
[4]
3C 390.3
1845+797
Seyfert-1
281.41
+79.75
0.0561
0.326
3 × 10−3 f
100 keV
7 × 1044
[7]
1933−400
QSO
blazar
293.46
−40.08
0.966
3.53
1 × 10−8 f
100 MeV
7 × 1047
[4]
NGC 6814
1942−102
Seyfert-1
295.67
−10.32
0.00521
0.030
3 × 10−3 f
100 keV
6 × 1042
[7]
NRAO 629
2022−077
QSO
blazar
305.75
−7.76
1.388
4.21
7 × 10−9 f
100 MeV
9 × 1047
[4]
Refs.
Sp.-V/AQuan/1999/10/07:19:58
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230 / 10
γ -R AY AND N EUTRINO A STRONOMY
Table 10.9. (Continued.)
αb
Source
name
Object
type
MRK 509
2041-107
Seyfert-1
310.36
−10.91
2052-474
QSO
blazar
2155−304
δ
z
dc
Fluxd
Energy
Lum.e
0.0344
0.203
4 × 10−3 f
100 keV
3 × 1044
[7]
314.52
−46.96
1.489
4.33
3 × 10−9 f
100 MeV
5 × 1047
[4]
BL Lac
328.99
−30.47
0.116
0.655
3 × 10−9 f
100 MeV
3 × 1045
[4]
BL Lacertae
2200+420
BL Lac
330.16
+42.04
0.0686
0.398
4 × 10−9 f
100 MeV
1 × 1045
[4]
2209+236
QSO
blazar
332.51
+23.97
1.489
4.33
1 × 10−9 f
100 MeV
2 × 1047
[4]
CTA 102
2230+114
QSO
337.53
+11.47
1.037
6.2
4 × 10−9
100 MeV
3 × 1047
[2]
3CR 454.3
2251+158
QSO
342.87
+15.88
0.859
5.2
8 × 10−9
100 MeV
4 × 1047
[2]
NGC 7582
2318−422
Seyfert-2
344.18
−43.23
0.00525
0.033
3 × 10−3 f
100 keV
6 × 1042
[7]
OZ 193
2356+196
QSO
blazar
359.05
+19.64
1.066
3.72
3 × 10−9 f
100 MeV
2 × 1047
[4]
5 × 101 /sr
2 × 100 /sr
1 × 10−1 /sr
1 × 10−2 /sr
1 × 10−4 /sr
2 × 10−7 /sr
30 keV
100 keV
300 keV
1 MeV
10 MeV
100 MeV
Diffuse
background
Refs.
[26]
[26]
[26]
[26]
[26]
[26]
Notes
a Source type, position, and redshift are from Hewitt, A., & Burbidge, G. 1987, ApJS, 63, 1; 1989, ApJS, 69, 1;
and 1991, ApJS, 75, 297, except for M87 and Cen A from Tully, R. 1988, Nearby Galaxies Catalog (Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge) for which the redshifts are corrected for local motion, and for GRS1227+0229
from Grindlay, J.E. 1993, A&AS, 97, 113.
b Positions in degrees.
c Distances in Gpc assume cosmological redshifts with H = 50 km/s Mpc. d (Gpc) = 6 × (1+z)2 −1
0
2
(1+z) +1
d Flux in photons/cm2 s MeV at the energy denoted.
e Assuming isotropic emission, E 2 × (flux) = E 2 (keV2 ) × z 2 × [flux (phot./cm)2 s MeV] × 7 ×
1045 ergs/s ln E.
f Differential flux determined from integral flux assuming a differential spectrum of the form E −2 .
