THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN URBAN SHADE AND PEOPLE’S
ACTIVITIES IN OUTDOOR SPACES
RAHMAT KURNIAWAN
A thesis submitted in fulfilment of
the requirements for the award of
the degree of Master of Science (Urban Design)
Faculty of Built Environment
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
MAY 2009
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN URBAN SHADE AND PEOPLE’S
ACTIVITIES IN OUTDOOR SPACES
RAHMAT KURNIAWAN
UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA
iii
dedicated to
my beloved mother may Allah bless her soul
my lovely father
and my family
with thanks for all the
years of caring, love, and support
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Alhamdulillahirabbilalamiin, I would like to express my deepest gratitude
and appreciation to the following individuals and organization, which support and
motivate me in completing my study.
My supervisor, DR. Dilshan Remaz Ossen whom greatly encourages, and
guide me, as well as his attention, critics and supports has been helped me to do my
project. To my great coordinator of Urban Design, Associate Professor Syed Zainol
Abidin IDID and his family as I considered as my teacher and parents who have
been coloring my life almost two years in Malaysia, Terima Kasih Ayah Syed…
To my government, Pemerintah Kota Batam, who has been given me a
chance to continue my study, this occasion has been changed my dream to be a real
life.
Finally, I would like to thank to all my beloved friends who have given me
for all supports and understandings, Celi, Nurfaizah, Farnaz, Aida, Osama, Mohsen
and Soliman as well as all my UDCRU friends. My deepest gratitude to all my
family who has been supporting and giving me inspirations in many ways until this
time, this degree is for you. Thank you so much.
v
ABSTRACT
Pedestrian is one of the most important factors of an urban space. As one
element of the street, pedestrian plays significant role of enhancing and sustaining
the quality of an urban space. Climatic conditions at street level are most important
for pedestrians and are certainly critical when people do their activity. This study
described the pedestrians’ behavior during hot climate conditions. The main purpose
was to test empirically the relationship between urban shade and people’s activities
as preferences. It examined the impact of solar exposure (sun, shade) on the time
people are willing to reside the outdoor areas. It also explores the influence of
different shade pattern to the different people’s activities in certain interval time. The
aim was to seek which activity has significant relationship to shade in terms of
outdoors in commercial areas. People’s activities were recorded by using video
cameras, which were set on outdoor spaces in five sample spaces and five activities
categorization. Computer simulation was used to project the patterns of buildings and
trees shade. Simple statistical correlation and regression analysis methods were used
to identify relationships between shade and activity. Findings indicated that generally
the willingness to utilize an outdoor in daytime was significantly influenced by the
presence or the absence of shade. There was significant influence of shade to
activity, which indicated by strong negative relationship between shade and
chatting/talking activity, and positive relationship to the eating/drinking. Results
could be applied to develop and to test, as well as refine the understanding of
preferences and constraints that shape outdoor choices in different contexts, thus
contributing towards street vitality.
vi
ABSTRAK
Kehadiran pejalan kaki merupakan salah satu elemen yang penting dalam
meningkatkan kegunaan sesebuah ruang bandar. Salah satu faktor yang
mempengaruhi aktiviti dan kehadiran pejalan kaki di ruang-ruang ini adalah faktor
cuaca. Kajian ini melihat kepada pengaruh faktor cuaca kepada aktiviti pejalan kaki
dalam keadaan cuaca panas. Tujuan kajian adalah menguji hubungan empirical
antara kawasan teduhan kepada pemilihan aktiviti orang ramai. Kajian ini juga
dijalankan dengan mengkaji faktor pendedahan cahaya (cahaya matahari/teduhan)
kepada masa yang diambil orang ramai untuk berada di luar bangunan. Ia juga
dijalankan dengan menegnalpasti pengaruh corak teduhan kepada aktiviti orang
ramai. Kajian ini telah dijalankan di kawasan perniagaan di mana terdapat pelbagai
aktiviti manusia. Aktiviti orang ramai telah direkod dengan menggunakan kamera
video di kawasan-kawasan umum dengan lima sampel ruang dan lima jenis aktiviti
telah dirakamkan. Simulasi computer telah digunakan untuk mempamerkan corak
teduhan daripada baying-bayang bangunan atau pokok-pokok. Kaedah regresi dan
korelasi telah digunakan untuk menentukan hubungkait antara aktiviti dan teduhan.
Hasil kajian menjumpai bahawa terdapat hubungkait yang jelas antara aktiviti luar
dengan kehadiran atau ketiadaan kawasan teduhan di kawasan perniagaan. Hubungan
negatif daripada analisis terbukti pada hubungkait antara aktiviti berbual dengan
kehadiran atau ketiadaan teduhan manakala terdapat hubungan positif pula pada
aktiviti makan atau minum di kawasan kajian. Keputusan dapat diaplikasikan bagi
menguji dan mengembangkan fokus di kawasan-kawasan lain atau keadaan berbeza.
Selain itu, hasil kajian boleh membantu mendalamkan pemahaman dalam pemilihan
rujukan dan batasan yang wujud pada konteks berbeza seterusnya menyumbang
kepada kemeriahan sesebuah jalan.
vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER
1
TITLE
PAGE
DECLARATION
ii
DEDICATION
iii
ACKNOWLEDEMENT
iv
ABSTRACT
v
ABSTRAK
vi
TABLE OF CONTENT
vii
LIST OF TABLE
xi
LIST OF FIGURES
xiii
LIST OF APPENDICES
xvii
INTRODUCTION
1
1.1
Background of Study
1
1.2
Statement of Problem
4
1.3
Research Issue
5
1.4
Aims and Objectives of Study
7
1.5
Research Question
8
1.6
Scope of Study
8
1.7
Significance of Study
9
1.8
Research Methodology
10
1.8.1 Subject and Data Source
12
viii
1.8.1 Subject and Data Source
1.8.1.1 Primary Data
12
1.8.1.2 Secondary Data
13
1.8.2 Data Analysis Technique
14
Anticipated Finding
16
LITERATURE REVIEW
18
2.1
Introduction
18
2.2
Urban Space and Microclimate
19
2.3
Terminology and Definition
21
2.3.1
21
1.9
2
12
Outdoor Space
2.3.2. Street
2.3.2.1 Street as Channel Movement
26
2.3.2.2 Street as Social Space
27
2.3.2.3 Street as Commercial Space
28
2.3.2.4 Street as Political Space
28
2.3.2.5 Street as Cultural Space
28
Pedestrian Mall
29
Environment Behavioral Study
33
2.4.1
Observing Environmental Behavior
37
2.4.2
Pedestrian Counting and Observation
39
2.4.3
Recording Devices
41
2.3.3
2.4
2.5
22
Urban Shade
43
2.5.1
44
Buildings and Trees Shade, and
Solar Radiation
2.5.2
2.6
Urban Blocks as Shade Device
Summary
46
48
ix
3
EXISTING CONDITION OF THE CASE
50
STUDY AND METHODOLOGY
3.1
Introduction
50
3.1.1
51
Singapore Urbanization and
Microclimate
3.1.2
3.2
3.1.1.1 Singapore Urbanization
51
3.1.1.2 Singapore Microclimate
53
Orchard Road Profile
55
3.1.2.1 The Form of Orchard Road
60
3.1.2.2 The Pedestrian Mall
63
A Review of Master Plan
64
3.2.1
65
Existing Spatial Arrangement of
Neighborhood
3.2.2
Existing Spatial Arrangement of
71
Building Usage Pattern
3.2.3
Existing Pathway/Pedestrian Mall
75
3.3
Pilot Survey
77
3.4.
Information Obtained from the Pilot Survey
79
3.4.1
The Method of Measurement
79
3.4.2
The Activity Observation Results
80
3.5
Methodology and Procedures
81
3.5.1
The Variables
82
3.5.1.1 Observation to Inventory
82
Shade Variables
3.5.1.2 People’s Activity as
84
Dependent Variables
3.5.2
Instrumentation
85
3.5.3
Measurement Procedures
86
3.5.3.1 Shade and Typology Analysis
86
x
3.5.3.2 Counting the Behavior
93
Characteristics
3.5.4
3.6
4
Data Analysis Technique
Summary
94
99
DATA ANALYSIS
100
4.1
Introduction
100
4.2
Terminology and Definitions
101
4.3
Typology of Outdoor Spaces
101
4.3.1
Orientation of Outdoor Spaces
102
4.3.1.1 Sample Area 1 (SA-1)
103
4.3.1.2 Sample Area 2 (SA-2)
104
4.3.1.3 Sample Area 3 (SA-3)
105
4.3.1.4 Sample Area 4 and 5 (SA-4
106
and SA-5)
4.3.2
Geometry of Outdoor Spaces
108
4.3.2.1 Outdoor on the Side
108
4.3.2.2 Outdoor Surrounded by
111
Buildings
4.4
Shade Pattern Analysis
113
4.4.1
124
The Photographic Survey on People
Activities
4.4.2
4.5
4.6
4.7
Summary of Shade Analysis
131
Behavioral Characteristic
132
4.5.1
Period I
134
4.5.2
Period II
138
Correlation and Regression Analysis
143
4.6.1
Result
144
4.6.2
Output Analysis
145
Chapter Summary
147
xi
5
CONCLUSION AND RECOMENDATION
149
5.1
Introduction
149
5.2
Summary of the Findings
150
5.3
Suggestion for Further Studies
153
5.4
Conclusion
154
156-162
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Appendices
A-H
160-181
xi
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE NO.
TITLE
PAGE
2.1
Street as a Channel Movement
26
2.2
Street as Social Space
27
2.3
Elements in Environmental Behavior Observation
36
2.4
Type of Activities can be expected in the public street
38
2.5
Type of user groups can be expected to use on the
39
public spaces
2.6
Elements on the studied site
43
3.1
Daylight Saving in Singapore (January 10, 2009)
54
3.2
Singapore Solar Energy and Surface Meteorology
54
3.3
Inventory of The Building Usage within The Study
73
Area
3.4
Observation Schedule
93
3.5
Definition of Operational Variables
99
4.1
Time Period of Field Investigation (randomly sampled)
113
4.2
Shade Pattern of SA-1 related to the Time Period
114
4.3
Shade Density of SA-1, Period I
115
4.4
Shade Density of SA-1, Period II
116
4.5
Shade Pattern of SA-2 related to Time Period
117
4.6
Shade Density of SA-2
118
xii
4.7
Shade Pattern of SA-3 related to The Time Period
119
4.8
Shade Pattern of SA-4 related to the Time Period
120
4.9
Shade Pattern of SA-5 related to the Time Period
121
4.10
Shade Density of SA-3
122
4.11
Shade Density of SA-4
122
4.12
Shade Density of SA-5
123
4.13
Density of Activity in Period I, Measuring between
135
10am to 11am
4.14
Summary on Density of Activity in Period I.
135
Measuring between 10am to 11am
4.15
Density of Activity in Period II. Measuring between
138
2pm to 3pm
4.16
Summary on Density of Activity in Period II
139
4.17
Codes and Definition of Operational Variables
142
4.18
Result of Regression Analysis to Shade and Frequency
145
of Human Activities
4.19
Result of T-Test
146
xiii
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE NO.
TITLE
PAGE
1.1
Stage 1. Flow Chart of Research Design
12
1.2
Stage 2. Flow Chart of Data Analysis
14
1.3
Stage 3. Flow Chart of Data Collection
16
2.1
Ratio of Streetscape; Comparison of Distance (D) and
24
Height (H) of Adjacent Building
2.2
Ratio of Streetscape; Comparison of Width (W) and
24
Height (H)
2.3
Perception in Streetscape Characteristic According to
25
Pedestrians and Motorists
2.4
Environment-Behavior Research
35
2.5
Solar Azimuth and Altitude Angles in Auckland
46
3.1
3 Dimensional View of Singapore City Central
53
3.2
Singapore Sun path Diagram Taken on January 10,
55
2009
3.3
3 Dimensional View of Orchard Road
56
xiv
3.4
The Three-Zones Concept of Orchard Road
59
3.5
Streetscape of Orchard Road (Existing Condition)
60
3.6
Sign Board of Pedestrian Crossing no Allowed
61
3.7
Section of Orchard Road Streetscape (existing
62
condition)
3.8
Appearance of Pedestrian Mall (southern side)
63
3.9
Appearance of Pedestrian Mall (northern side)
63
3.10
2 Dimensional Plan of Urban Geometry at Study Area
66
3.11
Building Height Guide Line at Study Area
67
3.12
Actual Condition of the Building Height at Study Area
68
3.13
The Existing Arrangement of Angsana Trees within
69
Study Area
3.14
Angsana Trees at South side and North side along the
70
Orchard Road
3.15
The Building Usage Pattern within the Study Area
72
(existing condition)
3.16
Existing Condition of Services within Study Area
74
3.17
The Pedestrian Mall within Study Area
75
3.18
Urban Canyon, Ratio between Width and Height
76
(W/H) of the Pedestrian Mall
3.19
Method for Outdoor Spaces to Inventory and
83
Identification
3.20
The 3D Model of Building Blocks Arrangement in the
89
Study Area Generated through Computer Software
3.21
Orientation Typologies of Outdoors
91
3.22
Geometry Typologies of Outdoors
92
3.23
Positive and Negative Correlation Coefficient
98
4.1
Key Plan of Sample Spaces
102
4.2
Orientation Typology of SA-1
104
4.3
Orientation Typology of SA-2
105
xv
4.4
Orientation Typology of SA-3
106
4.5
Orientation Typology of SA-4 and SA-5
107
4.6
Geometry Typology of SA-1
109
4.7
Building Block Geometry of SA-1
109
4.8
Geometry Typology of SA-2
110
4.9
Building block Geometry of SA-2
110
4.10
Geometry Typology of SA-3
111
4.11
Geometry Typology of SA-4 and SA-5
111
4.12
Building Block Geometry of SA-3
112
4.13
Building Block Geometry of SA-4 and SA-5
112
4.14
Sky View Factor
113
4.15
The Level of Shade Density among Sample Spaces
124
4.16
Photographic Survey on SA-1 (January 13, 2009)
127
4.17
Photographic Survey on SA-2 (January 13, 2009)
128
4.18
Photographic Survey on SA-3 (January 13, 2009)
129
4.19
Photographic Survey on SA-4 and SA-5 (January 13,
130
2009)
4.20
Shade Density of each Sample according to Hourly in
131
Day
4.21
Sum of Shade Density by Hourly in Day
132
4.22
Density of each Activity (person/hour)
136
4.23
Density of each Activity among Sample Areas
137
(person/hour) in Period I
4.24
Density of each Activity among Sample Areas in
137
Period I
4.25
Density of each Activity (person/hour) in Period II on
139
SA-1 to SA-4
4.26
Density of Each Activity (person/hour) in Period II on
140
SA-5
4.27
Density of each Activity among Sample Areas
140
xvi
(person/hour) in Period II
4.28
Illustration of Density of each Activity among Sample
141
Areas in Period II
4.29
Comparison Density of Activity among Sample Spaces
142
5.1
The Level of Shade Density among Sample Spaces
150
5.2
Physical Setting of SA-5
151
xvii
LIST OF APPENDICES
APPENDICES
TITLE
PAGE
A
Orchard Road Plan
163
B
Sample Areas Plan
164
C
Pedestrian Mall Plan
165
D
Pedestrian Connection Plan
E
166
0
Hourly Dry Bulb Temperature (C ) of Changi Met
167
Station in Singapore
F
The Measurement People’s Activities and Walking
168
Intensity on Sample Spaces
G
The Measurement of Shade Density on Sample Spaces
175
H
Correlation and Regression Analysis between Shades
178
and Activities
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Topic of this research is about urban shade related to people activities in an
outdoor space. The study concentrated on the role of shade from buildings or trees
shadow in the context of enhancing the quality of outdoors in commercial area,
especially in pedestrian area where people are commuting. The study would be
discussed in three sections that were urban block, shadow pattern and people outdoor
activities. The case study took place in Orchard road as main corridor for informal
activities of Singapore.
1.1
Background of study
Urban growth resulted many changes in the ecology of life order such as on
human, animals, plants, and physical environment. Many researchers have studied
about these changes in various fields of studies. According to Emmanuel (2005),
urban designers, planners, architects, and engineers have not fully understood the
2
situation of the climate effect. Moreover, issues of global warming arose around the
world. Change of climate strongly influence to human being, animal, and even
physical environment. One of the effects that rise from the global temperature may
alter and threaten the creatures of life (Gore, 2007). Temperature and oxygen has
increased for ten years since 1995 to 2005, approximately 20 percent radioactive fold
(Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2008).
Several investigations have achieved some results on how qualities of a place
measured from the place itself. In addition, one goal in urban design field in context
of tropical climate is to provide shading for human thermal comfort (Emmanuel,
2005). In this study, shading derived from buildings and vegetation shadows that
influence the ambient quality in particular places. Agus (2004) addressed that each
shadow of the building and vegetation might have different influence on the space
relationship quality, positively or negatively. . Moreover, temperature is also a
critical factor related to human thermal comfort (Scudo, 2002). Gaitani et al. (2005),
stated that human thermal comfort could be defined as reaction of satisfaction or
dissatisfaction with environmental terms due to human condition. Meanwhile, it is
also difficult to address as it depends on various influencing factors. These are main
physical factors, which are (1) ambient air temperature, (2) air velocity, (3) relative
humidity, (4) mean radiant temperature.
Microclimate has been put into consideration by architects, planners and also
urban designers. However, some designers are still not fully comprehend the
concepts of the relationship between human behavior and physical environment in
term routine activities (Malavi and Malavasi, 1999).
Many factors such as security and safety, activity, noise, reposition, comfort,
and others might influence the quality of facilities. Shadow is one of the elements
with significant influence on urban thermal comfort in the tropics. For instance,
3
shadow is considered vital in order to respond to the tropical climate like Malaysia,
Singapore and Indonesia.
Occasionally, many architects, planners and urban designers failed in planning,
forming and designing building blocks by locating vegetations roughly based on
aesthetical values. They often neglected other factors that might influence the quality
of the spaces where the human thermal comfort plays a main role in order to
enhancing the outdoor quality.
Pedestrian areas are the main function to connect certain spaces of a town
forms. People may walk, even considerably long distances, instead of driving in their
air-conditioned petrol powered cars if outdoor condition are comfortable enough for
pedestrians. They will also use the outdoors more often, for social encounters, for
window-shopping or just for gentle stroll, increasing the numbers of pedestrian will,
in turn, attract and promote businesses, and in the long run it adds the city’s
economical and livability values, as well as meeting basic conditions for
environmental, social and economical sustainability. This is one of the most
important things to look and assess the image of a town.
