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Page 5
Preface
This handbook is the result of compilations and writing of ninety authors who have worked over a
period of nine years to revise the famous Allen’s Astrophysical Quantities. The need for such a
revision had been known since shortly after the last edition edited by C.W. Allen in 1972. Even
though his 1973 edition remained in print through the late 1980s, Allen himself called for help in
revising the book in that third edition Preface. His death unfortunately prevented any revision, and
only a few attempts known to me were made by interested astronomers. By 1990, with the third
edition completely outdated, Arlo Landolt convinced the American Institute of Physics that they should
undertake extensive revisions of the Allen book. How my name came up, in late 1990, I do not know,
but once friends discovered I had been solicited by the AIP, they all encouraged me to find the various
astrophysics experts to prepare this new edition, published jointly by the AIP and Springer-Verlag.
The task of finding suitable authors and anonymous referees for the chapters was made easier by
the help of Peter Boyce at the American Astronomical Society and its publications board. Chairpersons
Caty Pilachowski, Hugh Van Horn, Jim Liebert, and Bob Hanisch suggested and helped recruit many
contributors. Numerous AAS officials, especially Roger Bell, helped me and the authors interface with
AIP and Springer.
The basic structure of the earlier Allen editions has been followed, but many changes were
necessary. For example, radio astronomy was represented by Allen with a page-long table of sources
and a few supplementary ones plus some data about solar radio emission. Today a complete chapter is
necessary, and even that does not seem to be as much as the author and I would have liked to include.
Other advances in astrophysics have required us to include new chapters for infrared, ultraviolet, X-ray,
and gamma-ray and neutrino astronomy. The explosion in observations of our solar system has resulted
in a great expansion in information about these nearby bodies, as well as for our Sun itself. Later in the
development of this book we found that we needed to add a chapter about stellar evolution because the
level of understanding essentially the entire lives of stars had matured enormously. Most dramatically,
modern large telescopes have revealed huge quantities of data about galaxies, galaxy clusters, and their
exotic emissions. Three separate chapters cover different aspects of this material. A much expanded
Cosmology chapter was needed to include our current understanding of the structure of the Universe.
Finally, we have added many supplemental tables including an attempt to list the world’s largest optical
telescopes, with the help of Kari Parker, that surely will be out of date soon.
While writing the chapters, many authors found that they needed some specialists to supply and
even write sections that were beyond their current knowledge. These section authors are not given in
the table of contents, but only at the start of the sections where they contributed. Thanks are due to
these scientists who have supplied important information that we found relevant, often rather late in
the book development. Their submissions could easily merit a mention in the table of contents, but the
complicated process of assembling this greatly revised handbook and keeping its structure in control
has resulted in this special format.
Readers must realize that a project that involves ninety otherwise very busy astrophysicists is bound
to be uneven. Some authors were able to get their material to me as early as mid-1992, while others
were not even solicited by me for last-minute data until mid-1998. Our plan to include updates to
a uniform date for all chapters could not be carried out because of its complexity, but some data as
recent as the summer of 1999 are included. Readers are invited to contact individual authors directly
for details. Our hope is that we have adequately pointed the way to the extensive literature for each
subject.
v
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Page 6
vi / P REFACE
Some astrophysicists have already decided to adopt our carefully compiled data as standard for their
own special lists. This is reasonable, since this new Allen edition has been prepared by the world’s
experts in the various areas of astrophysics. One thing we have learned is that definitive data depend
on interpretations for those last little details, and the best source for the most current and accurate data
is always the experts. We hope our authors are these.
The contents of this new edition of Allen will be available in electronic form with many
tables and graphs “live” for interactive searching, correlating, interpolating, and so forth. The
electronic version will be available by subscription and kept up-to-date on the publisher’s web site
(www.springer-ny.com) and will also be available as a CD-ROM for use on a Windows PC. At the
minimum, these electronic data will greatly assist in future editions.
Every publishing undertaking ends with regrets that some things could not be included. Thus
all should realize that our book is a good reference book, but it still misses, for example, the newly
published definitive NIST physical constants, a recent Uranus satellite discovery, a new and unexpected
class of intrinsic variable (Gamma Doradus) stars, and the latest gamma burst explosions now optically
detected from the far reaches of our Universe. The organization of these new astrophysical quantities
into an additional concise revised-again edition awaits future generations of authors, I hope as skilled
and dedicated as ours.