References
1. Bhattacharya, D. et al. 1992, AIP Conf. Proc., 280, 498
2. Fichtel, C.E. et al. 1992, AIP Conf. Proc., 280, 461
3. Bertsch, D.L. et al. 1993, ApJ, 405, L21
4. Hartman, R.C. et al. 1997, AIP Conf. Proc., 410, 307
5. Hunter, S.D. et al. 1992, A&A, 272, 59
6. Rothschild, R.E. et al. 1981, ApJ, 243, L9
7. Kurfess, J.D. et al. 1995, NATO ASI Series C, 461, 233
8. Hunter, S.D. et al. 1993, ApJ, 409, 134
9. Thompson, D.L. et al. 1992, ApJ, 410, 87
10. Perotti, F. et al. 1981, Nature, 292, 133
11. Ubertini, P. et al. 1984, ApJ, 284, 54
12. Lin, Y.C. et al. 1993, ApJ, 401, L61
Sp.-V/AQuan/1999/10/07:19:58
Page 231
10.4 A STROPHYSICAL γ -R AY O BSERVATIONS / 231
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
Punch, M. et al. 1992, Nature, 358, 477
Perotti, F. et al. 1981, ApJ, 247, L63
Primini, F.A. et al. 1979, Nature, 278, 234
Bassani, L. et al. 1991, 22nd Int. Cosmic Ray Conf., 1, 173
Hermsen, W. et al. 1993, A&AS, 97, 97
Bassani, L. et al. 1991, 22nd Int. Cosmic Ray Conf., 1, 173
Grindlay, J.E. 1993, A&AS, 97, 113
Lea, S. et al. 1981, ApJ, 246, 369
Kniffen, D.A. et al. 1993, ApJ, 411, 133
Bazzano, A. et al. 1990, ApJ, 362, L51
Baity, W.A. et al. 1981, ApJ, 244, 429
von Ballmoos, P. et al. 1987, ApJ, 312, 134
Mattox, J.R. et al. 1993, ApJ, 410, 609
Rothschild, R.E. et al. 1983, ApJ, 269, 423
Table 10.10. Hard X-ray and γ -ray instruments in space since 1970.
Instrument
Mission
Energy range
E/E
Field of view
resolution
Area
(cm2 )
Date
PI
institution
64
1971–73
Peterson
UCSD
[1]
Refs.
Cosmic X-ray
telescope
OSO-7
6–500 keV
33% @ 60 keV
6.5◦
Solar X-ray
telescope
OSO-7
10–350 keV
18% @ 60 keV
90◦ × 20◦
9.6
1971–73
Peterson
UCSD
[2]
γ -ray
monitor
OSO-7
0.3–10 MeV
< 8% @ 662 keV
120◦ × 70◦
45
1971–73
Chupp
UNH
[3]
γ -ray
telescope
SAS-2
30–200 MeV
∼ 50%
30◦
∼ 2◦
115
1972–73
Fichtel
GSFC
[4]
Scintillator
telescope
Ariel-V
26 keV–1.2 MeV
30% @ 662 keV
8◦
8
1974–80
Imperial
College
[5]
Celestial
X-ray detector
γ -ray
detector
OSO-8
15 keV–3 MeV
50% @ 60 keV
50 MeV–2 GeV
40% @ 100 MeV
5◦
28
1975–78
[6]
∼ 30◦
∼ 1◦
75
1975–82
Frost
GSFC
Caravane
Collaboration
COS-B
[7]
A-4 LED
HEAO-1
15–180 keV
25% @ 60 keV
1.2◦ × 20◦
206
1977–79
Peterson–Lewin
UCSD–MIT
A-4 MED
HEAO-1
0.1–2 MeV
10% @ 1 MeV
16.5◦
160
1977–79
Peterson
UCSD
A-4 HED
HEAO-1
0.2–10 MeV
10% @ 1 MeV
40◦
120
1977–79
Peterson
UCSD
C-1 germanium
spectrometer
HEAO-3
50 keV–10 MeV
0.2% @ 1.8 MeV
30◦
64
1979–80
Jacobson
JPL
[9]
GRS
SMM
0.3–9 MeV
7% @ 662 keV
180◦
310
1979–89
Chupp
UNH
[10]
HXRBS
SMM
20–260 keV
30% @ 122 keV
40◦
71
1979–89
Frost
GSFC
[11]
HEXE
MIR
KVANT
15–200 keV
30% @ 60 keV
1.6◦ × 1.6◦
800
1987–
Trumper
MPI
[12]
Pulsar X-1
KVANT
50–800 keV
3◦ × 3◦
1256
1987–
[13]
GSPC
KVANT
3–100 keV
3%@60 keV
2.3◦
∼ 150
1987–
Sunyaev
IKI
Schnopper
SRL
[8]
[14]
Sp.-V/AQuan/1999/10/07:19:58
Page 232
232 / 10
γ -R AY AND N EUTRINO A STRONOMY
Table 10.10. (Continued.)