Furthermore, according to Kaplan et al. (1998) explained that comfort is fallen
in yielding from its green nature. It could be due to the interpreting in natural
greenery that is an important factor in enhancing the quality of network on pedestrian
links. Therefore, the comfort zone will obtain by increasing much greeneries and
providing shades where simultaneously of the existence of trees and buildings can
reduce temperature derived from direct solar exposure.
Thus, good condition for walking and for life on foot, along with possibility for
staying, for pauses and experiences are the key to attractive and lively public spaces.
4
1.2
Statement of Problem
Some town designs did not pay much attention to conduct the shadow as
shades, especially in network system of pedestrian linkages where places are most
people doing their activities. In a network system of pedestrian links, there are nodes
or ‘pause’ area where people having their activities like reading, chatting, or seeing
people. According to Emmanuel (2005), shade does relate to climate-conscious
urban design that is important in urban areas in tropical countries. He added that the
art of artistically applying urban morphology to form shade at public places has
received only a little consideration in the tropics.
Ecological sensitive area is the main reason why weather and architecture take
into consideration. Certain area could be observed by putting environmental health
aspects into consideration (Emmanuel, 2005). It presumed that there are some ways
to reduce global warming effects. There are many effective ways where design might
contribute to a sustainable environment.
Gehl et al. (2006), studied that the appearance of a town formation is a result
of evaluated history of a pathway and sellers, who sold their goods from small-scale
stalls as place for people to observe and experience. They have changed in terms of
its function, for example, certain places for pedestrians now became roads. However,
the main key is how the changes happened among those who came, who has gone
and who stayed until present. Hence undeniable, pedestrian is an important element
to join various function of spaces neither that is outdoor space and indoor.
Patterns of pedestrian space in multi-purpose development are usually results
from the growing structures around it. For example, office buildings, mall buildings,
shopping centers, open spaces, parking areas and others. These elements are the key
5
separators that influence the whole length of the pathway. This can be in the form of
barriers (physical obstruction) or gaps (interruption to continuity) like, roadway,
intersection, and other (Parker et al., 2008; Bahari, 2008). A standardized network of
connection system is not conditional for pedestrian problems in towns, or for security
and safety reasons, but also as space link between one activity and others
(Emmanuel, 2005).
There are many researches on how shadows and shade can reduce temperature
around the place (Agus, 2002, 2003, 2004; Santana, Marcias and Garcia, 2001;
Moise and Aynsley, 1991; Scott, Simpson and McPherson, 1999). The relationship
between temperature increase and the space’s shade is identifiable through the
human behavior around the space. It takes a verification to prove scientific
relationship between existing shadow level and human activity patterns. Therefore
some different approach might be put into consideration in order to improve space‘s
quality in tropical and non-tropical area.
1.3
Research Issue
There are lacks of study in pedestrian links about influences of trees and
buildings shade physical factors on human comfort, because it depends on the
microclimate of the city where it is located. Influences of shade discussed in many
various fields of study, such as medical, architecture, town planning as well as urban
design. It has a significant value on influencing human beings. Health and comfort
areas are the key consideration. Microclimate factors might significantly influence
human behaviors.
6
Pedestrians are the main area where people commute. Gehl, (2006),
addressed that the main function of pedestrian is to provide the links between people
and place, and to be able to provide sense of welcoming especially in public space.
Thus, it is vital to consider vegetation and buildings shade as variables in order to
gain thermal comfort.
Furthermore, Agus (2004) explained in his study that there were differences
among shadows resulted from trees and buildings. Shadows of trees give more
significant effect than buildings. This study took place in a campus area, where
students had specific purposes to remain outdoors. On the other hand, buildingshaded areas are relatively hotter rather than tree-shaded areas (Agus, 2002).
Previous findings by Agus (2002) focused on certain variables, based on
students’ preferences.
Questions about its applicability in commercial area, where
people and their purposes are various, might arise. Gehl ( 2006), in his study showed
that there are other factors that might influence human spatial preferences in a
network system of pedestrian links such as the quality of ground floor, such as forms,
types, and other characteristics.
Therefore, this study focused on the relationship between the urban shade and
people’s activities in pedestrian oriented commercial area in an urban setting.
7
1.4
Aims and Objectives of Study
Due to the discussion presented, the thesis attempted to deal with the
relationship between urban shades to outdoor activities. Urban shades was indicated
either by buildings or trees that provided shadow casting to the outdoors through on
comprehending urban block geometry and orientation. Furthermore, people activities
were categorized in five sedentary activities such as sitting, standing, reading, eating
and chatting. The purpose of this category was to find out which activity occurred
most, in term of shade influence.
Thus, in order to effectively achieve the primary aim, the following
objectives were established:
1.
To find and provide scientific evidence on performance of people’s activities
on outdoors within urban block of commercial area according to the
typologies determined by the author. This research intends to acquire
information on human preference through outdoors field measurements to
justify the design effectiveness in providing shade for comfortable spaces.
2.
To identify and define existing outdoor spaces within the pedestrian mall in
Orchard road. Consequently, it will help to establish the typologies of the
existing outdoors space for shadow pattern assessment related to outdoor
location, building block including trees and people activities, in relation to
shaded area.
3.
To determine, which activity is likely to have strong relationship to shade in
order to design effectiveness of an outdoor within commercial area or
shopping complex.
8
1.5
Research Question
The research objectives in this thesis have lead to research questions on
relationship between urban shade and people activities. Thus, the research intends to
answer questions related to these two issues:
1.
How the urban blocks provide shade for outdoors?
The question related to an understanding of urban structures to identify its
shadow patterns impact to the outdoor areas where people reside.
2.
What and when is the most activity take place?
3.
What is the most activity that has significant relationship to the urban shade?
1.6
Scope of Study
Context of the study will be focus on commercial area in Orchard Road in
Singapore. The main reason of selecting this area is that the literature reviews
mentioned that Singapore has its achievement in reducing temperature (Emmanuel,
2005). Orchard road has successfully provided human comfort in surrounding area
compared to others similar places. The study will focus mainly on the linkages and
connectivity as a key characteristic of pathway. It will investigate the density of
people when they do their activities, the density of shaded area, which will fall onto
space and recording the people’s behaviors occurred on the sampling area. Therefore,
this study will identify any significant relationship between urban shades on human
preferences within the urban block.
9
The following points are the assumption and limitation of this research study:
i.
The studies were limited to daytime only due to urban shades occurred
ii.
This research was limited to the major personal and environmental
parameters, which were activity level and building block ratio (W/H) and its
typologies. Factors such as body surface area, age, sex, ethnic differences,
food and etc, were assumed to be minor parameters
iii.
Due to the limited time of this research, the measurement were limited to one
day for pilot survey and one day for observation with the assumption that
there were minimal differences of environmental parameters throughout these
days and due to the seasonal conditions and rational selection of schedule
iv.
Due to the limited equipment to measuring the existing condition of activity
and environment, the technique of data analysis was used randomly from data
collection such as time recording for activities, photograph taking and shadow
patterns obtained from computer simulation (SketchUP 5)
1.7
Significance of Study
Development will be continuously changing to accommodate people’s need,
economic demand, politics, and many other purposes in a city. Market is also as a
vital element in creating cityscape. Referring to the history of development of town,
sales activity could not be separately by the existence of market as community
center. Furthermore, development growth pattern in the modern times results in
people still using shopping complex as a city center. Meanwhile, to connect one area
to other within a city is namely network, pathway, linkages or other similar terms.
There are places where people are chatting, entering and leaving, walking along side,
10
standing alongside, taking a break, standing in doorways, shopping next to,
interacting with, looking at displays in, sitting on, sitting next to, looking in and out
of (Gehl et al., 2006).
We often disregard that the role of shade is vital in creating comfortable
outdoor space. Architects, planners, landscape designer and urban designer also lack
of concentration to the role of shade. Shadow can reduce hot-temperatures and
balancing the humidity. This is often forgotten by them that only focus on aesthetical
values and sometimes only imitates western style causing to forget to the local
context especially in area or even tropical states like Malaysia, Indonesia, Singapore,
Brazil and others. Thus, providing shade in order to achieve the quality of a place
will generate livable and attractive place due to tropical region and it helps to
preserve the quality of environment.
1.8
Research Methodology
The methodology of this research addressed two main issues discussed in
section 1.4 (research aims and objectives) and 1.5 (research question). To approach
these issues, the following tasks have identified:
A.
Research method to identify the shadow pattern and shape throughout its
building block
i.
Literature review to define outdoors, building block form, and earth-sun
relationship
11
ii.
Conduct a field observation to identify the existing pedestrian mall, building
block, and consequently the outdoors space
iii.
Literature reviews on outdoor spaces to determine the critical design
parameters involved in shadow pattern and shape assessment
iv.
Analysis and categorize the typology of outdoors based on chosen parameters
v.
Assess the outdoor spaces typologies
B.
Research Method in People Activities
i.
Literature review to determine the people activities criteria to be used in
outdoors
ii.
Literature review to determine the people activities assessment method to be
used for field measurement in outdoors
iii.
Conduct a pilot survey to test the pre-assumption procedures in order to get
proper method while doing the observation
iv.
Research method in conducting the measurement is to determine the
relationship between urban shade and people activities
12
Literature Review
Commercial area planning
Pedestrian network
Pathway
Nodes
Function and benefits
Spatial arrangement
Building use zoning
• Linier
• Shopping malls
• Offices
Ecology
People activities
• Religious
• Terminal/station
Elements & structures
Trees
Buildings
STAGE 1
Figure 1.1: Stage 1. Flow chart of research design
1.8.1
Subject or Data Source
To conduct the investigation, the data sources will be developed as follows:
1.8.1.1 Primary Data
The research will gather three types of data from the existing plan including:
(1) existing land use and building form pattern in the area of Orchard road in
13
Singapore in relation to pathway distribution, (2) existing pathway and node within
the building blocks, which link element of interest. The nodes may represent the
destination or transition zones for commercial complex to visit, to pass through and
to rest. Some pathway or nodes will be randomly selected as sample study area,
which each space is shaded either by trees or by buildings. This existing data will be
analyzed by technical drawing including cross-section, elevation, land use pattern
and perspective sketches, (3) human preferences on certain area will be defined as
the number of people that used the space in certain frequency or time. The frequency
of people behavior in each area will be recorded by videotape and camera.
This stage will also involve field observation and behavioral mapping. The
existing data gathered on site will identify and verify each of the elements. The
variables used for this study is shade (trees and buildings) as independent variable
which will be derived from shade pattern of trees and buildings simulated by using
computer. The dependent variable is the frequency of people activities.
1.8.1.2 Secondary Data
The secondary data was gained from the reference studies of related matter
such as; governmental reports will helps to gain significant information to the study
area, literatures (books, journals, research papers, newspapers and magazine articles,
etc), local plans and other relevant physical plans and information.
14
Data Analysis
Outdoor space
Human preferences
Video and Photographs
Randomly sampled
5 sample spaces:
• Pathway
(connection)
• Pocket
node
(open space)
Draw up:
Activity and shade
pattern
People doing
activities:
•
•
•
•
•
standing
Sitting
Reading
Eating/drinking
chatting
Data gathered will
simulated by Excel:
Both buildings and
trees-shades (%)
Correlation and
multiple regressions
Positive,
negative or no
relationship among
Figure 1.2: Stage 2. Flow chart of Data Analysis
1.8.2
Data Analysis Technique
The data will be analyzed using correlation and multiple regression analysis
between independent and dependent variables. Ms Office software (excel 2007) will
be utilized as an analyzing tool. It will help the researcher to:
15
•
To identify the density of people who utilized the area on certain sequences of
time and divided by the area of study space.
•
To identify the proportion of people activities on each samples space.
•
To determine does variables have significance relationships to all activities
(sitting, standing, reading, eating or drinking, and chatting).
Thus, all data analyzed by using Microsoft Office Excel 2007, derived from
data collection (videotape and camera) that will be used as evidence and checklist of
those samples space. The data will show the relationship of each variable that exist at
those sample spaces. Meanwhile, result of multiple regression analysis with stepwise
method will show the model of its relationship between dependent variable (people’s
activities) and independent variables (building and vegetation shade).
Multiple regression will use for the model as prediction in order the achieve
design effectiveness through predicting the shade density related to frequency of
people activities. The model would be developed from the correlation analysis that
has significant relationship to each variable whether it was positive or negative
correlation.
Figure 1.3 below shows how the data will be analyzed in order to achieve the
purpose of this research.
16
Data Collection
Case study: Orchard road
Review of Master plan
Field Observation
• Identify
existing
spatial arrangement of
building use pattern
Pathway and pocket
node
• Identify
existing
pathway and shaded
zone as sampling
Behavioral Characteristic
Frequecy of use
People doing activities:
Density of buildings-shade (%)
• Sitting
• Standing
Density of trees-shade (%)
Density of both buildings and
trees-shade (%)
• Reading
• Eating or drinking
• Chatting
Figure 1.3: Stage 3. Flow chart of Data Collection
1.9
Anticipated Finding
This research anticipates creating model of outdoors, at least at commercial
complexes, which provide shading as a vital factor to enhance the quality of
environment for human comfort. Furthermore, it would also give positive impacts to
17
sustain the urban quality by providing urban shade. The criteria of these speculative
results could be:
•
As a guidance to control, both building blocks forms, heights and its planting
design in order to achieve thermal comfort-sensitive design.
•
As a guidance to control the utilization of the place in terms of their activities
such as shopping streets, gathering place or pause area, pedestrian path and
nodes and simultaneously in enhancing the quality of space toward livable
and vibrant place.
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1
Introduction
This chapter will discuss and review on outdoor spaces and its terminology
and definition. The characters of place, human activities, urban culture and the
relationship between people’s activities were also reviewed. An overview of the
environment behavior theories will be evaluated to establish a link between physical
context in terms of urban shade and human behavior focusing on people’s activities.
Environment behavior studies will be appraised to provide a theoretical framework
for conducting this study. Street activities particularly on pedestrian mall as a part of
urban culture have discussed to enhance an understanding of the street features.
Next, the chapter will present the concept of urban shade in order to understand the
shadow pattern that was as one of the focus of this research.
19
2.2
Urban Space and Microclimate
The most important view of good urban public life is to give attractive place
for buildings where it gives contribution to the public life to encourage people to
socialize (Urban Design Compendium, p86). Moreover, human dimension in city
planning and the need for quality in public realm of cities are significant factors to
focus on. High quality of city environment for people is one of the main reasons why
it takes into a consideration in city planning. Furthermore, people invited to
repossess their cities, and restrictions were made to reduce parking and traffic in
central city areas in order to give more space for people oriented activities.
The lack of consideration in microclimate is often in urban design (Carmona,
2003). The parameters of microclimate could be identified by urban features and
urban fabric. They play an important role in affecting the local climate. Microclimate
can be adjusted by manipulating those parameters above. Windbreaks, shading, and
urban forms are factors could be influencing it (Gaitani et al., 2005; Carmona, 2003).
Furthermore, in urban design terms, the configuration of building blocks,
spaces between buildings, access road and pathway, landscape and environmental
noise are responding to both local and global climate sensitive design (Carmona,
2003). Therefore, these factors are the key elements to reduce undesirable climatic
effects and unhealthy life condition.
On the other hand, the micro weathers that people experience instantaneously
in streets and plazas deviates more or less from the local weather. The condition is
differ when it sunny or windy. Its setting including buildings or large open areas
effects this differentiation of condition. Thus, the physical demand has strong
implication for thermal comfort. Six factors affect comfort levels within an outdoors
environment, which are sunlight, humidity, ambient air temperature, activity level
20
and clothing. As assumption, a person’s preference to sit and have some rest in an
exposed area in the shade is depending on local climate and weather. Thus, cities can
be built to provide these choices (Bosselman, 1998).
Meanwhile, the urban spaces become urban climate spaces in mind. We
believe that people started to consciously developing an understanding how climate
and physical surroundings are related. In addition, the places induce certain moods
and microclimate may be an important generator in the process (Knez, 2003a,
2003b). Moreover, successful areas attract large number of people, which in turn
attract businesses, workers, residents, and the areas become economically profitable.
According to Steemers and Stean (2004), the building blocks energy usage can also
be affected this profitable to the areas, whereas at huge scale, treatment of urban
spaces can improve the city climate particularly Urban Heat Island (UHI).
Hereinafter, one of effort to reduce the UHI for thermal comfort is providing
shade on outdoors. Good shade derived from vegetation and other forms are
beneficial to reduce temperature for human being, flora, and building walls
(Robinson et al, 1993). On his study, explained that there was an important factor,
which determined comfort in one particular area for human. It also been indicated
that shade factors in South Nevada used trees to give comfort in outdoor spaces.
Finally, he stated that, there were five factors; (1) conserving energy, (2) movement
of the sun, (3) trees and plants for shading, (4) where and what to shade, (5) types of
tree shades affecting the comfort place for people. Author believes that these five
factors would be as indicator to study the relationship between shade and people’s
activities.
Other researchers stated that building shade has negative effect to human
preferences even though the relationship was not significant (Agus, 2004). He also
explained that, it might be having other variables that affected to its relationship. He
also assumed that building-shaded areas are concentrated on certain spaces. Diffused
21
on building shade is rather boundless than trees. Meanwhile, Theriault et al (2002),
addressed that not always trees shade that gives positive effect to the value of
comfort. It because of too much density of shade will obstruct real sun temperature
required by people in western countries. The opposite phenomena much more give
interest to the study in the context of tropical terms such as east-west region like
Singapore.
2.3
Terminology and Definitions
This section provided the definition of terms commonly used to describe open
spaces in the city.
2.3.1
Outdoor Space
An outdoor space is the space outside buildings that can take any form in an
urban setting or even the countryside. The outdoor space covered all types of areas
outside buildings from plazas, square, street, lanes and others.
There are two types of public open spaces that have been subjected to study
in designed environment, which are the streets and the squares (Lynch, 1960; Krier,
1991; and Moughtin, 2003). According to Madanipour (1996), in his study of urban
public space, the enclosure of space rather than space itself is the focus of attention
22
since it established the physical character of the space. Meanwhile, Moughtin (2003)
argued that the streets and squares are three-dimensional spaces would linked in
informal manner.
The difference between two spatial typologies is clearly understood in terms
of their characters and functions despite they are normally interconnected in the
hierarchy of urban public spaces. Streets are a primarily features of urban existence
as they provide the structure on relationship between build environment and human
organization (Celik et.al, 1984). However, the square is the result of societal and
psychological attitudes to the perception and use of space (Zucker, 1959). He
explained that the square is more likely for space that people gathered, humanizing
them by mutual contact and safe them from the haphazard traffic, and give them an
enough space for them through the web of streets.