Los Alamos, New Mexico
October 1999
Arthur N. Cox
anc@lanl.gov
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Page 7
Contents
Preface
v
Contributors
1
1.1
1.2
1.3
Introduction
Arthur N. Cox
Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Astronomical Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Astronomical and Astrophysical Journals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
General Constants and Units
Arthur N. Cox
Mathematical Constants . . . . . . . . .
Physical Constants . . . . . . . . . . . .
General Astronomical Constants . . . .
Astronomical Constants Involving Time
Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Electric and Magnetic Unit Relations . .
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3
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7
7
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12
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22
Atoms and Molecules
Werner Däppen
3.1 Online Databases and Other Sources . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2 Elements, Atomic Mass, and Solar-System Abundance
3.3 Excitation, Ionization, and Partition Functions . . . . .
3.4 Ionization Potentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5 Electron Affinities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.6 Atomic Cross Sections for Electronic Collisions . . . .
3.7 Atomic Radii . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.8 Particles of Modern Physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.9 Molecules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.10 Plasmas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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27
27
28
31
35
35
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43
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47
Spectra
Charles Cowley, Wolfgang L. Wiese, Jeffrey Fuhr, and Ludmila A. Kuznetsova
Online Database . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Terminology for Atomic States, Levels, Terms, etc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Electronic Configurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Spectrum Line Intensities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Relative Strengths Within Multiplets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Wavelengths and Wave Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Atomic Oscillator Strengths for Allowed Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Nuclear Spin and Hyperfine Structure: Low-Level Hyperfine Transitions . . .
Forbidden Line Transition Probabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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53
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4
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
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vii
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Page 8
viii / C ONTENTS
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83
85
87
89
Radiation
J.J. Keady and D.P. Kilcrease
5.1 Radiation Quantities and Interrelations . . . . . .
5.2 Refractive Index and Average Polarizability . . .
5.3 Absorption and Scattering by Particles . . . . . .
5.4 Photoionization and Recombination . . . . . . .
5.5 X-Ray Attenuation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.6 Absorption of Material of Stellar Interiors . . . .
5.7 Absorption of Material of the Solar Photosphere
5.8 Solar Photoionization Rates . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.9 Free–Free Absorption and Emission . . . . . . .
5.10 Reflection from Metallic Mirrors . . . . . . . . .
5.11 Visual Photometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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95
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4.10
4.11
4.12
4.13
5
6
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
7
Spectra of Diatomic Molecules . .
Energy Levels . . . . . . . . . . . .
Transitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Selection Rules: Dipole Radiation
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8.1
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Radio Astronomy
Robert M. Hjellming
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Atmospheric Window and Sky Brightness .
Radio Wave Propagation . . . . . . . . . . .
Radio Telescopes and Arrays . . . . . . . .
Radio Emission and Absorption Processes .
Radio Astronomy References . . . . . . . .
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121
121
123
125
128
131
140
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143
143
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146
148
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154
155
158
161
163
164
Ultraviolet Astronomy
Terry J. Teays
Ultraviolet Wavelengths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ultraviolet Astronomy Satellite Missions . . . . .
Significant Atlases and Catalogs . . . . . . . . . . .
Interstellar Extinction in the Ultraviolet . . . . . .
Commonly Observed Ultraviolet Emission Lines .
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169
169
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175
Infrared Astronomy
A.T. Tokunaga
7.1 Useful Equations; Units . . . . . . . . .
7.2 Atmospheric Transmission . . . . . . .
7.3 Background Emission . . . . . . . . . .
7.4 Detectors and Signal-to-Noise Ratios .
7.5 Photometry (λ < 30 µm) . . . . . . . .
7.6 Photometry (λ > 30 µm) . . . . . . . .
7.7 Infrared Line List . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.8 Dust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.9 Solar System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.10 Stars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.11 Extragalactic Objects . . . . . . . . . .