Energy range
E/E
Field of view
resolution
Area
(cm2 )
Date
GRANAT
30 keV–1.3 MeV
8% @ 511 keV
4.7◦ × 4.3◦
0.2◦
797
1989–
Paul–Mandrou
CESR–Saclay
[15]
WATCH
GRANAT
6–180 KeV
4 sr
30
1989–
Lund
DSRI
[16]
ART-P
GRANAT
4–100 keV
14% @ 60 keV
1.8◦ × 1.8◦
0.1◦
2520
1989–
Sunyaev
IKI
[17]
ART-S
GRANAT
3–100 keV
11% @ 60 keV
2.1◦ × 2.1◦
800
1989–
Sunyaev
IKI
[17]
BATSE
occultation
CGRO
20 keV–1.8 MeV
30% @ 88 keV
2π sr
1◦
1800
1991–
Fishman
MSFC
[18]
OSSE
CGRO
50 keV–10 MeV
8% @ 511 keV
3.8◦ × 11.4◦
2620
1991–
Kurfess
NRL
[19]
COMPTEL
CGRO
0.8–30 MeV
9% @ 1.3 MeV
∼ 1 sr
∼ 1.5◦
45
1991–
Schonfelder
MPI
[20]
EGRET
CGRO
20 MeV–30 GeV
∼ 20% 0.1–5 GeV
∼ 40◦
0.1◦ –0.4◦
1600
1991–
Fichtel
GSFC
[21]
HEXTE
RXTE
15 KeV–250 KeV
15% @ 60 keV
∼ 1◦
1600
1995–
Rothschild
UCSD
[22]
PDS
BeppoSAX
15 KeV–300 KeV
∼ 15% 60 keV
∼ 1.4◦
800
1996–
Instrument
Mission
SIGMA
PI
institution
Refs.
[22]
TeSRE/IAS
References
1. Peterson, L.E. 1972, IAU Symp. No. 55, 51
2. Harrington, T. et al. 1972, IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci., NS-19, 596
3. Higbie, P.R. et al. 1972, IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci., NS-19, 606
4. Derdeyn, S. et al. 1972, Nucl. Instrum. Methods, 98, 557
5. Engel, A.R., & Coe, M.J. 1977, Space Sci. Instrum., 3, 407
6. Dennis, B.R. et al. 1977, Space Sci. Instrum., 3, 325
7. Bignami, G.F. et al. 1975, Space Sci. Instrum., 1, 245
8. Jung, G.V. 1989, ApJ, 338, 972; Knight, F.K. 1982, ApJ, 260, 538
9. Mahoney, W.A. et al. 1980, Nucl. Instrum. Methods, 178, 363
10. Forrest, D.J. et al. 1980, Solar Phys., 65, 15
11. Orwig, L. et al. 1980, Solar Phys., 65, 25
12. Reppin, C. et al. 1985, in Nonthermal and Very High Temperature Phenomena in X-ray Astronomy, edited by G.C. Perola
and M. Salvati (Instituto Astronomico, Roma) p. 279
13. Sunyaev, R. et al. 1990, Adv. Space Sci., 10, 41
14. Smith, A. 1985, in Nonthermal and Very High Temperature Phenomena in X-ray Astronomy, edited by G.C. Perola and M.
Salvati (Instituto Astronomico, Roma) p. 271
15. Paul, J.A. et al. 1991, Adv. Space Res., 11, (8) 289
16. Lund, N. 1991, Adv. Space Res., 11, (8) 17
17. Sunyaev, R. et al. 1990, Adv. Space Res., 10, (2) 233
18. Fishman, G.J. et al. 1992, NASA Conf. Publ. 3137, 26
19. Kurfess, J.D. et al. 1991, Adv. Space Res., 11, (8) 323
20. Schonfelder, V. 1991, Adv. Space Sci., 11, (8) 313
21. Kanbach, G. et al. 1988, Space Sci. Instrum., 49, 69
22. Rothschild, R.E. et al. 1998, ApJ, 496, 538
23. Frontera, F. et al. 1997, A&AS, 122, 357
Sp.-V/AQuan/1999/10/07:19:58
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10.4 A STROPHYSICAL γ -R AY O BSERVATIONS / 233
Table 10.11. γ -Ray burst instruments.