2.3.2 Street
Street is a public thoroughfare especially in a city, town, or village including
all area within the right of way (Merriam-Webster dictionary). Moreover, street was
distinguished as being wider than an alley or lane but narrower than an avenue or
boulevard. Rapoport (1987) defined streets as linear spaces lined by buildings, found
in arrangements and used for circulation and sometimes for other activities.
Furthermore, streets could be described as an enclosed, three dimensional space
between two lines of adjacent buildings (Moughtin, 1992), and street also could be
identified as surface and part of an urban testure characterized by an extended area
lined with buildings and either side (Rykwert, 1986).
23
Moreover, in an urban physical context, street has become a subject of
intellectual discourse (Krier, 1979; Trancik, 1986; Ellis, 1986; Rykwert, 1986;
Moughtin, 1992; and Jacobs, 1993). They believed that street was to be one of the
earliest elements of city pattern. Some scholar even believed that certain streets were
older than human settlements they served (Rykwert, 1986). As Jacobs (1993) stated
that through the forms they have created, streets contain some characteristics that
distinguish a city form from others. In addition, street or path, according to Lynch
(1960), is the first most significant element, which forms the image of a city. Street
also as channels of movement, including alleys, motorways, railways, canals and the
like are also included in this category. A path is the only element amongst them,
which allows individuals to view the other four elements as well.
Meanwhile, street as an element of urban space was indicated and established
spatially by elements, which structured the street configuration. As Trancik (1986),
classified urban space (street and square) was in two primary types as about “hard”
space and “soft” space. Architectural walls principally bound hard space and soft
space includes the spaces dominated by natural environment. Moreover, according to
Ellis (1986), street could be divided spatially as street walls and street space. Street
space refers to the volumetric entity created by the street wall. Meanwhile, street wall
is an enclosure of street space, which can be formed as series of buildings or
landscapes.
Another important aspect of streetscape compositions is the ratio of street. It
is important to understand its ratio in order to identify shadow patterns in relation to
this study. Ratio is comparison between width of the space (street or square) and
building’s height. According to Ashihara (1979), described that the proportions of
streetscape using D for the distance between buildings on both sides of the street and
H for the height of the adjacent buildings. The following figure shows the ideal ratio
of the streetscape by Ashihara.
24
Figure 2.1: Ratio of streetscape; comparison of distance (D) and height (H) of adjacent building
Source: Ashihara, 1979
In line with the previous statement by Ashihara (1979), McCluskey (1992)
summarizes a set width to height ratios that can be applied to identify the ideal
proportion of a street section based on human visual capability and psychological
sensory perception.
Figure 2.2: Ratio of streetscape; comparison of width (W) and height (H)
Source: McCluskey, 1992
However, according to Rapoport (1987), the form of streetscape is involved
by pedestrians (walker) and high-speed activities (motorist) which was walker
perceives more detailed features of street space rather than person involved in highspeed activities as it can be shown by figure 2.3 below.
25
Figure 2.3: perception in streetscape characteristic according to pedestrians and motorists
Source: Rapoport, 1987
Furthermore, the uses of street need to be discussed in order to understand its
function. According to various scholars such as Moudon (1987), he stated that a
lively and successful street demands a balanced mixture of different user groups and
activities. Moreover, Jacobs (1961), Rykwert (1986), Moughtin (1992), Rapoport
(1987) was stated that street is the multi-function of uses. The following section will
discuss the various uses of streets in urban setting.
26
2.3.2.1 Street as Channels of Movement
Channels of movement mean that street connects one place to another. It
provides a link within the city at large. It connects building-to-building, building to
squares even both within the streets. Next, street links facilitate movements of the
people whether as pedestrians or vehicles’ driver as well as the movement of goods.
According to Eichner and Tobey (1987), they have identified various activities
regarding the use of street as a channel of movement as it shows in table 2.1 below.
Table 2.1: Street as a Channel of Movement
Functional Uses
Vehicular Circulation
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Through movement
Picking up/dropping off passengers
Curb side parking
Access to parking
Buses
On-street service
Off-street service
Emergency vehicle
Pedestrian Circulation
•
•
•
•
•
Through movement
Waiting for, boarding and alighting from vehicles (buses, taxi, cars)
Entering and leaving subways
Crossing street
Entering and leaving buildings
Source: Eichner and Tobey, 1987
Public movement involves walking, animals’ movement, cycling, and driving
cars or motorcycles. The several of movements’ means that the street provides space
for them.
27
2.3.2.2Street as Social Space
Many scholars have stated that another function of street is related to social
interaction. People use street as space for interact, gather or meet each other.
Eichner and Tobey (1987) have identified several social uses of street, which
were shown in table 2.2 below.
Table 2.2: Street as Social space
Functional Uses
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Strolling and window shopping
Resting
People-watching
Vendors
Telephone
Newspapers
Art works and banners
Eating
Waiting
Orientation
Street performance
Drinking fountain
Fountain
Source: Eichner and Tobey, 1987
In streets, mostly the social interaction takes into account in the pedestrian
area. The pedestrian activities would be discussed in next section intensively.
28
2.3.2.3 Street as Commercial Space
Some street function is a place for exchange of goods or a place to do
business (Rykwert, 1986, and Jacobs, 1993). It is the place where it can be found
mostly in every part of the world. People use street as trade activities traditionally, to
serve people as a place to do commerce. The terms of economic-based informal
street activities are it is. Many kind of activities could be found such as off street
vendors and street musicians, occupy most part of the street space.
2.3.2.4 Street as Political Spaces
Sometimes a street is a place where political life happens. It is a place where
it consider as a ground area as a stage to give an idea or express hopes by solid mass
demonstration (Jacobs, 1993). On the other hand, it can be called as political
representations together with citizens, building mass, or other city monuments.
2.3.2.5 Street as Cultural Spaces
Cultural street activities refer to parades, street events, art performance, street
musicians, traditional food, traditional goods such as craft, traditional foods etc..
Rudofsky (1982) acknowledged that the street is where the actions are, and Rapoport
(1987) stated that the use of streets by pedestrians is primarily culturally as based of
29
activity. The street provides a setting for what to be an incomprehensible variety of
activities and correspondingly divers sound, smells and sight.
Furthermore,
Rapoport (1987) argues that cultural variables are primary for any activity, including
walking and others, occurring in street. It is a culture and structures of behavior and
helps explain the use or non-use of street and other urban spaces-or of other settings.
Thus, the use of streets by pedestrians is primarily and culturally as physical
environment does not determine behavior. By given this culturally based
predisposition towards obeying unwritten rules of proper street use, people can also
be influenced by physical variables.
2.3.3
Pedestrian Mall
Pedestrian mall which is also known as a pedestrian street is a space in
downtown shopping areas where it common form of pedestrian zone, a blocked-off
set of streets containing stores where people can walk without interference from
automobile traffic. Typically, downtown pedestrian malls were three or four linear
blocks simply block-off to private street traffic, with fountains, benches, seatable
planters, bollard, playgrounds, which is interfaces to public transit and other
amenities installed to attract shoppers. Moreover, it is the place where the entirety of
the city’s commercial main street remains a thriving cultural center with shops,
restaurants, vendor carts, sidewalk performers and special events occurred
(Wikipedia.org).
Pedestrian malls are the place in the cities’ public life which supplement the
private life spheres with a well functioning public domain offering a wide range of
attractive public activities. In fact, people in all parts of the world respond eagerly
and enthusiastically to these new opportunities for walking and participating in
30
public life in public spaces (Gehl, 2002). It indicated that walking environments and
other types of public spaces where people can meet are important in present day
society.
Furthermore, pedestrian mall could be indicated as a prime use where street
or corridors are low of automobile traffic and development is quite dense. It provides
space entirely for pedestrian traffic and creates a bustling social atmosphere within
the cities. Commonly, pedestrian malls provide safe and enjoyable place for citizens
to shop, work and dine.
According to Gravin (2004) defined the pedestrian mall as a fully
pedestrianized shopping street which eliminated all ordinary vehicular traffic, only
permitting emergency
access
and
service
vehicles.
He
found
that
the
pedestrianization was able to reverse retail sales in some cities but not in other. He
concluded that successful pedestrianization was more than “just exterior decoration”.
He added also the pedesestrianization would be more effective when it is connected
to larger programs and combined with convenient access, parking, regional and local
transit system and strategically located facilities, which are used by large number of
people. In addition, he stated that pedestrianization should occur if there is:
•
A market i.e. a concentration of retail customers, office workers, tourist and
residents;
•
A pedestrian environment that is inviting and does not necessarily mean it has
to have high architectural integrity. Such an environment attracts people
because it is accessible, compact to walk, comfortable and contains
attractions;
•
An entrepreneurial partnership between the government and downtown
businesses; and
31
•
Premises surrounding the mall that will indefinitely induce human activity
and interaction throughout the day and night e.g. hotel, nightclub or opera
house
In essence, the mall acts as an open space that is aiming at stimulating and
encouraging human activity that to add more vibrant central core for the city.
Pedestrian space themselves can be separated into movement and rest spaces.
Movement spaces are dynamic for walking and moving, rest static spaces are for
sitting, eating, talking and gazing. This is an example of the need for specificity so
that to say the variety of pedestrian mall (Rapoport, 1977). Orchard road meets most
of Gravin’s and Rapoport’s preposition of a pedestrian mall. However, it also
provides adequately for the socio-cultural context of the Singaporean urban society.
This is manifestation in the arts, craft and food culture readily available in the
environment, to coincide with the Asian attitude to street space.
From field observation through the case study, it can be defined that
pedestrian mall is an area or space of street or public square, or portions of same,
given over entirely to pedestrian traffic. Such areas usually formed a line in the
regular street plan of a city where the need for vehicular right-of-way is not great and
such traffic can be routed around the mall area (Orchard road pedestrian mall).
According to Gehl (2002), there are three categories of pedestrian activities –
Necessary Activities, Optional Activities, and Social Activities – the optional and the
social activities are the important keys to city quality.
In good quality city areas, one will find not only necessary activities but also
a multitude of recreational and social activities people tend to do in the cities. Gehl
32
stated that activities would only happen if the circumstances were right. Thus, it is
why a good city can be indicated by the duration of party-people staying; the longer
they stay, the better the city.
The three categories of pedestrian activities could be seen as detail as follows:
1.
Necessary Activities
The activities that have to be done regularly, such as going to school, waiting
for the bus, and going to work. In the short term, these types of activities occur
regardless of the quality of the physical environment because people are compelled
to carry them out.
2.
Optional Activities (Urban Recreation)
It refers to the activities which people are tempted to do when climatic
conditions, surroundings and the place are generally inviting and attractive. These
activities are especially sensitive to quality. They only occur when the quality is
high. This optional activity would be as indicator to justify the activities occur
relating to the shade provided at certain spaces in this research.
Gehl (2002) also stated that a good city was characterized by a mass of
optional activities. People come to town, find the places attractive and stay for a long
time. A great, attractive city can always be recognizing by the fact that many people
choose to spend time in the public spaces.
3.
Social Activities
They refer to the activities that occur whenever people move about in the
same spaces. It involved passive and active participation of people with others like
watching, listening and conversing. A good city offers a wide range of attractive
33
optional activities, and because of so many people are present in the city, there are
many people to experience, watch and speak to. The city will become lively and
wonderful.
Additionally, Gehl (2002) stated that the public spaces would be neither
exciting for people nor lively. Worldwide examples show how public spaces with
unfortunate compromise for pedestrian result in unattractive and deserted public
spaces.
On the other hand, the higher quality conditions provided for pedestrians, the
more people would walk around, and the more recreation-based activities occurred.
People might interrupt their walk or daily business to get some rest, enjoy the city,
the public spaces and be together with others. People will always recognize a public
space of high quality, therefore, conditions for walking and for life on foot, along
with a possibility for staying, for pauses and experiences were the key to attractive
and lively public spaces.
2.4
Environment Behavior Study
The environment behavior studies are concerned to characteristics of people
as members of various social groups. It is essential to know the effects of the built
environment on human behavior that link people and environments of this
relationship (Rapoport, 1997). Moreover, according to Zeisel (1984), he focuses his
study on the ways to figure out the differences of activity in reacting to various
environments.
34
In recent decades the relationship between human behavior and physical
environment has attracted researchers from the social sciences-psychology,
sociology, geography, and anthropology – and from the environment-design
disciplines-architecture, urban and regional planning, and interior design (Rapoport,
1977; Altman, 1975; Center, 1977; Proshansky, 1970; Sommer, 1969; and Zeisel,
1981).
As known, that environment is commonly classified as natural and physical.
Natural refers to the natural setting, which is less human involvement, meanwhile the
physical or built environment or other terms called man-made refers to places where
man has played an important role in altering it in such a way where human
intervention was looks as made and designed. According to Zeisel (1981 and 2006),
environment is not only referred to physical, but also administrative and social
attributes of settings in which people live, work and play.
Particularly, Lawton (1970, in Rapoport, 1977) defined environment as an
ecological system, which comprises of five components, which were listed as
follows:
1.
The individual
2.
The physical environment (including all natural features of geography,
climate and man-made features which limit and facilitate behavior), the
spaces and distances between human beings and objects, and the “resources”
of the environment.
3.
The personal environment, including individuals who are important sources
of behavioral control-family, friends, authority figures
4.
The supra personal environment which refers to the environmental
characteristics resulting from the inhabitants modal personal characteristics
5.
The social environment consisting social norms and institutions.
35
Human behavior refers to the activities people perform, including thinking,
feeling, seeing, and even talking with others and moving around in the environment
(Zeisel, 1984). The involvement of human behavior in relation to man-environment
can be shown n the following figure:
Environment-Behavior Research
Or
Man-Environment Studies
Refers to people – as
members of a species, as
individuals and
members of various
social groups
Environment
Man
Refers to the physical,
administrative, and
social attributes of
setting in which people
live, work, and play
Human Behavior
Refers to the things people do, including thinking, feeling and
seeing, as well as talking with others and moving around in
the environment
Figure 2.4: Environment-Behavior Research
Source: Rapoport, 1977, and Zeisel, 1981
Because of the relationship between environment and people, human
behavior is the outcome of complex interactions among cultural, perceptual and
environmental (physical) variables (Rapoport, 1987).
Human behavior or activities in the pedestrian area, specifically walking, as
stated by Rapoport (1987,1990), is primarily culturally based in that it is the result of
unwritten rules and customs, traditions and habits, the prevailing life-style and
definitions of activities appropriate to the given settings. The cultural structures and
36
behaviors might help explaining the use or non-use of streets and other urban spacesor of other settings.
Moreover, referring to Zeisel (1984), described the elements when observing
behavior is take into account. Those elements are including thinking, feeling and
seeing as well as talking with others and moving around. Furthermore, he also stated
that behavior in terms of actor, act significant others, relationships, context, and
setting which is represented in the following figures.
Table 2.3: Elements in environmental behavior observation
Source: Zeisel, 1984
Element in environment
Behavior observation
Who is
Actor
Doing what
Act
With whom
Significant others
In what relationship
Relationship aural, visual, tactile, olfactory, symbolic
In what context
Socio-cultural context situation culture
And where
Physical setting props spatial relation
Based on table 2.3 above, it is clearly understood that both elements and
behavior observation would be used as basic features in order to conduct the research
study. Related to the research topic that looks for relationship between urban shade
as physical setting and people activity as behavior observation especially what
people do (activities).
37
2.4.1 Observing Environmental Behavior
Observing behavior means systematically watching people using their
environment whether they are individuals, couples, small groups, and large groups
(Zeisel, 2006). Watching their behavior, whether individually or the relation of
activities to one another spatially, might provide some data about people’s activities.
It is about regularities of behavior, about expected uses, new uses, and misuses of a
place, and about behavioral opportunities and constraints that environments provide.
Moreover, there is another thing that should be observed in environmental
behavior. It is physical environment. Looking at how a physical setting supports or
interferes with behaviors might provide any researcher with information about the
side effect of physical setting to the people. It is seems clear that the relationship
between physical environment and behavioral is taken into consideration on seeking
how people’s activities react to the physical environment (Zeisel, 2006).
The table 2.4 below shows the kind of activities that can be expected in the
public spaces.
38
Table 2.4: Type of activities can be expected in the public street
Source: City of Adelaide, 2002
Daily necessary activity
To walk to and from or
walk through
Daily recreational
activity
Breaks and pauses
Recreational activity
Recreational and play
Planned activity
To be a spectator /
participant
Kinds of activities in table 2.4 might occurred in common public spaces
especially in the pedestrian mall daily routine. These kinds of activities occur
regardless of the quality of the physical environment in terms of people compelled to
carry them out. However, researchers believed that activities will not occur whenever
the physical environment is not attractive. The climatic conditions, surroundings and
comfort place are the key elements to support attractive places.
Meanwhile, Moudon (1987) stated that public spaces should be delightful for
people in doing their activities such as recreational, pleasure, play etc. to meet the
different needs and different groups.
The table 2.5 below shows kind of user can be expected to use the public
spaces.
39
Table 2.5: Type of user groups can be expected to use the public spaces
Source: City of Adelaide, 2002
The everyday users
People that live and work in
the area or walk through
The visitors /
customers
People that visit the functions
in the area
The recreational
visitor
People that visit the area
because the public space is
delightful or use it in relation
to recreation, pleasure,
exercise, play, etc.
The visitor to events
People that visit the public
space because of special
events
From the previous discussion, it can be concluded that activities could be
summarized as dynamic pedestrian behavior and static pedestrian activities. Street
users can be classified as first, people who live and work in the street, and second,
the visitors.
2.4.2
Pedestrian Counting and Observation
The purpose of this section is to examine how the urban spaces are
being used. It provides information on where people walk and stay either as
40
part of their daily activities or for recreational purpose. It is significant
approaches to pick sample spaces for research study. Initially, it conducted in
pilot study to show which places are appropriate and could be conducted for
future research.
This part of study also provide information on how often and where
people sit, stand or carry out various stationary activities in the city. These
stationary activities indicate the quality of the urban spaces. Gehl (2002),
argues that a high number of pedestrians walking in the city do not
necessarily indicate a high level of quality. However, a high number of
people choosing to spend time in the city indicate the liveliness of a city of
high urban quality. From his statement, it is necessary to frame this argument
as indicator to observe the study case area.
Besides, there are two kinds of data might be collected as about
counting of pedestrian traffic in order to get the intensity of usage within
study area. Temporarily, surveys of stationary activities (behavioral mapping)
will gain the primary data of people’s activities as dependent variables.
The following section will discuss the data collection method in order
to gain an appropriate observation.
41
2.4.3
Recording Devices
According to Zeisel (2006), device suited to recording behavior-observations
include verbal descriptions and diagrams, pre-coded checklists or handheld
computers for counting, floor plans or maps, still photographs, and videotape.