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C ONTENTS / ix
8.6
8.7
Ultraviolet Spectral Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Ultraviolet Spectrophotometric Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5
9.6
9.7
X-Ray Astronomy
Frederick D. Seward
Useful Conversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Characteristic X-Ray Transitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Emission Mechanisms and Spectra . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Transmission of X-Rays Through the Interstellar Medium
Cosmic X-Ray Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Diffuse Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
X-Ray Astronomy Missions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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183
183
184
184
194
198
203
205
γ -Ray and Neutrino Astronomy
R.E. Lingenfelter and R.E. Rothschild
Continuum Emission Processes . . . .
Line Emission Processes . . . . . . . .
Scattering and Absorption Processes .
Astrophysical γ -Ray Observations . .
Neutrinos in Astrophysics . . . . . . .
Current Neutrino Observatories . . . .
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207
207
208
213
216
235
237
Earth
Gerald Schubert and Richard L. Walterscheid
Oblate Ellipsoidal Reference Figure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Mass and Moments of Inertia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Gravitational Potential and Relation to Products of Inertia . . . . . . . . .
Topography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Rotation (Spin) and Revolution About the Sun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Geoid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Solid Body Tides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Geological Time Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Glaciations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Plate Tectonics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Earth Crust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Earth Interior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Earth Atmosphere, Dry Air at Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP)
Composition of the Atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Water Vapor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Homogeneous Atmosphere, Scale Heights and Gradients . . . . . . . . .
Regions of Earth’s Atmosphere and Distribution with Height . . . . . . .
Atmospheric Refraction and Air Path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Atmospheric Scattering and Continuum Absorption . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Absorption by Atmospheric Gases at Visible and Infrared Wavelengths .
Thermal Emission by the Atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ionosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Night Sky and Aurora . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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239
240
240
241
243
244
245
245
246
246
248
251
252
252
255
257
258
259
259
260
262
265
268
270
271
279
9
10
10.1
10.2
10.3
10.4
10.5
10.6
11
11.1
11.2
11.3
11.4
11.5
11.6
11.7
11.8
11.9
11.10
11.11
11.12
11.13
11.14
11.15
11.16
11.17
11.18
11.19
11.20
11.21
11.22
11.23
11.24
11.25
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Sp.-V/AQuan/1999/11/02:16:30
Page 10
x / C ONTENTS
11.26 Geomagnetism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
11.27 Meteorites and Craters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
12
12.1
12.2
12.3
12.4
12.5
12.6
12.7
12.8
13
13.1
13.2
13.3
13.4
13.5
14
14.1
14.2
14.3
14.4
14.5
14.6
14.7
14.8
14.9
14.10
14.11
14.12
14.13
14.14
14.15
15
15.1
15.2
15.3
15.4
15.5
Planets and Satellites
David J. Tholen, Victor G. Tejfel, and Arthur N. Cox
Planetary System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Orbits and Physical Characteristics of Planets . . . . .
Photometry of Planets and Asteroids . . . . . . . . . .
Physical Conditions on Planets . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Names, Designations, and Discoveries of Satellites .
Satellite Orbits and Physical Elements . . . . . . . . .
Moon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Planetary Rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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293
293
294
298
300
302
303
308
311
Solar System Small Bodies
Richard P. Binzel, Martha S. Hanner, and Duncan I. Steel
Asteroids or Minor Planets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Comets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Zodiacal Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Infrared Zodiacal Emission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Meteoroids and Interplanetary Dust . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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315
315
321
328
331
333
Sun
William C. Livingston
Basic Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Interior Model . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Solar Oscillations . . . . . . . . . . .
Photospheric–Chromospheric Model
Spectral Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Spectral Distribution . . . . . . . . . .
Limb Darkening . . . . . . . . . . . .
Corona . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Solar Rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Granulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Surface Magnetism and its Tracers .
Sunspots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sunspot Statistics . . . . . . . . . . .
Flares and Coronal Mass Ejections .
Solar Radio Emission . . . . . . . . .
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339
340
341
342
348
351
353
355
357
362
364
364
367
370
373
375
Normal Stars
John S. Drilling and Arlo U. Landolt
Stellar Quantities and Interrelations .
Spectral Classification . . . . . . . . .
Photometric Systems . . . . . . . . .