Trigger
Satellite
Dates
Orbita
Detectors
Energy
range
(MeV)
Vela 5A/B
Vela 6A/B
5/69–3/84
GC
6–10 cm3 CsI
0.2–1
≥ 0.016
0.25, 1.5
0.03–0.1.5
[1]
Helios-2
1/76–12/79
H
21.5 cm3 CsI
> 0.1
≥ 0.004
0.004
0.032
0.250
> 0.1
[2]
Solrad-11A/B
4/76–6/77
GC
2–43 cm3 CsI
0.2–2
≥ 0.000 3
0.625
0.2–2
Signe-3
6/77–3/78
GC
950 cm2 CsIb
> 0.06
0.008
HEAO-1
8/77–2/79
GC
2000 cm2 CsIb
280 cm2 NaI
3300 cm2 PC
0.1–1.6
0.03–6
0.000 5-0.02
≥ 0.05
0.32
0.1
∼ 0.3
0.13–1.7
[5]
[5]
[6]
Prognoz-6
9/77–3/78
G
63 cm2 NaI
750 cm2 CsIb
16 cm3 NaI
0.08–1
> 0.3
0.02–> 0.3
≥ 0.002
4
0.25
0.02
0.08–0.4
[7]
[7]
[7]
ICE
8/78–3/87
H
22 cm2 NaI
0.02–1.25
≥ 0.004
[8]
0.2–3
0.001
0.000 25–
0.008
0.000 13–
0.001
0.132–1.25
35 cm3 Ge
0.2–3
[9]
(ISEE–3)
Time
resolution
(s)
Time
(s)
Energy
(MeV)
Refs.
[3]
[4]
PVO
5/78–9/92
V
2–36 cm3 NaI
0.1–2
≥ 0.012
0.25, 1, 4
0.1–2
[10]
Venera 11/12
(Konus)
9/78–1/80
H
2–63 cm3 NaI
6–50 cm2 NaI
0.1–2.5
0.03–2
> 0.002
≥ 0.016
0.02
0.25, 1.5
0.08–0.4
0.05–0.15
[11]
[12]
Prognoz-7
11/78–6/79
G
63 cm2 NaI
750 cm2 CsIb
0.1–2.5
> 0.1
≥ 0.002
0.002
0.25
0.08–0.4
[7]
[7]
Venera 13/14
(Konus)
11/81–4/83
H
2–63 cm2 NaI
6–50 cm2 NaI
0.05–1
0.03–2
≥ 0.002
≥ 0.004
0.25
0.25, 1.5
0.08–0.4
0.05–0.15
[11]
[13]
Prognoz-9
7/83–2/84
G
2–178 cm2 NaI
0.04–8
≥ 0.016
0.5, 2
0.073–0.966
[14]
60 cm2 NaI
63 cm2 PC
0.014–0.40
0.002–0.030
0.031
0.031
0.25, 1, 4
1, 4
0.014–0.4
0.002–0.03
[15]
[15]
800 cm2 NaI
8–2400 cm2 CsI
4–30 cm2 NaI/CsI
6–314 cm2 NaI
6–573 cm3 BGO
0.03–2
0.1–1
0.006–0.18
0.01–8
0.1–100
···
≥ 0.000 008
≥ 0.000 1
0.002
≥ 0.000 03
0.25, 2
0.25, 2
0.004–32
0.25, 1.5
0.008
0.03–2
0.1–1
0.006–0.18
0.05–0.2
0.075–1.6
[16]
[16]
[17]
[18]
[19]
41 cm2 CsI
0.015–0.150
≥ 0.008
0.125-4.0
0.015–0.150
[20]
8–2025 cm2 NaI
8–127 cm2 NaI
0.03–1.9
0.015–110
≥ 0.000 002
0.000 128
0.06, 0.25, 1
0.06–0.3
[21]
[21]
2-250 cm2 Xe
0.002–0.028
0.000 5
—
0.002–0.028
[22]
Ginga
2/87–11/91
GC
GRANAT
–SIGMA
–SIGMA
–WATCH
–Konus-B
–Phebus
12/89–
G
Ulysses
11/90–
H
Compton
GRO
BATSE–LAD
BATSE–SD
4/91–
GC
BeppoSAX
WFC
4/96–
12/89–2/90
GC
Notes
a G, geocentric; GC, geocentric circular; H, heliocentric; V: venuscentric.
b Anticoincidence shield used as burst detector.