However, he added that the uses of devices depend on how much detail information
the problem demands and how much the observer already know about the observed
behaviors.
First, notation as verbal description and diagrams of behavior-observation is
to describe and overlook on the spot. For instance, to describe how people use a
space where it is shaded by building shadow, a decision must be made whether to
record how people meet each other and move around, how people sit and watch each
other, how they hold their newspapers and shift their weight, or how they move their
eyes and twitch their noses. However, these levels of analysis are quite large and
need to be narrowed down or categorized in certain level based on the needs and
category of research study. Moreover, it also depends on what problem that needs to
be solved by the researcher. Thus, in this case, the categorization on how people act
particularly is excluded, because it does not answer the research question on how the
relation between urban shade and activities generally.
The second consideration is about pre-coded checklist while doing the
observation. It helped to code for each activity on a checklist in order to
record characteristics of participants, place, time, and other relevant condition
such as weather. It is very important while doing the observation to be
efficient.
Third consideration is about the maps and plan. It is very useful in
order to record activities on floor plans, diagrams, or maps where it
42
particularly convenient if the observation took places. Looking at behavior
recorded on a plan gives investigator a better sense of how the whole place is
being used at once, compared to looking at statistical data. Moreover, maps
are also useful to record sequences of behaviors in the setting where people
have a choice of several paths (Zeisel, 2006).
Meanwhile still photograph is useful to capture if other methods may
not record properly, such as the way some sits, leans, or other way two people
avoid looking each other by adjusting their body postures. Photographs are
also useful for this research, because of their illustrative quality in order to
record physical traces.
The last device is the videotape. It is very useful in order to record
activities whenever time is a significant element in behavior observation
(Zeisel, 2002). Thus, video tape was consider as the main device to record the
activities, because data collection was depend on time of day, high density of
people, and limited time in observation.
Meanwhile, the duration of time needed to complete a set of
measurement is estimated. Based on Sharples and Malama (1997), Elias
(1994), and Benton et.al. (1990), the duration of time needed to complete a
set of measurement is between 5 to 15 minutes. It is the appropriate time to
record activities when the intensity of uses as a priority. However, the
subjective responses will depend on the presence or availability of human
subject at the time when the activities pattern was recorded.
43
2.5
Urban Shade
Nikolopoulou et.al. (2001) acknowledged the way self-shading streets protect
the buildings and the surrounding spaces from the hot sun, in hot arid climates.
However, there were some problems created by importing architectural design
without adopting it for the local climate. Thus, it is understood that climate
influences the quality of the outdoors.
Local climate known as microclimate or in architectural context popular as
microclimatic design is an understanding on how macroclimatic components such as
wind and solar radiation, can be significantly affected from landscape elements
(Brown and Gillespie, 1995 in Panagopoulos, 2008). According to them,
microclimatic design involves a precise analysis of all the elements present on the
studied site as following table 2.6 below.
Table 2.6: Elements on the studied site
Source: Brown and Gillespie, 1995 and Torre (1999)
Location
Geographic position, topography, position
related to water masses, urban form
Shape
Orientation, volume, dimension, proportion
Limits
Vertical and horizontal limits
Material characteristics
Vegetation
Species, age, soil, oxygen, water and mineral
resource available, foliage form, color, type
Field measures of typical day of the period studied (air and radiant temperature,
wind speed and direction, solar radiation and relative humidity)
Growth hypothesis based on site parameters
44
2.5.1
Buildings and Trees Shade, and Solar Radiation
People at local sporting events, picnickers in the local park, and school
children in the playground or office workers in city plazas at lunch time may be at
risk of excessive ultra violet radiation (UVR) exposure due to the lack of shade.
Shade is necessary if activities take place in outdoor spaces in a regular basis during
times of high UVR levels. Most outdoor facilities and venues fit this description,
whether they were recreational, educational, commercial or occupational.
The most important factors affecting UVR level is the height of the sun in the
sky. It means the higher the sun, the higher the levels of solar UVR (Greenwood,
2000). During summer UVR levels were considerably higher than in winter. This is
because the sun is higher in the sky in summer, and the path of the radiation through
the atmosphere is shorter. Moreover, the most intense UV is received when the sun is
highest in the sky (UV radiation shows a strong daily variation, with peak values at
noon). The solar UVR around noon is more intense than it is early and late in the
day.
Other factors, which affect solar UVR levels, were altitude and the
surrounding environment. Thereby, buildings and trees were other factors could
influence the UVR levels. In other words, the outdoor spaces, which were located or
adjacent to either building or tree, would be assumed as comfort places because it
was shaded.
Furthermore, the main objective of shade was to provide shade at the right
place, at the right time of the day (Greenwood, 2000, Emmanuel, 2005).
Unfortunately, the location of shade structures and trees often produces a shadow
pattern entirely different from that anticipated (Oakman and Milton, 1981). Thus,
accurately predicting where a tree or structure will cast its shadow depends on an
45
understanding of the sun’s path. Such an understanding is fundamental to plan
effective shading.
Greenwood (2000) described that there were three essential things about a site
in order to accurately assess the effect of the sun’s path; (1) latitude, (2) longitude,
and (3) the direction of true north. He also added that when these essentials were
taking into consideration, it is possible to create an appropriate shaded area. To gain
the effectiveness of sun’s path or chart in analyzing or designing shaded area, it was
possible to use commercially available computer programs to find the position of the
sun for any time of day throughout the year (Ballinger, Prasad, and Rudder, 1992 in
Greenwood, 2000).
Furthermore, to accurately predict the behavior of shadow cast by either
building or tree objects it is essential to know the solar azimuth angle and the solar
altitude angle. The azimuth determined the direction in which the shadow will fall on
the ground. Solar azimuth is the angle, in horizontal plane, between the truth north
and the direction of the sun, measured clockwise from true north. It can have any
value from 00 to 3500. The azimuth at solar noon in the southern hemisphere is
always 00. Meanwhile, the solar altitude angle determined the length of the shadow
cast by the solid objects on the ground. Solar altitude is the angle between the sun
and the horizon at given latitude. It varies according to the time of the day and
according to season (Greenwood, 2000, Emmanuel, 2005).
The figure 2.5 below shows the understanding of solar azimuth and solar
altitude angle in Auckland as a sample.
46
Figure 2.5: Solar azimuth and altitude angels in Auckland
Source: Greenwood, 2000
By logic, because the sun is always moving across the sky thus the shadow cast
by the sun are always moving in response to the altitude and azimuth as it passes
from east to west. This basic pattern applies everyday of the year, although the areas
affected by shadow vary according to the time of the year. The sun’s path changes
throughout the year but always follows the same sequence year after year
(Koenigsberger and Ingersal, 1974).
47
2.5.2
Urban Blocks as Shade Device
Urban blocks in a city centre were an important element of which can be
exploited its existence to calm an outdoor spaces while it was over exposed directly
to solar radiation. Its potential to prevent solar radiation at the urban scale has often
neglected. Moreover, the art using urban morphology to create shaded public spaces
has received little attention in the tropics. Thereby, in order to close this gap it takes
a hypothetically understanding that urban shade blocks are radiation-reduction
devices in the outdoor during the day. In other words, urban massing is needed to
achieve shading in order to reduce urban-heat Island.
Some literature argued that “shadow umbrella” is one of the significant
concept to achieve solve this phenomena (Emmanuel, 1993). This concept addressed
two main issues, which were (1) the creation of shaded urban public spaces and (2)
determining the location. More often, he described that in order to develop urban
massing that can shade itself, there were four basic considerations for that purpose as
follows:
1.
Date of year
2.
Time of day
3.
Location
4.
Building/site orientation and dimension
Based on these four basic considerations, nevertheless it needs to explore the
existing urban blocks geometry in order to understand specifically how the shadow
pattern fallen onto ground spaces during a day. Therefore, these four basic
considerations would be assumed as typology of existing outdoor spaces.
48
However, a stress that building/site orientation and dimension was the main
role in determining the typology of existing outdoor spaces is needed. Orientation
was related to the true north-south and east-west orientation of the building.
However, the dimension was related to the height-width and as well as the ratio
between ground floor area and the height of building.
Meanwhile, different assumptions about the determination of outdoor
orientation took place. Orientation of outdoors was determined through perceptual
orientation to the adjacent buildings. According to Cambridge Dictionary (1995),
defines geometry as a study of space and the relation between points, lines, curves
and surfaces in the area of mathematics. Furthermore, Noor Hanita Abdul Majid
(1999) also stated that based on this definition it has support to the idea of geometry
as an expression of the location of the outdoors in relation to the buildings.
2.6
Summary
Urban microclimate will influence the outdoor spaces. One of the
critical factors which will be affected these influences was comfort level.
However, comfort level also could be identified in how much level of the
quality of the place. Meanwhile, quality of a place can be seen from how
much attractive and how lively that place is in inviting people to do their
daily activities, whatever their activities are.
Street is playing a main role to the activities on outdoor areas. There
was a place where people meet their needs. In urban form, streets were an
important element spatially and socially. Spatially, street wall appears as a
bounded configuration and acts as an exterior of the city. However, socially
means the street was act as a container of human activities in the city.
49
Urban shades have been proven lowering air temperature and reducing
the exposure of human to harmful ultraviolet (UVR). In other word, if the
shaded areas were provided, people are likely to be on outdoors.
Furthermore, urban shade can be categorized into two elements, which
were structures – buildings, and natural resources – trees. Structures or in
other terms urban block geometry was as the critical factor, which need to
understand carefully in order to gain its shadow pattern for providing shaded
area for people’s activities. However, designing a high quality outdoors might
also be achieved through proper arrangement of trees in urban setting. Thus,
it is necessary to prove that urban shade has significant relationship to the
people’s activities on outdoor spaces.
CHAPTER 3
EXISTING CONDITION OF THE CASE STUDY AND
METHODOLOGY
3.1
Introduction
Chapter 3 describes the existing condition of Singapore in urban form context
and the methodology used in this research study. In the beginning, an understanding
Singapore in the context of urbanization and climate is presented. It defined the built
environment related to the area of this research. Next, the discussion would be
focused on the actual location for field measurements involved master plan review,
observation, and behavioral mapping.
This chapter would discuss three fundamentals of the research study about the
existing condition in overall. A pilot survey was conducted, and the data obtained
would be discussed in the second part. Finally, the research methodology and
procedures would be discussed.
51
3.1.1
Singapore Urbanization and Microclimate
3.1.1.1 Singapore Urbanization
Singapore is located at +1.3 (1°18'00"N) latitudes and +103.85 (103°51'00"E)
longitude, and in tropics belt. Singapore is an island country surrounded by Sumatra
(Indonesia) and peninsular Malaysia. The total land area of Singapore is about 682.7
sq km.
Singapore is one of those very few countries in the world that has been built
accordingly to well-planned blueprints. According to the first master of Lieutenant
Philip Jackson in 1822, the vision of Stamford Raffles for Singapore was to built
some trading outpost planned such as Marina Bay, Singapore’s city center annex,
built in land reclaimed from the sea and many others. According to the history, these
were where Raffles first landed (Singapore River mouth) and as starting point in
changing of Singapore and its development into 21st century.
The development area including new urbanism, conservation area, and
arterial road system of Singapore’s central area still remain as evidence to Raffles’s
visionary plans. The rapid growth of Raffles Avenue, Stamford road, Nicole
highway, Boat Quay and even Orchard road was -in fact were developed based on a
well-planned design. Due to the relay of those developments, Urban Redevelopment
Authority (URA) Singapore is the most responsible party behind the sustainable
development in Singapore.
In 2005, during the National Day, Singapore was promoted as a vibrant
global city by Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong. He proposed the conceptual draft of
the new city in 21st century vernacular, right down to its ethnic and aesthetics term.
52
The development focused on redevelopment of Marina Bay and extending the
existing city into toward “city in the garden” as their purposed.
….and the city must reflect the spirit of our people-well conceived,
vigorously executed, restrained but high quality, every aspect thought
through, constantly being improved and remade in search of excellence.
(Lee Hsien Loong, 2005)
On the other hand, Singapore has planned the city with many conservatories
where it was placed in around city central. The purposed for this is to create
uniqueness around the area as the image of the city. Those conservatories were
beautiful buildings, meanwhile at night, those were seems like lantern. These were
the reasons why conservatories located in central area (Mah Bow Tan, 2009).
Moreover, by being consistent and continuous, Singapore has been
successfully developed its city. Started since 1970s and 1980s, many massive efforts
have done by the government. For examples, they tried to clean Singapore River to
ensure the quality of water is high and it is safe to consume. Secondly, hawker
problems had solved by put them into hawker’s centers, and thirdly, they had clean
slums area even some may not appreciated with these efforts. Singapore today is the
proud result of those hard-working days.
Despite being successfully developed, energy usage is still one of the
annoying problems for Singapore. According to Tan M.B (2008), the target of
government is to reduce energy usage for air-conditioning. Their efforts were to
make those buildings energy-efficient. The changing of greenery conceptual as
known had been shifted from Garden City to City in a Garden. It will connect 200
kilometers of parks connector all over Singapore. In other words, they are trying to
53
locate the city in a garden. Thus, buildings have greenery around them as well as on
them.
Figure 3.1: 3 dimensional view of Singapore City Central
Source: Red Dot publishing, INC.
3.1.1.2 Singapore Microclimate
As stated above where Singapore is located in tropical belt, thereby,
knowledge of the climate phenomenon in is necessary for this study. According to
the data (GAISMA), the average temperature in Singapore is 25 – 27 degree Celsius.
Wind velocity approximately 2 – 5 m/s. Meanwhile, daylight saving time is average
value along a year. Table 3.2 shows the data taken in January 10, 2009, sunrise was
at 7.00am and sunset was at 19.20 gradually.
54
Table 3.1: Daylight Saving in Singapore (January 10th, 2009)
Source: GAISMA.com
Table 3.2: Singapore solar energy and surface meteorology
Source: GAISMA.com
Sun path in Singapore could be seen from the figure 3.2 below. The sun path
on 21st of June occurred at Northeast (azimuth = 62) at 07:00. Sunset occur at 19:12
when the sun is in the North-West (azimuth = 280). On the respective day, the
elevation angle is approximately 62 degrees at noon. Meanwhile, sun path on 21
December occurred at Southeast (azimuth = 110) at 07:01. Sunset happens at 19:17
when the sun is in the South-West (azimuth = 250). Accordingly, on that day the
elevation angle is approximately 60 degrees at noon.
55
Figure 3.2: Singapore sun path diagram taken on January 10, 2009
Source: GAISMA.com
During the field observation (2nd week) in January where data was collected,
sun path at was occurred at Southeast (azimuth = 110) at 07:14. However, Sunset
happens at 19:17 when the sun is in the South-West (azimuth = 255). The elevation
angle was approximately 62 degrees at noon.
3.1.2 Orchard Road Profile
Orchard road was the main corridor of Singapore’s shopping center and
entertainment industries. First, in a day, shoppers crowd the huge shopping center.
Meanwhile, as night falls, this 24-hour zone really comes alive. Third, late night
shopping events at Orchard road usually ended up until 11 pm every Saturday with
56
special deals or promotions by participating retailers. Moreover, public transportation
hours have also extended to give more time for people to enjoy their live. Finally, the
pedestrian mall itself provided opportunities to people doing many activities and
providing an attractive built environment.
Figure 3.3: 3 dimensional view of Orchard Road
Source: Red Dot publishing, INC.
According to Singapore Tourism Board (2005), Orchard Road consistently
ranked the most-visited attraction in Singapore, Orchard Road attracts more than
seven million visitors each year, while thousands of local residents visit the area for
leisure and work each day. Moreover, 1.5 million visitors estimated flocking to
Orchard Road every week, this area became an iconic street live of Singapore, and it
had been reported frequently by many resources especially from Singapore Tourism
Board (STB).
The vision for Orchard Road is to be a dynamic, vibrant and vital urban
centre for overseas visitors and locals. This was a stage for exciting events where the
best of city life can be found amidst tropical gardens. The concept of new Orchard
Road offered an endless array of unforgettable shopping, dining and entertainment
experiences for visitors.
57
According to Dr. Balakrishnan V. (2005), there were three strategic planning
to aim the vision of Orchard, as follows:
a.
Enhancing the Retail Experience for Visitors to Orchard Road
b.
Enhancing Pedestrians’ Experience on the Street
c.
Collaborating Closely with Stakeholders of Orchard Road
These three strategic planning was to bring in more innovative retail
concepts. One of the efforts was made up attractive building facades for local
residents and overseas visitors to Orchard Road. Furthermore, the Urban
Redevelopment Authority (URA) has set up its guidelines to allow more dynamic
pop-out facades on buildings along Scotts Road.
In addition, according to the Ministry of Community Development, Youth
and Sports (MCYS, 2005), Orchard Road has been developed to be an exciting place
for youth. The community space in the 1.2-hectare area next to Orchard Cineleisure
and Mandarin Hotel had provided to them. The purpose of the community space is to
make the community space a vibrant and exciting for recreational and social
activities, community events and performances as well. The design of that space was
not only done by MCYS, but involved young Singaporean to participate until it
completed.
Orchard Road has been planned to became an even more compelling lifestyle
hub, investing in both its infrastructure and services. Besides introducing new
concept malls and exciting international brands to boost the retail offerings available,
improvement the public infrastructure to enhance the pedestrian experience along
Orchard Road were needed. All the improvements will also open up many more
entertainment and outdoor spaces for events and activities to create a more vibrant
streetscape, thus enhancing the lifestyle experience on Orchard Road (Balakrishnan
V., 2005)
58
Additionally, the redevelopment and rejuvenation of Orchard Road was
started since 2005. Starting at the Tanglin Road/Grange Road intersection where
Tanglin Mall was located. The infrastructural works will continue down Orchard
Road to the intersection with Buyong Road, where Le Meridien Singapore was
located. Three zones, namely the Tanglin, Orchard and Somerset zones have been
identified and will be characterized by the flower, forest and fruit themes
respectively.
All three zones have enhanced road and pedestrian mall with lighting,
including state-of-the-art accent lighting to highlight Orchard Road’s mature trees
and foliage, and to create strong nighttime landscapes. Moreover, the minimal and
sophisticated aesthetics of Orchard Road’s enhancement design, new coordinated
street furniture (granite benches, stainless steel-clad waste bins and bollards) and
multi-functional lampposts with a more extensive height and reach had been
installed.