Stellar Atmospheres . . . . . . . . . .
Stellar Structure . . . . . . . . . . . .
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381
381
383
385
393
395
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Sp.-V/AQuan/1999/11/02:16:30
Page 11
C ONTENTS / xi
16
16.1
16.2
16.3
16.4
16.5
16.6
16.7
16.8
16.9
16.10
16.11
16.12
16.13
16.14
16.15
16.16
16.17
16.18
Stars with Special Characteristics
J. Donald Fernie
Variable Stars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cepheid and Cepheid-Like Variables . . . . . . .
Variable White Dwarf Tables . . . . . . . . . . . .
Long-Period Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Other Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Rotating Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
T Tauri Stars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Flare Stars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Wolf–Rayet and Luminous Blue Variable Stars .
Be Stars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Characteristics of Carbon-Rich Stars . . . . . . .
Barium, CH, and Subgiant CH Stars . . . . . . .
Hydrogen-Deficient Carbon Stars . . . . . . . . .
Blue Stragglers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Peculiar A and Magnetic Stars . . . . . . . . . .
Pulsars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Galactic Black Hole Candidate X-Ray Binaries .
Double Stars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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397
398
399
400
406
406
407
408
409
410
413
415
416
417
418
419
420
422
424
17
Cataclysmic and Symbiotic Variables
W.M. Sparks, S.G. Starrfield, E.M. Sion, S.N. Shore, G. Chanmugam,
and R.F. Webbink
429
17.1 Types of Cataclysmic Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
17.2 Types of Symbiotic Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447
18
18.1
18.2
18.3
18.4
18.5
18.6
18.7
18.8
18.9
18.10
19
19.1
19.2
19.3
19.4
19.5
19.6
19.7
Supernovae
J. Craig Wheeler and Stefano Benetti
Spectral Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Older Population, Type Ia Supernovae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Young Population Supernovae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SN 1987A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Characteristic Spectral Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Radio Supernovae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Polarization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Supernova Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Old Supernovae, Historical Supernovae, and Supernova Remnants
Radioactive Decay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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451
451
452
454
460
463
466
466
467
468
468
Star Populations and the Solar Neighborhood
Gerard F. Gilmore and Michael Zeilik
The Nearby Stars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Brightest Stars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Stellar Populations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Star Counts at High Latitudes . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vertical Stellar Density Profile . . . . . . . . . . . .
Main Sequence Field Stellar Luminosity Function
White Dwarf Luminosity Function . . . . . . . . .
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471
471
475
478
480
481
485
485
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Sp.-V/AQuan/1999/11/02:16:30
Page 12
xii / C ONTENTS
19.8
19.9
19.10
19.11
20
20.1
20.2
20.3
20.4
20.5
20.6
20.7
20.8
20.9
20.10
20.11
20.12
20.13
20.14
20.15
20.16
20.17
20.18
20.19
20.20
21
21.1
21.2
21.3
21.4
21.5
21.6
21.7
21.8
21.9
21.10
22
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486
487
488
493
Theoretical Stellar Evolution
Arthur N. Cox, Stephen A. Becker, and W. Dean Pesnell
Basic Equations of Stellar Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Stellar Nuclear Energy Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Equations of State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Stellar Opacities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Electron Conduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Element Diffusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Mixing in Stars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Star Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pre-Main-Sequence Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Main-Sequence Population I Stars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Main-Sequence Population II Stars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Stellar Winds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Stellar Evolution Tracks: Massive and Intermediate-Mass Stars
Evolution to Red Giant Branch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Horizontal Branch Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Red Giant Mass-Loss Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Asymptotic Giant Branch Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
White Dwarfs and Neutron Stars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Binary Star Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Theory Versus Observation in the HR Diagram . . . . . . . . . .
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499
500
502
503
505
506
506
506
507
508
509
509
509
511
514
514
515
518
518
519
520
Circumstellar and Interstellar Material
John S. Mathis
Overview of the Interstellar Medium . . . . . . . .
Galactic Interstellar Extinction . . . . . . . . . . . .
Abundances in Interstellar Gas . . . . . . . . . . .
Line Emissions from the ISM . . . . . . . . . . . .