References
1. Klebesadel, R.W. et al. 1973, ApJ, 182, L85
2. Cline, T.L. et al. 1979, ApJ, 229, L47
3. Laros, J.G. et al. 1977, Nature, 267, 131
Sp.-V/AQuan/1999/10/07:19:58
Page 234
234 / 10
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
γ -R AY AND N EUTRINO A STRONOMY
Chambon, G. et al. 1979, X-Ray Astronomy (Pergamon, Oxford), p. 509
Hueter, G.J. 1987, Ph.D. thesis, University of California, San Diego
Wood, K.S. et al. 1984, ApJS, 56, 507
Chambon, G. et al. 1979, Space Sci. Instrum., 5, 73
Anderson, R.D. et al. 1978, IEEE Trans., GE-16, 157
Teegarden, B., & Cline, T.L. 1980, ApJ, 236, L67
Klebesadel, R.W. et al. 1980, IEEE Trans., GE-18, 76
Barat, C. et al. 1981, Space Sci. Instrum., 5, 229
Mazets, E.P. et al. 1981, Ap&SS, 80, 3
Mazets, E.P. et al. 1983, AIP Conf. Proc. No. 101, 36
Boer, M. et al. 1986, Adv. Space Sci., 6, 97
Murakami, T. et al. 1989, PASJ, 41, 405
Guerry, H. et al. 1986, Adv. Space Sci., 6, 103
Brandt, S. et al. 1990, Adv. Space Sci., 10, 239
Golenetskii, S.V. et al. 1991, Adv. Space Sci., 11, 125
Terekhov, O. et al. 1991, Adv. Space Sci., 11, 129
Hurley, K. et al. 1992, A&ASS, 92, 401
Fishman, G.J. et al. 1989, Proc. Gamma Ray Observatory Sci. Workshop, 2–39
Jager, R. et al. 1997, A&AS, 125, 557
Table 10.12. Very-high-energy and ultrahigh-energy γ -ray experiments: Atmospheric Cherenkov and particle
arrays.a
Array
Country
Lat.
(deg)
Long.
(deg)
Elev.
(km)
Themis
Albuquerque
Mt. Hopkins
Narrabri
Haleakala
Pachmarchi
Gulmarg
Potchefstroom
White Cliffs
Crimea
Beijing
Plateau Rosa
Gran Sasso
Tibet
Tien Shan
Ooty
Mt. Hopkins
La Palma
Mt. Aragats
South Pole
Mt. Norikura
Dugway
Mt. Chacaltaya
Cygnus
Baksan
Kolar
Haverah Park
Akeno Ranch
Moscow
Buckland Park
Janzos
France
USA
USA
Australia
USA
India
India
South Africa
Australia
Ukraine
China
Italy
Italy
China
Kirghiz
India
USA
Spain
Armenia
Antarctica
Japan
USA
Bolivia
USA
Kab-Balkar
India
UK
Japan
Russia
Australia
New Zealand
43N
35N
32N
31S
21N
23N
35N
27S
32S
45N
40N
46N
42N
30N
42N
11N
32N
29N
40N
90S
36N
40N
16S
36N
43N
13N
54N
35N
56N
35S
41N
1W
107W
111W
145E
156W
78E
77E
27E
143E
34E
117E
8E
14E
90E
75E
77E
111W
18W
44E
0W
137E
112W
68W
106W
43E
78E
1W
138E
37E
138W
172E
1.5
1.5
2.3
0.21
3.0
1.1
2.7
1.4
0.16
0.6
1.0
3.5
2.0
4.2
3.3
2.2
2.3
2.2
3.2
2.5
2.8
1.5
5.2
2.1
1.7
0.9
0
0.9
0
0
0.9
Area
(104 m2 )
3.5
1
10
2.0
0.5
0.5
∼ 0.5
4
∼1
≤1
∼ 2/25
> 0.5
>8
0.5
1.66
>1
∼1
1.0
> 0.23
Threshold
(TeV)
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.3
0.5
0.5
1
1
1
1
1
10
10
10
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
200
200
300
500
500
1000
1000
1000
1000
(deg)
0.1
1.4
5.5
1
0.8
3
3
1
1
1
1
1
0.5–1
1–3
1
1.5
1.5
1
3
3
2.5
2
Began
1986
1986
1983
1986
1985
1987
1985
1985
1986
1986
1987
1981
1988
1990
1974
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1988
1989
1986
1986
1984
1984
1986
1981
1982
1984
1988
Note
a Based on Weekes, T.C. 1988, Phys. Rep., 160, 1; Yodh, G. 1992, private communication; and Stepanian,
A.A. 1992, private communication.