According to Phua (2007), firstly, the Tanglin Zone stretching from the
intersection of Tanglin Road and Grange Road to the junction of Scotts and Paterson
roads, will feature a flower theme mainly through 21 flower totem planters located
along the pedestrian mall on the southern side of the road from Forum The Shopping
Mall to Liat Towers. Meanwhile, the pedestrian mall on the north side of Tanglin
fronting Delfi Orchard to International Building will also be enhanced with new
paving, street furniture and lighting. Secondly, Angsana trees had been installed
regularly in this surrounding area; it will feature a forest theme, inspired by the
signature Angsana trees that frame Orchard Road.
This zone was called Urban Green Rooms, which were located between
existing trees and bordered in parts by moveable planters. These rooms can be used
as shady resting places, art and exhibition areas, mini-performance areas and seating
or viewing areas when events are staged along Orchard Road. Stretches of the
pedestrian mall fronting ION Orchard (under construction), Wisma Atria and Meritus
59
Mandarin Hotel will be widened to facilitate the creation of these Urban Green
Rooms.
Figure 3.4: The three-zone concept of Orchard road
Source: Urban Redevelopment Authority (URA) Singapore
Thirdly, the Somerset Zone, bound by the intersections between Cairnhill
Buyong Road will feature a fruit theme to reflect Orchard Road’s history as a
nutmeg and fruit plantation. Aside of the cinnamon and nutmeg trees planted on the
grass bank between Oxley Road and Buyong Road, opposite the Le Meridien
Singapore, flowering plants with orange, yellow and red blooms add more character
to the area. The north side of this zone will be enhanced with new granite pavement
and street furniture.
60
3.1.2.1 The Form of Orchard Road
The form of Orchard Road as physically had buildings on its both sides and
planted with Angsana trees and street lighting posts along the street. The heights of
those trees reach up to sixth storey of the respective building. In other words, the
existing trees are mature and had provided shades for pedestrian mall along the
Orchard core zone. Temporarily, the height of buildings along the street was
uniformed in scale showing a visual balance and harmony. Approximately, the
heights of building in Orchard core zone were 3 and up to 30 storey. The width of
streetscape was regularly, approximately 25 meters wide. In addition, the width of
pedestrian mall was approximately 10 meters wide.
Figure 3.5: Streetscape of Orchard Road (existing condition)
Source: Field observation
Figure 3.7 below, shows the existing condition the streetscape of Orchard
Road. This section is in between of Lucky Plaza and Wisma Atria building, and it is
approximately 65 meters wide. The pedestrian mall is placed in both side of section
with 8-10 meters wide respectively. It is a wide road with five lanes, where the bus
lane is placed only at the left side. This road is limited with the ERP (Electronic
Road Pricing). According to Singapore Traffic board, ERP was introduced in
61
Singapore to prevent congestion on the roads and to maintain smooth traffic flow. It
means, the system was set only if they want to pass through the ERP gantries. In
relation to this system, crossing the road is restricted (the signboard shows the rule).
People need to use pedestrian crossing or pedestrian underpass if they want to cross
to the other side of pedestrian mall.
Figure 3.6: Signboard of pedestrian crossing not allowed
Meanwhile, mature trees are shading the activities underneath. Trees provide
shading to pedestrian mall where people involved in their activities, enhancing the
quality of the places. Angsana trees planted in regular distance which approximately
15 meters to each other. Moreover, this various appearances of street space in
Orchard Road were presented in the figures as follows:
62
1
2
3
4
SOLID
VOID
Section 1
Section 1: In front of Tang and Wisma Atria Building
Section 2
Section 2: In front of Lucky Plaza and Wisma Atria building
Section 3
Section 3: In front of Tong Building and Ngee Ann City
Section 4
Section 4: In front of Singapore Visitor Center and Pan Pacific Serviced Suites
Figure 3.7: Section of Orchard Road Streetscape
Source: Field observation
63
3.1.2.2 The Pedestrian Mall
Here is the continuing pedestrian mall, particularly along the shopping belt.
The average of its width is 10 meters. This wide pedestrian mall was providing
pleasant atmosphere for walking and particularly doing some activities such as
resting, socializing, or even just watching the world goes by. As a result, it was more
than seven million visitors flocking to Orchard Road annually. By this point, it has
been made Singapore’s most popular attraction place (Arthur Sim, Lim Wei Chean &
Lin Xinyi, 2007).
Figure 3.8: Appearance of pedestrian mall (southern side).
Source: author photograph, 2009
Figure 3.9: Appearance of pedestrian mall (northern side).
Source: author photograph, 2009
64
Diversity might improve the attractiveness of an area. Along the pedestrian
mall, we could find people standing, reading, chatting, and as well as walking.
Moreover, within the pedestrian mall there were street vendors, kiosks, restaurants,
and coffee bars. This variety has been made up this place become the busiest place in
Singapore.
This place was supported by its physical setting, which provide this place
more pleasant, for instance it is widening of walkways, plazas, fountain, the mature
trees, and the tall building. In addition, some factors such as those mature trees has
been casted the shadow, providing protection from the elements and discouraging
motorized traffic and also its human scale façade were made this pedestrian mall as
pleasant place for doing activity.
3.2
A Review of Master Plan
This is the first stage for data analysis. The purpose of this stage is to
understand the physical setting and arrangement of built environment within the
study area. Moreover, it will be divided into three sub categories. It looked into
existing spatial arrangement of neighborhood, building use pattern, and pathway or
pedestrian mall itself.
Based on literature review in previous chapter, strategy to analyze the
physical environment was categorized into three-design tool, they were zoning law,
building regulation involving building and site orientation, building envelope,
building height and etc, and thirdly was landscape control including public green
space guide line (Emmanuel, 2005). These were as based idea to reviewing the
master plan in terms of controlling factors of the “shadow umbrella” concept.
65
Understanding of this concept will be useful for further design strategy in enhancing
the urban physical environment.
3.2.1 Existing Spatial Arrangement of Neighborhood
Physical environment analysis has done to get the knowledge about the
importance of built form arrangement in providing urban shade. It was also to answer
the research question about how neighborhood block could be important to enhance
the urban environmental quality.
To reach the mentioned goal , variables should be defined. The variables in
this study were urban block orientation, building height, and mature trees
arrangement. These variables will be used further to understand how the shadow
pattern might fall to the surface and to study the usage pattern and activities occurred
in each sample areas.
Urban block orientation:
Urban block orientation as whole was according to North-South side. The
urban block study was limited only to the study area, which can be seen from the
figure below (figure 4.9). The Orchard Road itself was placed in between north side
(N) and south (S) side building block.
Additionally, in understanding the urban geometry therefore neighborhood
scale was needed to reduce the heat-island effect, by shading itself.
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Figure 3.10: 2 Dimensional plan of urban geometry at study area (Orchard Road)
Source: Redrawing by Author
According to the figure 3.10, urban block of the study area was oriented to
the Northwest (NW)-Southeast (SE). An understanding of this orientation was
important to measure the shadow cast fallen to the surface especially at sample areas.
Building height:
Building height review was done in according to the building height guideline
which produced by Urban Redevelopment Authority (URA) of Singapore. The
building height guideline can be seen from the figure 4.10 below. To get the accurate
data of building height, it was needed to check in actual condition through field
observation that had been done.
67
In understanding of the function to this research was a significance factors
toward urban-canyon analysis where the shadow angle was depended on the widthheight (W/H) ratio. By this point, it will help to draw up the relationship between
shadow angle, pattern and shape relating to the period of time that was framed on the
research procedure in previous chapter.
Figure 3.11: Building height guideline at study area (Orchard Road)
Source: Based map of URA Singapore
According to figure 3.11 above it can be seen the building height guideline
within the study area. The number, which shows in figure, was representing the
number of storey allowed to build. Generally, the highest buildings were placed at
south side where the 30-storey buildings are not restricted; meanwhile approximately
20 storeys were represented at the north side.
Figure 3.12 below was represent the existing condition of the various building
height obtained from field observation. It was drawn by scale using cad software to
68
help in processing the building height analysis in order to understand the dynamic of
Orchard Road and its urban geometry.
Figure 3.12: Actual condition of the building height at study area (Orchard Road)
Source: Author drawing
Mature trees arrangement:
The mature trees of Angsana (Pterocarpus indicus) were about 60 years old. It
was planted on the both side of Orchard Road with a girth 7.7m. Angsana is a large
tree with a dense, wide spreading and dropping dame-shape crown. Moreover,
Angsana was introduced to Singapore for roadside plantings in the early years of the
Garden City Movement as it is fast-growing and also provide good shade for
pedestrian (HeritageTrees_WebPage_Highlights). Orchard Road was a one evident
where it takes a walk-down Angsana-lined from Liat Tower to Ngee Ann City.
The Angsana’s height could reach up 30 to 40 m tall and 2 m in diameter
(Nureza Ahmad, 2004). Furthermore, with its dense, wide-spreading, dome-shaped
crown with drooping lower branches, it could be best plantings to provide shade at
69
pedestrian walkway. In addition, its trunk is buttressed and the bark is smooth and
grey-brown, becoming scaly and fissured with age.
Besides, with 7 to 9 leaflets alternately arranged and ending in a terminal
leaflet, it makes the leaves are simple pinnate compound. Size of its range from 20 to
50 cm long with each leaflet approximately 5 to 12 cm long and 4 to 8 cm wide. The
leaflets broadly elliptical shape with a pointed tip and are rounded at the base.
Furthermore, its flower are small (about 15 cm), yellow, faintly fragrant reminiscent
SC
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Figure 3.13: The existing arrangement of Angsana tree within study area (Orchard Road)
Source: Field observation
70
From the figure 3.13, it can be seen where the Angsana was sited at roadside
by 15 m gap. The heights of those trees reached the 4th to 6th storey of a building. In
other words, tree’s height was approximately 18m with the wide-spreading crown is
10 m.
Meanwhile, the Angsana flowers bloomed twice a year, related to
temperature variation and rainfall and commonly in dry season. Thus, leaf shedding
followed by flowering occur evidently after a period of dry weather. However,
according to Nureza Ahmad (2004), Angsana in Singapore do not flower twice a
year, as a distinct dry period is uncommon. In fact, they have not flower at all, unless
there is an exceptional hot and dry period, which were happened in 1982 and 1983.
Figure 3.14: Angsana tree at south side and north side along the Orchard Road
Figures 3.14 showed the fact of the mature Angsana trees arrangement and
its physical condition taken from the field surveys.
71
3.2.2 Existing Spatial Arrangement of Building Usage Pattern
The existing spatial arrangement of building usage pattern was obtained from
reviewing the map and continuing through field survey. It was done through the
checklist procedure. Furthermore, this research was only considered with the
building usage at ground floor along the Orchard Road where it has significance
relationship to the human pattern.
However, it should be noticed that scope of noticeable building usage was
limited within the study area from Scotts to Cairnhill junction where the sample 9th
was sited near to the Singapore Visitor Centre. Along this area are majority as
commercial and services. Commercial area where the activities occurred was
concentrated along pedestrian mall at both sides (north and south side of the street).
Meanwhile, services area was concentrated at north side where the bus, taxi, and
MRT station is available.
The purpose of this section was to understand the effects of building usage as
excluded factor that could influence the outdoor spaces to the human activities. Thus,
there are several buildings as a significance element, which encourages the activity
pattern at outdoors. Perhaps TANGS (the first up market department store), Lucky
Plaza, The Paragon, and The Hereen are the buildings located at the north side of the
Orchard Road. Meanwhile, at the south side there are Wisma Atria, and Ngee Ann
City instead the ION Orchard (under construction).
The details of building usage pattern in Orchard Road (study area) can be
seen from the figure 3.14. It shows the main building usage within the study area.
These six buildings have significant influences to the outdoor activities. This
information helped the author in determining the sample spaces towards pilot survey
and field observations.
72
1
2
3
4
1
2
3
5
6
4
6
5
Figure 3.15: The building usage pattern within the study area (existing condition)
Source: Field observation
Table 3.3 below shows the inventory of building usage within study area. The
table also shows the summary of building usage in order to notice the usage pattern
along the pedestrian mall which facing to the main commercial buildings. It was used
in doing the checklist procedure while the pilot survey had conducted.
The pilot survey has done in front of the Nge Ann City building. The place
divided into two sample spaces according to the shadow pattern, which fall into the
73
surface. It was very interesting place because this huge outdoor space is shaded by
building. According to the pilot survey resulted that the building shadow has moving
at certain direction in several times. As result, the behavior characteristics that
occurred at this place had changed relating to time changing.
Table 3.3: Inventory of the building usage within the study area
No
Building
1 Tangs
2 Lucky Plaza
3 The Paragon
Building Use
Commercial
Commercial
Commercial
4 Singapore Visitor Center Service
5 Wisma Atria
Commercial
6 Ngee Ann City
Commercial
Notice
Department store
A shopping mall that somehow became
the main focal point for domestic
Filipino workers to meet their friends
during their off days
Metro department store. It underwent
expansion around 2002, taking over
the land once occupied by The
Promenade.
Public information
Plaza, department store, and Mall
largest shopping mall in the Orchard
Road shopping belt (dept. Store,
boutique, food court, etc.
Another contribution, which influenced the activity pattern, was the services
area. Services in this research including public facilities such as bus stop, taxi stand,
and as well as MRT entrance within the study area. By knowing these facilities were
sited within the study area, it can be noticed where people go to and come in and as
well as its movement pattern.
The field observation resulted that figure 3.16 below have indicated public
services within the study area.
74
Figure 3.16: Existing condition of services within study area
Source: Field observation, 2009
Figure 3.15 shows the public facilities such as bus stop, taxi stand, and MRT
entrance dominantly were located at north side of the Orchard road. Started from
Tang building, the bus stop, taxi stand and MRT entrance were sited around it.
Furthermore, another bus stop and taxi stand available in front of Lucky Plaza
building and followed by next to Hereen building there is one bus stop.
However, the figure 3.16 showed at the south of Orchard road started at the
corner of junction between Petterson road and Orchard road there was one MRT
entrance. Precisely, underneath of ION Orchard building which being construction.
Next, there were two taxi stands, which located behind the Wisma Atria and Ngee
Ann City building.
75
3.2.3 Existing Pathway/Pedestrian Mall
The field observation as resulted that the average width of pedestrian mall
was 6 m at north side. However, at southern side of Orchard road the average width
of pedestrian walkway was 10 m gradually. Furthermore, both side either northern or
southern side has link each other. To understand the network system of existing
pedestrian mall, it could be seen from the figure 3.17 below.
Entrance to building
Movement
Pedestrian crossing
Figure 3.17: The pedestrian mall and the network system within study area
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However, figure 3.17 on second picture showed the average ratio (W/H) of
the pedestrian mall in order to study the relationship between the physical setting of
built environment and its human activities that will be discussed in next section.
Pedestrian Mall
H
W
(a)
H
Pedestrian Mall
W
(b)
Figure 3.18: Urban Canyon, ratio between width and height (W/H) of the pedestrian mall
Source: Field survey, 2009
Moreover, the field investigation result was indicated the number of
pedestrians who walked pass through the pedestrian mall. One station was chosen for
the measurement where it located at Tang building. The assumption was taken
because this station was as the main connection where people come and go from
Orchard road to other places.
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3.3
Pilot Survey
A pilot survey was carried out to determine the appropriate method and
procedure to adopt in actual field observation and measurement. The main objective
of the survey was to experiments the proposed methodologies used in the context of
human activities to urban shade with the intention to customize and improve it prior
to actual data collection.
The test was to be conducted at one of the outdoor area that had been selected
for field measurement. Due to the extensive physical structures of building and the
uniqueness of the outdoor area and easy access, thus the outdoor area in front of
Ngee Ann Building was proposed as the site for the pilot survey. Based on literature
review in relation to the urban shade and people’s activities, the sample space should
fulfill
some requirements
on order to achieve the purpose of this study. The
requirement of the sample space is that the shade should move in certain interval of
time, so the researcher would be able to see whether the activities pattern would also
move.
The study area of the pilot survey was equipped with comfortable seats,
planter boxes with ornamental plants and fountains with the sculpture in the middle
to provide comfort. The pilot survey and the activity observation were conducted in
weekdays when the people density was in its usual.
The purpose of the pilot survey was to answer the questions on the number
measurement points required, the appropriate locations of human activities recorded
and shadow pattern as well as at the outdoor area. The duration of time needed to be
completed as a set of measurement and the procedures in handling equipment; video
camera, photo camera, etc. However, the pilot surveys intend to acquire first hand
experience in the process of assessing the outdoor area, understand the problems on
78
site and suggest improvements. The following point would describe the number of
recording points, location, and duration.
First, the number of recording points became the first consideration in pilot
survey. Commonly, comfort and microclimate outdoors researchers used two or
more recording points to represent exposed and shaded spaces (Padmanabhamurty,
1991; Rowe, 1991; Ellias, 1994 in Noor Hanita, 1999). This was important in order
to put distinct differences in shaded or exposed spaces where the recording points
could be clearly and freely to record the shadow pattern as well as the activities. At
least two recording points should be set to compare the different shading effect
caused by the geometry and orientation of buildings to the people’s activities.
Second, the pilot study was designed to seek the appropriate locations for
behavioral observation at the outdoors. From the previous discussion, there were five
appropriate locations in case study area proposed as sample spaces to collect data
ideally. Thereby, these five recording location should represent the exposed and the
shaded area on outdoor spaces.
The third section was about duration which embarking on the pilot study. As
stated previously, it might take 5 to 10 minutes to record the behavioral activities.
Furthermore, stabilizing time is needed by the equipment, such as camera and
videotape. Each requirement was reviewed to estimate the duration of time needed.
However, measurement was initially planned for 5 to 15 minutes in one-hour cycle
as recommended in the literature review.
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3.4
Information Obtained from the Pilot Survey
3.4.1 The Method of Measurement
i.
Five recording points in five sample spaces were recommended for
comparison purposes. These characters were adequate for the purpose of
assessment of the hypothesis of this study. In other words, the result of pilot
survey suggested that each sample spaces were recommended only used one
of the videotapes on one recording point.
ii.
The nature of the shades (buildings or trees’) should be considered in
choosing sample space. However, building shades was considered better, in
order to evaluate shading caused by geometry and orientation factors.
iii.
The pilot survey defined that five outdoors might be considered as sample
spaces according to the availability of shaded and un-shaded area related to
the solar direction and path.
iv.
The pilot survey verified that each measurement session could be conducted
in approximately less than fifteen minutes. Provision was made to reach the
time in one hour for all sample spaces due to minimize influencing variables,
such as sun position might significantly change if the measurement was not
conducted immediately. In other words, those sample spaces was recorded
simultaneously.
v.
The recording session consisted of shadow pattern analysis and activities
observation. As mentioned previously, the activity was observed to all people
who utilized at the sample spaces including the intensity of human traffic
using videotapes.