H2 and Molecular Clouds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Neutral Gas; Clouds; Depletions . . . . . . . . . .
H II Regions, Ionized Gas, and the Galactic Halo .
Planetary Nebulae (PNe) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Supernova Remnants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cosmic Rays (Excluding Photons and Neutrinos)
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523
523
527
529
530
532
534
536
538
540
541
Luminosity Class Distribution for Nearby Field Stars
Mass Density in the Solar Neighborhood . . . . . . .
Stellar Mass Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Solar Motion and Kinematics of Nearby Stars . . . .
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Star Clusters
Hugh C. Harris and William E. Harris
545
22.1 Open Clusters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545
22.2 Globular Clusters in the Milky Way . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554
22.3 Globular Clusters in Other Galaxies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562
Sp.-V/AQuan/1999/11/02:16:30
Page 13
C ONTENTS / xiii
23
Milky Way and Galaxies
Virginia Trimble
569
23.1 Milky Way Galaxy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569
23.2 Normal Galaxies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576
24
24.1
24.2
24.3
24.4
24.5
24.6
24.7
24.8
24.9
24.10
24.11
25
25.1
25.2
25.3
25.4
25.5
25.6
25.7
25.8
25.9
25.10
25.11
25.12
25.13
25.14
25.15
26
26.1
26.2
26.3
26.4
26.5
26.6
26.7
26.8
26.9
26.10
Quasars and Active Galactic Nuclei
Belinda J. Wilkes
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Types of Active Galactic Nuclei . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Catalogs and Surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Commonly Measured Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Emission Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Absorption Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Spectral Energy Distributions (SEDs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Luminosity Functions and the Space Distribution of Quasars .
BL Lacs, HPQs, and OVVs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Low-Luminosity Active Galactic Nuclei (LLAGN) . . . . . .
AGN Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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585
585
586
591
593
595
601
602
605
607
608
608
Clusters and Groups of Galaxies
Neta A. Bahcall
Typical Properties of Clusters and Groups of Galaxies .
Cluster Catalogs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Catalog of Nearby Rich Clusters of Galaxies . . . . . .
Cluster Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cluster Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
cD Galaxies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Luminosity Function of Galaxies in Clusters . . . . . .
Mass Function of Clusters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
X-Ray Emission from Clusters . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Sunyaev–Zeldovich Effect in Clusters . . . . . . . .
Clusters and Large-Scale Structure . . . . . . . . . . . .
Groups of Galaxies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Quasar–Cluster Association . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Clusters as Gravitational Lenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Recent Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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613
614
615
617
620
625
627
627
628
630
632
633
637
639
640
640
Cosmology
Douglas Scott, Joseph Silk, Edward W. Kolb, and Michael S. Turner
Friedmann–Robertson–Walker Metric and Distance Measures . . . .
The Age of the Universe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Conversion Factors for the Early Universe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Other Useful Conversion Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cosmological Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Friedmann–Lemaı̂tre Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Epochs of Interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Age Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cosmological Tests: H0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cosmological Tests: q0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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643
644
646
647
648
649
650
650
652
653
653
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Sp.-V/AQuan/1999/11/02:16:30
Page 14
xiv / C ONTENTS
26.11
26.12
26.13
26.14
26.15
26.16
26.17
26.18
26.19
26.20
27
27.1
27.2
27.3
27.4
27.5
27.6
27.7
27.8
27.9
Other Cosmological Parameters . . . . . . . . .
Primordial Nucleosynthesis and Neutrinos . . .
Power Spectrum of Density Fluctuations . . . .
Structure Formation Scales . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cosmic Microwave Background Anisotropies .
Large-Scale Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Densities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Velocities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Intergalactic Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Extragalactic Diffuse Backgrounds . . . . . . .
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654
654
655
656
658
659
660
661
662
663
Incidental Tables
Alan D. Fiala, William F. Van Altena, Stephen T. Ridgway, and Roger W. Sinnott
The Julian Date . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Standard Epochs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Reduction for Precession . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Solar Coordinates and Related Quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Constellations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Messier Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Astrometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Optical and Infrared Interferometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The World’s Largest Optical Telescopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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667
667
668
669
670
672
674
677
687
689
Index
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701