Sp.-V/AQuan/1999/10/07:19:58
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10.5 N EUTRINOS IN A STROPHYSICS / 235
10.5
NEUTRINOS IN ASTROPHYSICS
by Wick C. Haxton
Perhaps the original motivation for studying astrophysical neutrinos was the prospect of directly
probing the interior of our Sun: neutrinos produced as a byproduct of nuclear fusion pass undistorted
through the outer layers of the Sun, carrying in their flux and spectrum a detailed memory of the nuclear
reactions that produced them. As the competition between the three cycles comprising the pp chain
(the process that dominates solar burning of four protons into 4 He) depends sensitively on the solar
core temperature Tc , one can deduce Tc by measuring the various components of the solar neutrino
flux.
Results from the 37 Cl detector, which has operated for nearly 30 years, and from three more
recent experiments, SAGE and GALLEX (radiochemical detectors containing 71 Ga) and Kamioka
II/III (an active water Cerenkov detector sensitive to higher energy solar neutrinos), have revealed
some surprises. The results are consistent with a flux of high-energy 8 B neutrinos reduced to about 50%
of the standard solar model value and a greatly suppressed flux of neutrinos produced from electron
capture on 7 Be. This is a surprising pattern because a reduction in Tc tends to suppress the 8 B solar
neutrino flux more than the 7 Be flux, not less. In fact, detailed fits seem to show that the 7 Be neutrinos
must be completely absent to account the experimental results.
One popular explanation for this puzzle is the phenomenon of neutrino oscillations: if neutrinos
have nonzero masses and mix (so that the electron, muon, and tauon neutrinos are not identical to the
mass eigenstates, but linear combinations of these), solar electron neutrinos can oscillate into muon
neutrinos and escape detection. While once it was thought that neutrino oscillations would most likely
produce only a small reduction in the solar electron neutrino flux, it was discovered about a decade
ago that oscillation effects can be greatly enhanced within the Sun. This phenomenon, known as the
Mikheyev–Smirnov–Wolfenstein or MSW mechanism, arises because the effective masses of neutrinos
change when the neutrinos pass through matter. The MSW solution that best reproduces the results of
the 37 Cl, SAGE/GALLEX, and KamiokaII/III experiments is consistent with oscillations of a very light
electron neutrino into a muon neutrino with a mass of about 0.003 electron volts (eV).
Two new detectors, SuperKamiokande and the Sudbury Neutrino Observatory (SNO), should be
able to confirm or rule out neutrino oscillations as a solution to the solar neutrino problem. SuperKamiokande is an enormous (22.5 kiloton fiducial volume) ultrapure water Cerenkov detector located in a Japanese mine. It began operations in the Spring of 1996. By making a precision measurement of the spectrum of recoil electrons following neutrino–electron scattering, the experimentalists
hope to find subtle distortions characteristic of the MSW mechanism. SNO, which should be fully
operational by the end of 1998, is a Canadian–US–UK detector located deep within a nickel mine in
Sudbury, Ontario. The inner volume of this water Cerenkov detector contains heavy water. Reactions
on the deuterium nuclei provide separate charged and neutral current signals. Thus, in addition to
spectrum distortions, the experimentalists hope to measure directly the neutrinos of a different flavor
that are generated by the MSW mechanism.
SuperKamiokande, SNO, and similar detectors are sensitive to another source of neutrinos, those
produced in the atmosphere by the interactions of cosmic rays impinging on the Earth. For some
years most such detectors have found a puzzling result, an unexpected ratio of muon neutrino to
electron neutrino events given our understanding of cosmic ray neutrino production. Very recently
the SuperKamiokande group, by comparing upward- to downward-going neutrinos, have claimed that
this anomaly is definitive evidence for neutrino oscillations and thus of massive neutrinos.
Another source of neutrinos is associated with one of the most spectacular events in astrophysics,
the sudden collapse of the core of a massive star. This collapse triggers the ejection of the star’s mantle,
producing the spectacular display known as a supernova. However 99% of the energy released in such
Sp.-V/AQuan/1999/10/07:19:58
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γ -R AY AND N EUTRINO A STRONOMY
a collapse, an enormous 3 × 1053 ergs, is invisible optically as it is carried by an intense three-second
burst of neutrinos emitted by the cooling protoneutron star forming at the star’s center.