80
vi.
Due to the limited number of equipment available, the pilot survey was
proved that at least 5 minutes were needed to move from one sample to
another after the recordings have done.
3.4.2 The activity Observation Results
The activity observation was done in five categories while they were under
category of sedentary activities, which stated on literature review. The result of pilot
survey has shown that the most common activities at outdoor spaces were sitting,
standing, eating/drinking, and chatting or talking. For the purpose of this study,
activities such as eating were considered whether they are neither sitting nor
standing. The activity of chatting is also considered where people talk to each other
whether they were in pairs or groups and whether standing or sitting. Thereby, sitting
and standing activity was considered as sitting alone and standing alone without
doing any other activity. It can be assumed that these activities called ‘watching the
world goes by’ as mentioned in literature review (Zeisel, 2006).
The appropriate device to record in terms of effectiveness and efficiency,
while counting the density of people and intensity of people walking for the purpose
of data analysis, is videotape. Still photography is to show they behaved while they
were sitting, standing, eating, and chatting. It is also useful as evidence of the
activities occurred according to time of day when the shaded or exposed area
happened particularly on the sample spaces.
The purpose of this observation is to investigate the relationship between
urban shade and each activity. In other words, the purpose is to find out which
activity has the most significant relationship with the shade pattern. Furthermore, this
81
observation would also investigate which one is the most frequent activity occurred
in the commercial area, in order to promote appropriate outdoor function.
3.5
Methodology and Procedures
This section discusses the forms and methodologies used in this study. It will
determine the reliability of findings derived from data collection to analyze each
variable properly. There are four parts of methodology, which will be specifically
conducted in analyzing the data collection. First, the variables that had used in the
study, followed by equipments or instrumentation used for measurement, the third
one is about measurement procedures, and the last one will present the data analysis
technique.
The purpose of this study is to describe the relationship between urban shade
and people’s activities on outdoor spaces in commercial area; hence, there are two
main variables used. First, urban shade as it indicated whether shaded area obtained
either from buildings shadow or trees shadow was categorized as independent
variables and another variable is people’s activities as dependent variables.
The equipments or instrumentations are needed to present in order to describe
how the data were collected and measured, and how to conduct those equipments
while doing the observation.
Measurement procedures will be discussed in third part. Measurement will be
divided into two categories. The first one is about measuring the shadow pattern by
computer simulation and typologies of outdoors on each sample spaces. Second,
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measuring or counting the behavior characteristics categorized into five specific
activities – sitting, standing, reading, eating/drinking, and chatting/talking.
The data analysis technique will be presented in the last part of this
methodology section. The purpose of this part is to get the result of the relationship
between two variables in order to prove the hypothesis statistically through
correlation and regression analysis method.
3.5.1 The Variables
Urban shade is the independent variable and the dependent variable is the
people’s activities. Shade variables (buildings and trees) are derived from shade
pattern of those structures and specifically building shade simulated by using
computer. Furthermore, it information in outdoor typologies will help to determine
the shadow cast at the outdoor spaces. People’s activities on each sample spaces
were defined as the intensity of people that used the spaces according to each
categorization of activities in certain interval of time.
3.5.1.1 Observation on Shade Variables
The urban form analysis as independent variable described as descriptive data
that consist of qualitative and quantitative data. Qualitative data through visual data
derived from photograph, sketches, plans, map and section-elevation drawing.
83
Meanwhile, quantitative data are statistically about density of shaded area through its
proportion between total areas divided to shaded area.
Stage 1
Stage 2
Review of Master Plan
Filed observation
Checklist
• Identify existing spatial
arrangement and
building use
Field investigation
• Identify existing
pedestrian mall
Elements
Structures
Natural
and ManMade
Building
block
arrangeme
nt, height,
and
pedestrian
mall form
Function
Space
connector,
choices of
next
routes and
social
space
Observation to determine
urban block arrangement
Observation to determine building block with outdoor space
Observation to determine outdoor spaces to shadow pattern
Figure 3.19: Method for outdoor spaces to inventory and identification
84
However, data-collection of the shade was divided into two steps. First step is
to inventory and identify existing outdoor spaces throughout its urban setting in case
study. It will be divided into two stages to analyze (see figure 3.19). Stage 1 is to
review the master plan in existing area, and second stage is to do the field
observation to obtain the data from the master plan reviewed. Meanwhile, second
step is to recognize the typology of outdoor spaces on each sample area to determine
how the shadow cast could fall into the ground by their building block geometry and
orientation.
3.5.1.2 People’s Activities as Dependent Variable
Second variable is the people’s activities. The aim of this observation was to
identify the activities that commonly occurred on outdoor spaces among in the
samples. According to Joadar and Neil (1978 in Abu Bakar, 2007), observation
method was used widely in accordance to human activity in outdoor spaces. In line
with this research, it recorded common activities that occurred among the samples
spaces such as, walking/strolling, sitting, reading, eating, and standing. These
activities were categorized in terms of sedentary condition.
Thus, from the result of pilot survey suggested that five activities – sitting,
standing, reading, eating/drinking, and chatting/talking - were categorized in
accordance to define their relationship with the urban shade impact. Those activities
considered as human preferences on the sample spaces is defined as the number of
people (density) and their frequency (intensity of people and added with the total
number of people around a sample space) that used the space in certain interval time.
The frequency of people who did some activity on each sample spaces is recorded by
using videotape.
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3.5.2 Instrumentation
The following instruments were used for data collection purposes:
i.
Maps
Aerial view and block plan maps were used to get the information of
Orchard Road in term of the usage of street. Next, maps were used to
review and identify the study area including building blocks
arrangement, pedestrian mall character, and to review the shadow
pattern fell to the outdoors. Maps also used to determine the
sequences of behavior in setting where people move, e.g., the flow of
the movement from bus stops to buildings they went in. Analyzing
maps record in the light of an actual setting gave an idea of the
movement characteristic.
ii.
Camera
Camera was used to capture the activities to illustrate the way people
behave, and capturing physical setting in certain times. Moreover, it
helped to capture the atmosphere, certain informal used to provide
initial overview of the area study. Camera was used during pilot
survey and field observation as well.
iii.
Inventory Form
The form was used for recording the environment setting, the
dimension and configuration and other information such as activities
and goods, time of recording.
iv.
Notebook and sketchbook
These tools were used to record and produce sketches on the spot
during the observation and pilot survey as well.
86
v.
Video camera
Due to the significance of time, this device was important as a datarecording tool. It was the main device to analyze the people’s
movement, duration of utilization, and counting the density of
utilization at sample spaces.
3.5.3 Measurement Procedures
Measurement procedures will be presented in two parts. First, measuring the
shadow pattern by computer simulation, and second, measuring the existing
typologies of outdoors on each sample spaces. Second section, the measuring or
counting the behavior characteristics where under-categorized into five specific
activities – sitting, standing, reading, eating/drinking, and chatting/talking will also
be presented.
3.5.3.1 Shade Audit and Typology Analysis
In this section, the procedures of understanding to shade area will be divided
into two categories, which are shade audit typology of outdoor spaces analyses on
each sample. The aim of shade audit is to get the data about density of the shaded
area in sample spaces in order to generate variable in term of their relationship with
the activities pattern. Analyzing typology through their geometry and orientation
would show the author the way of how the outdoors retrieved shadows from the
structures such as building height, ratio, and trees arrangement.
87
Computer Simulation
For decades, people have been using computer graphics to simulate
environments. There has been an uncertainty about the validity of the simulations.
The early work on validity began with simple line drawings and then considered
image manipulation at video resolution or the 3D computer graphics. There are many
computer software has been used to simulate the physical environment such as,
Autocad, Lightscape, Ecotect, 3D max@, Sketch Up and etc.. It was customary for
researcher to perform shadow studies when studying microclimate that may have
adjacent occupancies sensitive to sunlight.
The significant benefit in using computer simulation was the accuracy of
scale on perception of structures elements that should be minimized as well. Sketch
Up ver.5 software had been chosen for this study. Firstly, it was a simple software
but quite accurate in terms of scale factors. The model of building blocks was made
through 3D object and based on true North-South orientation to obtain shadow
pattern accurately. Secondly, by adjusting the date and time, location of the object,
computer could gave the sun path to the model and shadow pattern as well. This
computer simulation helped the researcher to identify the shadow cast by building
and trees in actual situation. Computer simulation with Sketch Up provided the
illustration of relative shadow patterns, which were valid enough to be studied. Pilot
study has confirmed the validity of shadow casted by computer simulation.
Sketch Up software package includes features to make 3D object surface
models, and to perform effective texture rendering onto objects of complex geometry
as well as building envelope. Building and trees were drawn using 3D objects (Fig.
3.20). The drawing line style was selected as either single line or double line
containing the building member section. Figure 3.19 shows the 3D image generated
by the software.
88
Autocad was the software used to drawing in 2D objects. The reason in
choosing this software was because of its precision of the scale in drawing. The
precise of unit metering was drawn including ground cover, trees planting, and other
significance features in terms of structures that could generate shadow within the
study area.
Component of materials and building members, such as walls, and veranda
can be selected by using various databases. Furthermore, the roof shape could be
unemployed due to its influence to the simulation process of the shadow cast to the
surface area. Moreover, the building geometry and orientation was simply modeled
by entering the building height information into 2D-plan data derived from internet
documents, Singapore government and some of GIS data.
The present study development is based on the pilot study, to predict the
surface shadow shapes and pattern, and the actual condition of the spaces, including
buildings, the ground and greenery. Based on the prospect that this tool will be
applied to the architectural design and urban block development projects, the subject
spatial scale of this simulation tool was set to range in size from single building to an
ordinary urban block.
Simple simulation was used in this study to make it easier and quicker to
estimate the impact of building shadows to the one particular sample area for
different daylight and shading designs. One of the methods in calculating the shaded
area is to draw the proportion of shaded area to the total area on each samples
counted from computer simulation.
89
The 3D-SketchUP model is sectioned
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Using
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Schematic diagram of the mesh model generation
Figure 3.20: The 3D model of building bock arrangement in the study area generated through
computer software
90
Orientation and Geometry Analysis
As mentioned earlier, second analysis conducted throughout in understanding
of typologies at outdoors by indicating and identifying each orientation and geometry
of the sample spaces. The following discussion focused on the actual location for the
field measurements of the outdoor areas.
Shaded area could be defined from its orientation and geometry of outdoors
to the building in general. Thus, the research objective was to categorize the outdoors
according to orientation and geometry where shade derived from either buildings or
trees at the case study area. It and could be achieved from their relationship as well.
The following discussion will be focused on the typologies of the outdoor
spaces based on literature review and the findings of pilot study where orientation
and geometry considered as typology of outdoor.
i.
Orientation
Trees were excluded factors in order to identify outdoors orientation.
However, the orientation of the outdoors had been considered in relation to the
building blocks. The buildings neither single block nor an urban block as a whole
could indirectly act as a sun-shading element to the outdoors. Orientation of each
outdoors in relation to the buildings could also encourage wind flow at the outdoors
surface. Moreover, as known, many researchers from previous study such as,
Emmanuel (2005), Gehl (2002), and Noor Hanita (1999) had found that shading from
direct solar would reduce the temperature.
91
Brown and Gillespie (1995), and Torre (1999), argued that analyses on the
existing outdoors could be studied through orientation to the physical of building
nearby. Specifically, Noor Haninta (1999) stated that studied on thermal comfort of
the plaza adjacent to the building as typology could be derived were that outdoor
area (1) oriented diagonally to the building, (2) at a combination of two diagonal
position, (3) oriented North-South (N-S), and (4) West-East (W-E). It shows from the
Figure 3.21 below.
1. Outdoor with
Northwest-Southeast
(NW-SE) or NortheastSouthwest (NE-SW)
orientation
2. Outdoor with
combination
Northwest-Southeast
(NW-SE) and
Northeast-Southwest
4. Outdoor with West –
East (W-E) orientation
Figure 3.21: Orientation typologies of Outdoors
3. Outdoor with NorthSouth (N-S) orientation
92
ii.
Geometry
The geometry of the plaza in relation to the building could alter the
microclimate of the outdoor areas. According to Shaviv, E. & Capeluto, I.G., (1992)
stated that in order to stress on the importance of defining the geometry of the
building in relation to its surrounding, was to achieve better building performance in
terms of comfort. Furthermore, designing the outdoors area in order to obtain shade
that could be derived from building block should be done carefully and precisely
(Emmanuel, 2005).
Based on literature review on urban block as shade device, a few typologies
can be derived from analysis on the geometry of the outdoor in context to the
buildings. Two distinct geometry of outdoors placed nearby the building were
outdoors on the side and surrounded by buildings (Noor Hanita, 1999). Furthermore,
Noor Hanita Abdul Majid (1999) also stated that based on the definition of geometry
according to Cambridge Dictionary, it supported the idea of geometry as an
expression of the location of the outdoors in relation to the buildings (see figure
3.22).
Outdoor on the side of building
Figure 3.22: Geometry Typologies of Outdoors
Outdoor surrounded by building
93
3.5.3.2 Counting the Behavior Characteristics
The aim of this observation was to identify the activities that commonly
occurred at the outdoor area among the sample spaces. According to Joadar and Neil
(1978 in Abu Bakar, 2007), observation method was used widely in accordance to
human activity at outdoor spaces. Pilot survey suggested that common activities
occurred among the samples spaces such as, walking/strolling, sitting, reading,
eating, and standing. These activities were categorized in terms of sedentary
condition.
The observations were conducted for one day at random period of time during
the daytime. Each observation shifted for an hour. Table 3.4 shows the schedule
where the activities were recorded.
Table 3.4: Observation schedule
Date
Time
09.00 to 10.00 am
10.00 to 11.00 am
11.00 to 12.00 am
13th January 2009
12.00 to 1.00 pm
1.00 to 200 pm
2.00 to 3.00 pm
3.00 to 400 pm
Recording the people’s activities was divided into two periods. Period one (1)
recorded during 10 to 11 am to all samples spaces, period two (2) recorded from 2 to
3 pm.
94
Furthermore, according to Gehl (2002), activities could be categorized by
observing how people use the outdoors and their movement within a given space
during day and night. He was explained five categories in doing observation such as,
(1) note form and location of activities provided and approximate volume of
pedestrians that such activities attract, (2) map user location /density within the street
in a pedestrian accumulation map, (3) observe use of street, (4) categorize and map
surrounding uses within the street according to commercial, leisure and traffic.
Correlate this with people’s choice of location within the street, and (5) observe/note
age group of people, their activity such as, sitting, looking, eating, and talking and
the location within the street. The author was deal with this method where it was
related to the purpose of this study.
The following sections will describe the data analysis technique in order to
categorize those methods to be a framework of this research analysis.
3.5.4 Data Analysis Technique
The data analysis techniques below were conducted as a framework in doing
the research analysis. Gradual procedures of the research conducted will describe
throughout in terms of how the relationship between independent variable and
dependent variable occur.
Step 1: getting shade density as independent variables
Step 1 is the procedure to get the shade variables as independent variables.
The independent variable - the shade-density- was indicated from the percentage of
95
shaded area compared to the entire area. This procedure was conducted as well as to
each sample spaces in certain interval time and period, which was stated previously
in the method of shade audit. As stated previously, the shade density was derived
from computer projections by using Sketchup software as well as to project the
shadow pattern in terms of period of time that has been determined.
Step 2: getting density and proportion of people’s activities as dependent variables
Step 2 is about procedure to get the people’s activities as dependent variables.
The purpose is to determine the behavior characteristics of outdoors within Orchard
Road as a sample spaces. The dependent variable is the behavior characteristic. It is
related to the people’s activities, including movement pattern.
First of all, people’s activities which has been categorized in five sedentary
condition; (1) sitting, (2) standing, (3) reading, (4) eating/drinking, and (5)
chatting/talking – was recorded generally in 15 minutes to each sample spaces
including the number of people walking through this sample area.
Secondly, after recording, each density to each sample spaces reviewed. After
15 minutes, the next step was predicting density of people’s activities in 1 hour. The
process was necessary to make it easier to process the data in correlation method
later on.
Third, the data obtained did not represent the number of people in the area
during the recording time, neither in the afternoon nor in the morning. The data
would be converted into proportion, which obtained by dividing the number of
activity in every sample spaces by the total other activities in the area, added by the
96
intensity of people moving in the area. This method was done based on the
assumption that the people density would be different between mid-day and morning
(period 1 and 2). In order to see the difference between the numbers of activities, a
researcher should get the figures of people density in each period. Proportion theory
is necessary to mathematically deducting the formula.
Two quantities are said to be proportional if they vary in such a way that one
of the quantities is a constant multiple of the other, or equivalently if they have a
constant ratio. Proportion refers to the equality of two ratios (Wikipedia). Moreover,
another definition of proportion is a type of ratio in which the numerator is included
in the denominator. Because the numerator is a subset of the denominator, a
proportion can be thought of as a ratio of a part to the whole. A proportion is usually
expressed as a percentage.
The following formula would be used to indicate proportion of each activity
in every sample space.
fr =
n1
(n1+n2+n3+n4+n5)+ a
Note:
fr = Proportion
n = density of activity
a = intensity of people walking who pass through the sample space
Step 3: data analysis by using correlation and regression method
This step will describe how the data analyzed by using correlation analysis.
The purpose of the correlation and regression analysis was to define the relationship
97
between shade density and activity (preference) that occurred in all samples.
Furthermore, this analysis was to answer the research question whether the urban
shade was gave the significance impact to the activities at outdoors. Shade density
and pattern was derived either from buildings shadow or from trees shadow. Shade
variables can be defined as the sum of proportion (percentage) of shaded area by
each tree or building that falls on each samples surface.
Healy, Joseph F. (2002), stated that to identify the relationship between two
quantitative data, the correlation coefficient r is needed. The magnitude of r is
important as it tell the significance of such relationship. Meanwhile, simple linear
regression is a model that explains the relationship between two quantitative
variables in a causal pattern using a linear equation. Furthermore, there are five
objectives (Zaly, 2008) of doing the correlation and regression method as follows:
•
Identify the existence of relationship among variables
•
Compute the correlation coefficient r
•
Test the significance of the correlation coefficient r
•
Obtain a simple linear regression equation
•
Interpolate and extrapolate using the simple linear regression equation
Correlation analysis provides answer to question like “is there a relationship
between variable A and Variable B?” (Zaly, 2008). It determined the significance ( r
value ) and the direction of the relationship between two variables.
Healy, Joseph F. (2002) described that to the correlation coefficient, r,
computed using Eq. 1, is unitless and ranges from -1.0 to +1.0, inclusive (-1.0 ≤ r ≤
+1.0).