We were extremely fortunate to have two large water Cerenkov detectors, Kamioka II and IMB,
operating at the time of Supernova 1987A. The free protons in water absorb electron antineutrinos,
emitting relativistic positrons that can be detected readily in such detectors. In each detector
approximately 10 events were detected from a star that collapsed in the Large Magellanic Cloud
150 000 light years from earth. The characteristics of the detected neutrinos—the number of events,
the spectrum, the duration of the neutrino pulse—were in good accord with supernova theory.
There were no detectors operating that had the necessary characteristics and sensitivities to record
the electron neutrinos or the muon and tauon neutrinos and antineutrinos. This was unfortunate because
supernova electron neutrinos may hold the key to one of the central problems in cosmology, the dark
matter. Studies on a variety of astrophysical scales—galaxies, clusters of galaxies, etc.—indicate that
at least 90% of the mass in the Universe is dark, not emitting or absorbing electromagnetic radiation.
Most estimates of the dark matter lead to a minimum mean density in the Universe of 20% of the closure
density, the density that would keep the Universe from expanding forever. As the standard theory of big
bang nucleosynthesis argues that at least some of this dark matter is nonbaryonic, massive neutrinos
seem a natural explanation for this component. In particular, a heavy tauon neutrino with a mass of
about 5–10 eV could comprise an important fraction of the dark matter and would also help to explain
how galaxies and other structures in the Universe formed.
Such a mass is quite consistent with a theoretical model for generating neutrino masses known
as the seesaw mechanism. If the solar neutrino problem involves oscillations between the electron
neutrino and a 0.003 eV muon neutrino, then the seesaw mechanism predicts that the tauon neutrino
mass might be in the range required to explain large scale structure.
How can one test the hypothesis of a tauon neutrino mass of a few eV? Just as the densities available
in the Sun enhance oscillations between electron and muon neutrinos, the much larger densities found
near the core of a supernova can enhance oscillations between electron neutrinos and massive tauon
neutrinos. Because the tauon neutrinos emitted by a supernova tend to be substantially more energetic
than supernova electron neutrinos, such oscillations would produce an anomalously energetic electron
neutrino spectrum. Thus the detection of these electron neutrinos could demonstrate that massive tauon
neutrinos make up an important component of the dark matter. As the standard model of electroweak
interactions cannot accommodate massive neutrinos, such a discovery would also have a profound
impact on particle physics.
Neutrinos also play a crucial role in nuclear astrophysics. Arguments based on big-bang
nucleosynthesis provided early evidence that there were only a few (three or four) light neutrino flavors,
a result now beautifully confirmed by measurements of the width of the Z 0 . Neutrinos govern much
of the nucleosynthesis that occurs in a supernova. For example, the process of rapid neutron capture,
by which about half of the heavy elements and all of the transuranics are synthesized, is now believed
to depend on conditions in the hot bubble that resides just above the surface of the protoneutron star.
The entropy and neutron/proton ratio in this bubble are largely determined by neutrino interactions.
Neutrinos also directly synthesize nuclei like 19 F and 11 B by scattering off the neon and carbon in the
mantle of the collapsing star. The subsequent supernova explosion is the mechanism by which these
newly synthesized metals are ejected into the interstellar medium.
Finally, there is an enormous density of very low energy neutrinos—about 300/cm3 —throughout
the Universe, a relic of the big bang similar to the background microwave photons. Recent precision
measurements of the microwave background allow us to look backward to the time of recombination,
when electrons condensed on nuclei to form neutral atoms, providing a snapshot of conditions in the
early Universe, 100 000 years after the big bang. Were we ever to find a method to detect the relic
neutrinos, this would provide a probe of the Universe at the time the neutrinos decoupled from matter,
early in the first minute in the history of the Universe. Detection of these relic neutrinos is likely to
remain a challenge for many decades.
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10.6 C URRENT N EUTRINO O BSERVATORIES / 237
10.6
CURRENT NEUTRINO OBSERVATORIES
by Thomas J. Bowles
Table 10.13 lists the existing neutrino observatories and a description of each one. Some of these are
still under development.
Table 10.13. Existing neutrino observatories.
Main
aimsa
“Size” of
target
Depth
(mwe)b
Sensorsc
Detection techniques
Remarks
Antarctica
AMANDA
Baksan, Caucusus
Russia
Homestake Mine
S. Dakota
Artyomovsk
Ukraine
Mt. Blanc, Italy
NUSEX
Mt. Blanc, Italy
LSD
Frejus
France
Gran Sasso, Italy
MACRO
Gran Sasso, Italy
LVD
Greece
NESTOR
Hawaii
DUMAND
Lake Baikal, Siberia
NT-200
Soudan, Minnesota
SOUDAN II
Soudan, Minnesota
MINOS
Kolar Gold Fields (2)
India
Kamiokande
Japan
Heν
9 000 m2
1 800–2 400
Čerenkov
Under development
SN, HEν
≈ 1 000
LS
HEν , ND
330 tons
250 m2
140 ton
4 000
LS
One of the oldest underground
neutrino observatories
Experiment no longer in operation
SN
100 ton
ND, SN
150 ton
5 000
ND, SN
90 ton
5 000
ND, SN
912 ton
4 850
SN, HEν
3 240 m2
3 800
Flash chambers,
Geiger tubes
LS, streamer tubes
SN, HEν
1 800 ton
3 800
LS, streamer tubes
HEν
1 × 104 m2
3 700
Čerenkov
Under development
HEν
2 × 104 m2
4 700
Čerenkov
Under development
HEν
500 m2
1 000
Čerenkov
“NT” stands for neutrino telescope
ND, HEν
1 100 ton
7 200
Iron calorimeter
ND, HEν , LB
10 000 ton
7 200
ND, HEν
140 ton
7 200
ND, SN, HEν
4 500 ton
2 400
Honeycomb
drift chamber
Honeycomb
drift chamber
Proportional counters,
calorimeter
Čerenkov
SuperKamiokande
Japan
IMB, Ohio
ND, SN,
NEν , LB
ND, SN, HEν
50 000 ton
2 400
Čerenkov
3 300 ton
1 580
Čerenkov
Homestake Mine,
S. Dakota
Homestake mine
S. Dakota
Baksan, Russia
SAGE
Gran Sasso, Italy
Borexino
sol
615 ton
Radiochemical
sol
100 tons
sol
60 tons Ga
4 900
(perchlorethylene)
4 900
(NaI solution)
4 815
sol
300 tons
3 800
LS
Gran Sasso, Italy
GALLEX
Gran Sasso, Italy
GNO
Gran Sasso, Italy
ICARUS
sol
30 tons Ga
3 800
Radiochemical
sol
30 tons Ga
3 800
Radiochemical
sol, ND, LB
1 600 tons
3 800
Liquid argon
Detector
LS
Plastic tubes in limited
streamer mode
LS
Radiochemical
Radiochemical
Experiment no longer in operation
Experiment no longer in operation
Experiment no longer in operation
Full operation began in 1996
Iron calorimeter
Under development
Experiment no longer in operation
Detected νe from SN 1 987a
Detects 8 B neutrinos
Experiment no longer in operation
Detects 8 B neutrinos
Operational in 1996
Detected νe from SN 1 987a
Experiment no longer in operation
37 Cl + ν → 37 Ar + e−
e
Detects 7 Be and 8 B neutrinos
127 I + ν → 127 Xe + e−
e
Detects 7 Be and 8 B neutrinos
71 Ga + ν → 37 Ar + e−
e
Detects p– p neutrinos
νx + e− → νx + e−
Detects 7 Be neutrinos
Operational in 2001
Detects p– p neutrinos
Experiment completed in 1997
Detects p– p neutrinos
Operation began in 1998
Time production chamber
Under development
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γ -R AY AND N EUTRINO A STRONOMY
Table 10.13. (Continued.)
Detector
Sudbury, Canada
SNO
Main
aimsa
“Size” of
target
Depth
(mwe)b
Sensorsc
Detection techniques
sol, SN
100 ton D2 O
5 000 ton H2 O
5 900
Čerenkov
Remarks
νe + d → p + p + e −
νx + d → n + p + νx
νx+c + e− → νx + e−
νe + d → n + n + e +
Operational in 1998
Notes
a SN, supernova bursts; ND, nucleon decay; HEν, high-energy neutrinos; sol, solar neutrinos; LB, long baseline experiment
using an accelerator neutrino source.
b mwe, meters water equivalent.
c Sensors means detectors of neutrino secondaries, e.g., muons; LS, liquid scintillator; Čerenkov light from charged
secondaries is observed by photomultipliers.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We wish to thank Ed Chupp, Carl Fichtel, Gerry Fishman, Alice Harding, Wick Haxton, Jim Higdon,
Kevin Hurley, John Laros, Chip Meegan, Larry Peterson, Reuven Ramaty, A. Stepanian, and Trevor
Weekes for valuable comments and contributions.
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