98
r=
n ∑ XY - ∑ X ∑ Y
[ n ∑ X2 – (∑ X)2][ n ∑ Y2 – (∑Y)2
The sign of the correlation coefficient describes the quality of the
relationship. A positive r suggests that an increase in variable A would result in a
corresponding increase in variable B, and vice versa. However, a negative r means
that variable A and variable B are inversely related, i.e. an increase (or, a decrease) in
one variable would result in the opposite, which is a decrease (or, an increase) in the
other variable (Zaly, 2008). These relationships are shown in Figure 3.23.
Figure 3.23: Positive and negative correlation coefficient
Source: Zaly, 2008
From the figure 3.22 above indicated that dimension of r, which is numerical
value denotes the quantity or strength of the relationship that exist between two
variables. It means an absolute value (r) where it closes to 1.0 indicating that a very
strong relationship between variables. On the other hand, if r value close to 0
indicates that it has very weak relationship.
99
As mentioned previously, there was determined that shade density considered
as independent variable, represented by X, while people’s activities (sitting, standing,
reading, eating/drinking, and chatting/talking) is considered as dependent variables,
represented by Y. The variables’ coding was simplified in table 3.5.
Table 3.5: Definition of operational variables
Variable’s Code
Type of Variable
A1
Proportion of
People’s activities
Percentage of people seating
or resting/hour (%)
A2
Proportion of
People’s activities
Percentage of people standing
/hour (%)
A3
Proportion of
People’s activities
Percentage of people
Reading/hour (%)
A4
Proportion of
People’s activities
Percentage of people eating or
drinking/hour (%)
A5
Proportion of
People’s activities
Percentage of people chatting
or talking/hour (%)
SDBP
Shade Density
Sum of percentage of shaded
area that falls on a sample
space (%)
3.6
Operational Definition
Summary
The design, pilot tests, and data analyses method were discussed in this
chapter. The methods adopted were based on extensive review of previous researches
and existing theories. At the end, the author hope that the data would be extensive
and comprehensive to cover up the various aspects revealed in the research problem.
CHAPTER 4
DATA ANALYSIS
4.1
Introduction
Data analysis techniques that related to the study area will be discussed in this
chapter. The discussions would be focused on the actual location for field
measurements, sample area 1 (SA-1) to sample area five (SA-5).
The definitions of the characteristics of each outdoor space will be discussed
first. Next, the typologies of each individual sample space are discussed, and would
be followed with shadow pattern and behavioral characteristics. Subsequently, the
results and findings of the sample spaces would be described and later, the summary
of those samples would be presented.
101
4.2
Terminology and Definitions
Behavioral characteristic defined based on the activity patterns. Activity
patterns are related to certain activity such as reading, sitting, standing and chatting.
These activities will be correlated to the movements or walking intensity according
to the period of time when the shadow was moving. Moreover, the density and
proportion (see chapter 3: data analysis technique) of people at the sample area was
calculated to obtain the differences of each sample. Density related to the number of
people who utilized the sample space in certain interval time, and the proportion is
associated with the intensity correlated with density of people at surrounding area
(walking and other activities) at certain periods. The analysis of each sample spaces
was discussed under following sections; typology of the sample spaces, shadow
pattern and behavioral characteristic. A summary would be reported afterwards.
The following sections were discussed the analysis of each sample space
starting from its typology, shadow pattern, and behavioral characteristics.
4.3
Typology of Outdoor Spaces
In chapter 1, the issues of outdoor activity were presented. The search for
shade as a prerequisite for outdoor activities can be deducted from previous research
in the hot humid climate (shaviv and Capeluto, 1992, and Emmanuel, 2005). In this
climate sensitive design, shade can be achieved from orientation and geometry by
their relationship to the buildings ratio. The following discussion will be focused on
the typologies of each sample spaces according to orientation and geometry.
102
4.3.1 Orientation of Outdoor space
As stated previously in chapter 3 (p.90), the analysis on the existing outdoor
spaces orientation to their respective buildings has determined few typologies of
shadow casting. The typologies derived were outdoors oriented diagonally to
buildings, outdoor that at a combination of two diagonal positions to buildings,
oriented North-South, and West-East in relation to the building.
It was discussed in chapter 3 (p.90) that the five outdoors spaces identified
were diagonally oriented to the buildings. The five samples were outdoor adjacent to
Tangs building (SA-1), adjacent to Singapore Visitor Centre (SA-2), in between
Wisma Atria and Ngee Ann buildings (SA-3), adjacent to left wing (SA-4) and right
wing (SA-5) of Ngee Ann building. These samples were analyzed as follows:
Tang Building
Wisma Atria
Ngee Ann Building
Singapore Visitor
Centre
Figure 4.1: Key Plan of sample spaces
103
Figure 4.1 shows the orientation of Orchard road where North West (NW) –
South East (SE), and building blocks orientation in the Orchard road. However, the
building blocks oriented diagonally to NW-SE orientation, but those buildings will
be considered as North-South (N-S) orientation in relation to the outdoors. Each
sample orientation would be discussed in the following section.
4.3.1.1 Sample Area 1 (SA-1)
The SA-1 was located on side of Tang building. It can be categorized as west
orientation to the building although Tang building orientation was diagonal to NWSE orientation. This consideration was meant to simplify the understanding of its
orientation in order to analyze the outdoors orientation to building. The following
figures shows how SA-1 is oriented to the building.
104
Tang Building
Building Orientation
SA-1 site plan
A
Outdoor Orientation
Location of SA-1 in 3D
Figure 4.2: Orientation Typology of SA-1
4.3.1.2 Sample Area 2 (SA-2)
The SA-2 was located nearby the Singapore Visitor Centre building. It can be
categorized as NE-SW orientation diagonally to the building. The following figure
shows how SA-2 is oriented to the building.
105
Singapore Visitor
Centre
SA-2 site plan
Building Orientation
Outdoor Orientation
Location of SA-2 in 3D
Figure 4.3: Orientation Typology of SA-2
4.3.1.3 Sample Area 3 (SA-3)
The SA-3 was located in between Wisma Atria ang Ngee Ann building within
the pedestrian mall. It can be identified as combination Northwest-Southeast (NWSE) and Northeast-Southwest (NE-SW) orientation diagonally to the building. The
following figure shows how SA-3 is oriented to the building.
106
Wisma Atria
Ngee Ann
building
SA-3 site plan
Building Orientation
Outdoor Orientation
Location of SA-3 in 3D
Figure 4.4: Orientation Typology of SA-3
4.3.1.4 Sample Area 4 and 5 (SA-4 and SA-5)
The SA-4 and SA-5 were located adjacent to Ngee Ann building where they
were seen as a central plaza in front of this building. SA-4 is at the left side and SA-5
is at the right side. Ngee Ann building has two towers, Tower A (at the right side)
and Tower B (at the left side). It can be categorized as combination NorthwestSoutheast (NW-SE) and Northeast-Southwest (NE-SW) is diagonally oriented to the
107
building. The following figures showed how SA-4 and SA-5 are oriented to the
building.
SA-4
SA-4
SA-5
SA-5
Tower B
Tower A
SA-4 and SA-5 site
plan
Building Orientation
SA-5
SA-4
Outdoor Orientation
Location of SA-4 & SA5 in 3D
Figure 4.5: Orientation Typology of SA-4 and SA-5
From the typology analyzes stated previously, it can be concluded how the
sample spaces located within the urban blocks before the shadow pattern analysis
conducted. In other words, further analyses on how an outdoors correlated to the
building was based on its orientation.
108
4.3.2 Geometry of Outdoor Space
The importance of defining the geometry of the building in relation to its
surrounding to achieve better building performance in term of comfort was stated by
Shaviv and Capeluto (1992). One of the comfort parameters is the building shade.
A few typologies can be obtained by analyzing the geometry of the outdoors
in relation to the buildings. All samples have been identified with two distinct
geometries of the outdoors, which were on the side and surrounded to the buildings.
The following figures shows how each samples could be identified as geometry
typology.
4.3.2.1 Outdoors on the Side
SA-1 and SA-2 were on the side of the buildings. The outdoors were placed
adjacent to the buildings and provided direct access and breathing spaces to the
buildings. These outdoor spaces were located within the pedestrian mall of Orchard
road. The following figures showed how SA-1 and SA-2 were identified as
geometrically on the side of the building. However, in this context, size, scale,
shadow pattern, etc. was not taken into consideration since they do not have any
significant association with this explanation.
109
Building
SA-1
SA-1
Geometry Typology:
Plan of SA-1
On the side
GEOMETRY: On the Side of Building
Figure 4.6: Geometry Typology of SA-1
Figure 4.7 shows the building block geometry in relation between the
building and the outdoor at SA-1. The geometry showed how the ratio between
building height (H) and outdoor’s width (W) was developed. This relationship could
identify where the shaded area occurs.
SA-1
Figure 4.7: Building block geometry of SA-1
110
SA-2
Building
SA-2
Geometry Typology:
Plan of SA-2
On the side
GEOMETRY: On the Side of Building
Figure 4.8: Geometry Typology of SA-2
Figure 4.8 shows the geometry typology of SA-2. It can be identified that SA2 was categorized as geometry on the side of the building. The development of
building block geometry could be seen from figure 4.9. Besides the building of
Singapore Visitor Centre as the main factor to determine the geometry of the
outdoor, an Angsana tree could be considered as another shading device, which
shades the SA-2.
Figure 4.9: Building block geometry of SA-2
111
4.3.2.2 Outdoor Surrounded by Buildings
The geometry of outdoor at SA-3, SA-4, and SA-5 were categorized as
outdoors surrounded by buildings. The surrounding buildings were blocks with
different height. SA-3 was located in between Wisma Atria building and Ngee Ann
building and placed within the pedestrian mall. SA-4 and SA-5 were located in the
central plaza of Ngee Ann building. The following figures show how SA-3, SA-4
and SA-5 were identified as geometry surrounded by building.
Ngee Ann
A
A
B
B
Geometry Typology:
Surrounded by building
Plan of SA-3
SA-3
Wisma
Atria
GEOMETRY
Figure 4.10: Geometry Typology of SA-3
Ngee Ann
SA-4
SA-5
SA-4
SA-5
Plan of SA-4 and SA-5
Geometry Typology:
Surrounded by building
Figure 4.11: Geometry Typology of SA-4 and SA-5
GEOMETRY
112
SA-3
Figure 4.12: Building block geometry of SA-3
SA-4
SA-5
Figure 4.13: Building block geometry of SA-4 and SA-5
The previous figures showed the differences of each sample to the geometry
typology and its orientation that will provide the shadow cast to the outdoors. The
following section shows how the shadow pattern and its shape derived from the
typology of outdoors and its relationship to sun position in certain periods.
113
4.4
Shade Pattern Analysis
One of the critical functions of the shade analysis is to determine the typical
existing shade patterns at a site. In this research, the shade pattern analysis was done
with a computer simulation projection and in accordance with the critical time of the
field observation conducted. It involved the use of sun angles and charts to plot
where shade will be theoretically fell on critical time during field investigation.
This section will discuss the shade pattern obtained randomly from building
or tree shadow casts from 9.00 am to 4.00 pm in a daytime on January 13, 2009.
Table 4.1 shows the periods of the field investigation.
Table 4.1: period of field investigation (randomly sampled)
Date
Time
09.00 am to 10.00 am
13th January 2009
11.00 am to 12.00 pm
1.00 pm to 2.00 pm
3.00 pm to 4.00 pm
Canyon geometry for long canyons-height of
buildings (H)/width of street (W)
SVF
Sky view Factor (SVF) = fraction of sky visible at
middle of street
H
For infinitely long canyons, SVF = Cos β
(source: Emmanuel, 2005)
W
Figure 4.14: Sky View Factor
114
In spite of the fact that the shadow pattern could be obtained from computer
simulation, information of how the shadow fell into the ground can be obtained by
identifying its physical setting, which is the ratio of height (H), and width (W)
between building and street, plaza or other spaces similarly (see figure 4.14). The
ratio between building and outdoor is the main factor that will affect shadow casting.
The relationship between the ratio and sun direction produces the degree of urban
canyon (β) and its sky view factor (SVF).
Table 4.2: Shade pattern of SA-1 related to the time period
Projection time: 9.00 am
Projection time: 10.00 am
Projection time: 11.00 am
Projection time: 12.00 pm
Projection time: 1.00 pm
Projection time: 2.00 pm
Projection time: 3.00
Projection time: 4.00 pm
Key plan of SA-1
H
SA-1
Ratio 1:3 (W/H)
W
Section Elevation SA-1
Date of Projection
: 13th January 2009
Singapore Sun Path Source: Future Art, 2009
Source: Computer Projection (SketchUp V.5)-Trees shade was excluded.
115
Table 4.2 shows SA-1 was adjacent to Tong building and has ratio with 1:3
(W/H) and have significant shade in the morning at 9am-12pm (three hours). Based
on orientation and geometry analysis, the height of building has significant
influenced to the shadow cast, which fall into the SA-1.
However, the opposite condition occurred at late afternoon from 1pm-4pm
where the shadow did not cast the SA-1 due to the changing of sun position (in the
west side) and there were no shading devices generating any shade. The table 4.3
below showing the shaded area in period I (9am-12pm) accumulated by computer
projection. Generally, SA-1 was shaded during period I. The last column
(measurement time and its density) is showing numeral 1 during 10am-11am. In
other words, it was representing of the density (mean frequency 100%) of shade
during the recording time of activity pattern in one hour. The number one (1) in
frequency mean was meant to make it easier to do the correlation analysis.
Meanwhile, in period 2 (table 4.4) the activity pattern recorded was shown its density
with numeral 0.2 means there was 20% shaded area during 2pm to 3pm.
Table 4.3: Shade density of SA-1, Period I
Period I, 9-12pm
Hour
Shadow Cast (%)
Frequency (f)
9
10
11
12
100
100
100
100
1
1
1
1
4
Total I
Mean
Frequency
1
116
Table 4.4: Shade density of SA-1, period II
Period II, 1-4pm
1
2
3
4
70
40
0
0
Total II
Sum Total I + II
0.7
0.4
0
0
1.10
0.2
5.10
The shadow pattern at SA-2 was occurred differently from SA-1. As shown
as the figures 4.8 and 4.9, geometry analysis and computer simulation produced the
shadow pattern and shape to the surface of SA-2. Additionally, the shadow of tree
was included in producing the shaded area.
Table 4.5 shows a difference in shadow pattern in the surface of SA-2 related
to the period of time projected by computer. Result was shown that SA-2 was
approximately occurred during 9am to 1pm.
117
Table 4.5: Shade pattern of SA-2 related to the time period
Projection time: 9.00 am
Projection time: 10.00 am
Projection time: 11.00 am
Projection time: 12.00 pm
Projection time: 1.00 pm
Projection time: 2.00 pm
Projection time: 3.00
Projection time: 4.00 pm
Key plan of SA-2
Ratio analysis at SA-2
Date of Projection
: 13th January 2009
Singapore Sun Path Source: Future Art, 2009
Source: Computer Projection (SketchUp V.5)-Trees shade is included.
Table 4.6 illustrates the shaded area in period I (9am-12pm) accumulated by
computer projection. Te last column shows the number 0.90 during 10am-11am. In
other words, it was representing of the density (mean frequency 90%) of shade
simultaneously with the time while activity pattern was recorded. Meanwhile, in
118
period 2 (when the activity pattern recorded) the density was 0.28 which means there
was 28% shaded area during 2pm to 3pm.
Table 4.6: Shade density of SA-2
Period I, 9-12pm
Hour
Shadow Cast (%)
Frequency (f)
9
10
11
12
99
99
80
70
0.99
0.99
0.80
0.70
3.48
40
30
25
10
0.40
0.30
0.25
0.10
1.05
Total
Mean Frequency
0.90
Period I, 1-4pm
1
2
3
4
Total
Sum Total I + II
0.28
4.53
The following figures and tables show SA-3, SA-4 and SA-5 where each
samples have different result related to the location and the geometry typology. SA-3
was located at the south side of Orchard road in between Wisma Atria and Ngee Ann
building which have ratio between surface and building was 1:1.25 (W/H). However,
SA-4 and SA-5 was located at central plaza of Ngee Ann building where they have
variation of ratio according to the height of building involved with both tower of
Ngee Ann shopping centers.
119
Table 4.7: Shade pattern of SA-3 related to the period of time
Projection time: 9.00 am
Projection time: 10.00 am
Projection time: 11.00 am
Projection time: 12.00 pm
Projection time: 1.00 pm
Projection time: 2.00 pm
Projection time: 3.00pm
Projection time: 4.00 pm
Key plan of SA-3
Ratio analysis at SA-3
th
Date of Projection
: 13 January 2009
Singapore Sun Path Source: Future Art, 2009
Source: Computer Projection (SketchUp V.5)-Trees shade is included.
As shown in figure 4.7, SA-3 was having significant shade when it was in the
morning at 9am-10am (one hour). However, shade was decreased at 12pm to 1pm
when the sun position was approximately at 62 degree of elevation angle. Based on
orientation and geometry analysis in SA-3, it was indicated that height of the
building and trees shadow have significant influenced to shaded area.
120
Table 4.8: Shade pattern of SA-4 related to the period of time
Projection time: 9.00 am
Projection time: 10.00 am
Projection time: 11.00 am
Projection time: 12.00 pm
Projection time: 1.00 pm
Projection time: 2.00 pm
Projection time: 3.00pm
Projection time: 4.00 pm
Plan of SA-4
Ratio analysis at SA-4
th
Date of Projection
: 13 January 2009
Singapore Sun Path Source: Future Art, 2009
Source: Computer Projection (SketchUp V.5)-Trees shade is included.
Area SA-4 obtained significant shade in the afternoon during 3pm-4am (one
hour). Temporarily, there is no shade in the morning at 9am, however, when the time
is near to 11pm almost half of SA-4 was casted by building shadow.
121
Table 4.9: Shade pattern of SA-5 related to the period of time
Projection time: 9.00 am
Projection time: 10.00 am
Projection time: 11.00 am
Projection time: 12.00 pm
Projection time: 1.00 pm
Projection time: 2.00 pm
Projection time: 3.00pm
Projection time: 4.00 pm
Plan of SA-5
Ratio analysis at SA-5
Date of Projection
: 13th January 2009
Singapore Sun Path Source: Future Art, 2009
Source: Computer Projection (SketchUp V.5)-Trees shade is included.
As it can be seen in table 4.9 above, SA-5 was shaded in early morning and
exposed at 10am, 11am and 1pm, and obtained significant shade in the late afternoon
at 3pm-4am (one hour) and above. Temporarily, the surface of SA-5 was shaded by
Ngee Ann building with two significantly high towers (up to 80 m).
122
The following tables (4.10 – 4.12) described numbers of the density of shade
to each sample spaces. As it mentioned previously, these numeral data will be used
as data input in order to define correlation between shade and activities that occurred
on all samples.
Table 4.10: Shade density of SA-3
Period I, 9-12pm
Hour
Shadow Cast (%)
9
10
11
12
98
60
15
5
0.98
0.60
0.15
0.05
1.78
5
35
60
80
0.05
0.35
0.6
0.8
1.80
Total
Duration (hour)
Mean Frequency
0.38
Period I, 1-4pm
1
2
3
4
Total
Sum Total I + II
0.48
3.58
Table 4.11: Shade density of SA-4
Period I, 9-12pm
Hour
Shadow Cast (%)
Frequency (f)
9
10
11
12
0
95
100
30
0.00
0.95
1.00
0.30
2.25
20
40
100
100
0.2
0.4
1
1
2.60
Total
Mean Frequency
0.98
Period I, 1-4pm
1
2
3
4
Total
Sum Total I + II
0.70
4.85
123
Table 4.12: Shade density of SA-5
Period I, 9-12pm
Hour
Shadow Cast (%)
Frequency (f)
9
10
11
12
100
15
50
100
1.00
0.15
0.50
1.00
2.65
20
80
100
100
0.2
0.8
1
1
3.00
Total
Mean Frequency
0.33
Period I, 1-4pm
1
2
3
4
Total
Sum Total I + II
0.90
5.65
Table 4.10 shows shade density of SA-3 divided into two periods. Period 1
shown the mean frequency of shade density when activities was recorded (10am11am) approximately 0.38, meanwhile 0.48 was occurred at late afternoon (3pm4pm). As shown in table 4.10, majority the surface of SA-3 was shaded by trees’
shadow especially in the morning. However, building shadow shaded the surface
from at 1pm to 4pm.
Table 4.11 shows the density of shade at SA-4 and table 4.12 shows the shade
density at SA-5. As it was shown in table 4.11, both samples were totally shaded by
building block of Ngee Ann shopping complex. However, there was a different shade
and shape of shade patterns although they were projected at the same time. This
uniqueness would be related to the activities occurred.
Figure 4.15 shows the level of shade density among sample spaces during a
daytime obtained from computer projection on January 13, 2009. Based on the
previous analysis, it illustrated that SA-5 is the most shaded area among the samples.
124
Meanwhile, the least shaded area on SA-3, and the average shaded area were showed
on SA-4.
SA-5
Most Shaded
SA-1
SA-4
SA-2
Moderate
SA-3
Least Shaded
Figure 4.15: The level of shade density among sample spaces
4.4.1 The Photographic Survey on People’s Activities
The photographic observation and video recordings were taken at the same
places and during the same times. The data on the way people move and use the
urban outdoor spaces in the daytime and the importance of shade on their behavior
are collected. The photographs presented below were taken in January 13 in five
squares or samples mentioned above.
Photographs taken at the outdoor samples focus on pre-identified benches and
places where people were likely to stop to gather and socialize. These images
confirmed people’s preference for shaded walkway and shaded spots and show that
the occupancy changes along the day according to shade availability. Changes of the
shade patterns determined the people movement. Therefore, places exposed to solar
radiation were avoided by the majority of people.
125
Sample Area 1 (SA-1)
Photographs were taken at both sides of the plaza (north and south), capturing
the benches and people in the shade (see figure 4.16). People started passing by from
early in the morning, most of them were on their way to the core of the commercial
area and along the pedestrian mall of Orchard road. It was, however, from about
9am, most of the people were started using the large shaded area on the side of the
building.
Sample Area 2 (SA-2)
The SA-2 space (Fig. 4.17) was located nearby Singapore City Center and the
conservation. It was a place mainly for social activities, where people come to meet
others, to sit or simply to stroll through the plaza.
Sample Area 3 (SA-3)
This area was mainly shaded by trees in the morning and mainly shaded by
buildings in the late afternoon. This space was located exactly beside the orchard
road where the traffic of motorists was moving fast (fig. 4.18). People were likely to
use this area for reading, and some of them chatting in the morning or afternoon.
Sample Area 4 (SA-4) and Sample Area 5 (SA-5)
This square (Fig. 4.19) was an important meeting place in Orchard road
where the largest and most famous shopping complex named Takashimaya was
located. However, this was probably not only due to its location, but also to its
126
positive value of human scale. It was provided with benches, edges, steps to sit on,
and the most important thing: large shaded area near the front door of the building
where people standing and talking. Fig. 4.31 shows a selection of photographs taken
at two spots on the Ngee Ann square: (1) West side, (2) East side.
The Nge Ann building opens at 10am, but around 9am, people started
gathering around the SA-4 and SA-5. The building provided a large shaded area from
early morning, which would be decreasing as mid-day approaches. It was interesting
to observe how people stand dispersed or more concentrated, depending on the
dimension of the shaded area. The following figures illustrate the photographic
observation results on each sample space during the observation.
127
Detail
View Point
Figure 4.16: Photographic survey on SA-1 (January 13, 2009)
128
Detail
View Point
Figure 4.17: Photographic Survey on SA-2 (January 13, 2009)
129
Detail
View Point
Figure 4.18: Photographic Survey on SA-3 (January 13, 2009)
130
Detail
SA-4
Figure 4.19: Photographic Survey on SA-4 and SA-5 (January 13, 2009)
SA-5
131
4.4.2 Summary of Shade Analysis
The chart and graph below are showing the summary of five samples space to
see their differences in order to describe the findings of shade analysis according to
data collection.
Summary of Shade Density in
Hourly
4pm
3pm
2pm
1pm
12p…
11am
10am
9am
0
20
40
60
80
100
9am
10am
11am
12pm
1pm
2pm
3pm
4pm
SA-5
100
15
50
100
20
80
100
100
SA-4
0
95
100
30
20
40
100
100
SA-3
98
60
15
5
5
35
60
80
SA-2
99
99
80
70
40
30
25
10
SA-1
100
100
100
100
70
40
0
0
Figure 4.20: Shade density of each sample according to hourly in day
Figure 4.20 showing the summary of the shade density among sample spaces
(SA-1 to SA-5) based on period obtained from computer projection. It can be seen
that almost all sample spaces was shaded in the morning (9am) except in SA-4 where
it totally exposed. Furthermore, at 1 pm all sample spaces are different in term of
shade density, which can be seen the variety of shade amount. It can be concluded
that the hypothesis about each sample has different characteristics in terms of its
typology has proven. Thereby, orientation and geometry of the outdoors has
significant impact to the shadow pattern, which falls to the surfaces.
132
400
350
Sum of 10am
300
Sum of 9am
250
Sum of 11am
200
Sum of 12pm
150
Sum of 1pm
100
Sum of 2pm
50
Sum of 3pm
0
Sum of 4pm
Total
Figure 4.21: Sum of Shade density by hourly in day
Figure 4.21 shows the sum of the shade density according to time. The
purpose of this sum is to show which time is the most and less of shades occur
among sample spaces. Furthermore, it might be used as the data of shade variables in
order to choose the appropriate time to relate with the activity variables. In other
word, relationship between shade densities and people’s activity should be analyzed
at the same periods. Moreover, the figure shows that the highest shade density area
among sample spaces occurred at 9am. Meanwhile, at 1pm the area has less shade
density among sample spaces.
4.5
Behavioral Characteristic
All samples would be conducted as the observation site due to the intensity of
utilization. It was recorded among the common activities that occurred at the sample
spaces. The activities were walking, sitting, reading, standing, eating and chatting. It
133
was mentioned in Chapter 1 that these activities were mainly occurred at commercial
area. Sitting, reading, standing, eating, and chatting were categorized into sedentary
conditions.
Sitting condition was categorized when people only do sitting. Reading was
indicated where people reading while they standing or sitting. Standing was
identified as people standing., and eating was categorized as people eating without
considered either standing or sitting. Chatting has established as people chatting
either they were standing or sitting.
Besides, walking activity could be another independent factor, which used as
people density indicator. Furthermore, each activity was recorded by using
photograph technique and video recorder in certain interval time.
The daytime recording was conducted on weekdays while the weather
condition is clear, and hot. The assumption was the activity on weekdays may more
vary and being normal condition where people could chose their placed for resting.
The behavioral characteristics would be divided into two periods. Period 1
was considered as morning from 9am to 12pm, meanwhile period 2 at 1pm up to
4pm. Those activities would be described in the following lines.
134
4.5.1 Period I, at 10.00 am to 11.00 am
The methods applied in SA-1, SA-2, SA-3, SA-4 and SA-5 includes
pedestrian counting carried out for 10 to 15 minutes between 10am to 11am. These
counted results have been extrapolated to produce an hourly estimate. The density of
people doing their activities (sitting, standing, reading, eating and chatting) in an
hour was as predicted, and proportion was derived from the number of people doing
such activity (ex. Sitting) which divided into all activities density including with the
intensity of people walking through each sample and so forth for other samples.
The analyses presented below was performed in order to determine the
influence of the shade pattern to those activities, on the time that people were willing
to stop in overexpose and in the shade. Furthermore, each sample would be described
to each density of activities by person per-minute and person per-hour that will be
used on correlation and regression analysis.
Each data analysis result would be used to compare samples to each other, as
shown in table 4.13. Comparison among samples is used to define the differences
among their relationships with activities. The results drawn from values of intensity
of people who walking through at each sample enabled the author to compare
responses (in terms of the mean value of each hourly activity) related to the density
of shade at each samples.
135
Table 4.13: Density of activity in period 1. Measuring between 10am-11am.
Activity
Sitting
Standing
Reading
Eating
Chatting/talking
Total
Mean
(person/hour)
36
36
0
0
24
96
37.50
37.50
0.00
0.00
25.00
100.00
SA-1
Activity
Sitting
Standing
Reading
Eating
Chatting/talking
Total
SA-3
Activity
Sitting
Standing
Reading
Eating
Chatting/talking
Total
Activity
Percentage
Sitting
Standing
Reading
Eating
Chatting/talking
Total
Mean
(person/hour)
20
24
4
0
28
76
Percentage
26.32
31.58
5.26
0.00
36.84
100.00
SA-2
Mean
(person/hour)
20
36
0
0
36
92
Percentage
21.74
39.13
0.00
0.00
39.13
100.00
Activity
Sitting
Standing
Reading
Eating
Chatting/talking
Total
Mean
(person/hour)
32
4
4
0
24
64
Percentage
50.00
6.25
6.25
0.00
37.50
100.00
SA-4
Mean
(person/hour)
20
0
4
4
44
72
Percentage
27.78
0.00
5.56
5.56
61.11
100.00
Code:
A1 Sitting
A2 Standing
A3 Reading
A4 Eating/Drinking
A5 Chatting/Talking
SA-5
Table 4.14: Summary on density of activity in period 1. Measuring between 10am-11am.
No
SA-1
SA-2
SA-3
SA-4
SA-5
A1
36.00
20.00
20.00
32.00
20.00
Density of Activity (person/hour)
A2
A3
A4
36.00
0.00
24.00
4.00
36.00
0.00
4.00
4.00
0.00
4.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
4.00
A5
24.00
28.00
36.00
24.00
44.00
136
Mean (person/hour) SA-1
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
36 36
24
0
Mean
(person/ho
ur)
0
Mean (person/hour) SA-2
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Mean (person/hour) SA-3
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
36
36
20
0
Mean
(person/ho
ur)
0
Mean (person/hour) SA-5
50
40
30
20
10
0
44
20
0
4
4
Mean
(person/ho
ur)
Figure 4.22: Density of each Activity (person/hour)
28
24
20
Mean
(person/hou
r)
4
0
Mean (person/hour) SA-4
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
32
24
4
4
0
Mean
(person/hou
r)
137
Comparison of Activity
Density of Activity
50.00
40.00
SA-1
30.00
SA-2
20.00
SA-3
10.00
SA-4
0.00
-10.00 0
1
2
3
4
5
6
SA-5
Activities (1=A1 and so forth)
Figure 4.23: Density of each Activity among sample areas (person/hour) in period 1 (10am11am).
Source: Field observation
The results showed in table 4.14 and figure 4.23 shows the comparison
among the sample spaces. Chatting/talking activity was the most occurred at all
sample spaces at the same time measurement in period 1. The figure 4.36 below
shows graphically of each activity among samples area.
Chatting/
talking
Eating
Reading
Standing
SA-1
Sitting
SA-3
SA-4
SA-5
SA-2
Figure 4.24: Density of each Activity among sample areas in period 1 (10am-11 am)
138
4.5.2 Time Period II, at 1 am to 4 pm
The method used in period 1 was also applied in period 2 when the activity
occurred on each samples has changed due to the shade density. The measurement of
period 2 was recorded between 2pm to 3pm.
Table 4.15: Density of activity in period II. Measuring between 2pm-3pm.
Activity
Sitting
Standing
Reading
Eating
Chatting/talking
Total
Mean
(person/hour)
12
36
12
0
18
78
15.38
46.15
15.38
0.00
23.08
100.00
Sitting
Standing
Reading
Eating
Chatting/talking
Total
Mean
(person/hour)
78
78
12
0
90
258
Percentage
30.23
30.23
4.65
0.00
34.88
100.00
SA-3
Activity
Sitting
Standing
Reading
Eating
Chatting/talking
Total
SA-5
Sitting
Standing
Reading
Eating
Chatting/talking
Total
Mean
(person/hour)
6
0
0
0
60
66
Percentage
9.09
0.00
0.00
0.00
90.91
100.00
SA-2
SA-1
Activity
Activity
Percentage
Activity
Sitting
Standing
Reading
Eating
Chatting/talking
Total
Mean
(person/hour)
12
12
8
0
24
56
SA-4
Mean
(person/hour)
40
16
0
4
48
108
Percentage
37.04
14.81
0.00
3.70
44.44
100.00
Code:
A1 Sitting
A2 Standing
A3 Reading
A4 Eating/Drinking
A5 Chatting/Talking
Percentage
21.43
21.43
14.29
0.00
42.86
100.00
139
Table 4.16: Summary on density of activity in period II. Measuring between 2pm-3pm.
Density of Activity (person/hour)
No
A1
A2
A3
A4
A5
SA-1
12.00
36.00
12.00
0.00
18.00
SA-2
6.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
60.00
SA-3
78.00
78.00
12.00
0.00
90.00
SA-4
12.00
12.00
8.00
0.00
24.00
SA-5
40.00
16.00
0.00
4.00
48.00
Table 4.14 shows the results of the activity among the sample areas in period
2 (2pm-3pm). A1 (sitting), and A4 (eating/drinking) were decreasing in this period
due to the shaded area which had exposed at certain area on the surfaces. However,
the density of A5 (chatting) was improving due to the shaded area that totally
covered the surfaces especially at SA3 and SA-5.
Mean (person/hour) SA-1
40
30
20
10
0
36
12
18
12
Mean
(person/ho
ur)
0
Mean (person/hour) SA-2
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Mean (person/hour) SA-3
100
80
60
40
20
0
90
78 78
12
0
Mean
(person/ho
ur)
60
6
0
0
Mean
(person/ho
ur)
0
Mean (person/hour)
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
24
12 12
8
0
Mean
(person/ho
ur)
Figure 4.25: Density of each Activities (person/hour) in period II (2pm-3pm) on SA-1 to SA-4
140
Mean (person/hour)
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
48
40
16
Mean
(person/hou
r)
4
0
Figure 4.26: Density of each Activities (person/hour) in period II (2pm-3pm) on SA-5
Figure 4.27 below shows the comparison of each sample due to the activities
occurred in order to see the significance influence of shade.
Comparison of Activity
100.00
80.00
SA-1
Density
60.00
SA-2
40.00
SA-3
20.00
SA-4
SA-5
0.00
-20.00
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
Activities
Figure 4.27: Density of each Activity among samples area (person/hour) in period II (2pm-3pm).
Source: Field observation
141
The figure 4.28 graphically shows each activity among sample areas in period
2 (between 2pm to 3pm).
Chatting/tal
king
Eating
Reading
Standing
Sitting
SA-1
SA-3
SA-4
SA-5
SA-2
Figure 4.28: Illustration of density of each Activity among sample areas in period II (2pm-3pm)
The recordings of activities (fig. 4.28) shows almost all activities occurred in
all samples except in SA-2, where there were only two activities occurred.
Meanwhile, others activities were concentrated at south side of Orchard road (SA-3,
SA-4 and SA-5) where the highest number of pedestrians was counted. The activities
were mostly standing and chatting to friends and relatives (as it mentioned chatting
142
was considered although they were sitting or standing). These major activities were
occurred only at SA-4 and SA-5 where centre commercial activities were found.
In order to compare each activity that occurred in all samples between
period1 and period 2, figure 4.28 shows the differences due to the density of activity.
Firstly, table 4.20 shows the definition of codes.
Table 4.17: codes and definition of operational variables
Code
SA-1
SA-2
SA-3
SA-4
SA-5
P1
P2
A1
A2
A3
A4
A5
Definition
Sample Area 1
Sample Area-2
Sample Area-3
Sample Area-4
Sample Area-5
Period 1
Period 2
Sitting
Standing
Reading
Eating/Drinking
Chatting/Talking
100.00
90.00
80.00
70.00
60.00
50.00
40.00
30.00
20.00
10.00
0.00
A1
A2
A3
A4
P1
P2
SA-1
P1
P2
SA-2
P1
P2
SA-3
P1
P2
SA-4
Density of Acitvity (person/hour)
Figure 4.29: Comparison Density of Activity among sample spaces
P1
P2
SA-5
A5
143
Figure 4.29 shows the result of analysis in comparing between period 1 and
period 2 among sample spaces. It can be seen that SA-3 had significant improvement
in terms of people’s activities at P2. Meanwhile, others sample spaces had not
significantly changed between P1 and P2. Further information is needed to identify
why SA-3 is having differences among other. If it related to shade density analysis, it
shows that shade density in SA-3 has insignificantly changed. Mean of frequency of
SA-3 shows that the change was only 0.1% (see table 4.10) when the time of the
activity is simultaneously recorded. On the other hand, others sample space shows
that there is significant changes in their shade density between P1 and P2.
Furthermore, SA-3 is located within the pedestrian mall shaded by buildings and
trees during daytime. Meanwhile, other samples are shaded only by building
shadows except SA-2. However, at SA-2, its shade density was significantly changed
between P1 and P2 (see table 4.9). From these findings, it could be assumed that
people still appreciate and utilize shaded area especially in P2 where people started
to come to the commercial area to fulfill their needs. However, to identify what
causes this phenomenon, the following section would discuss their relationship
between those activities and shade density in every sample space.
4.6
Correlation and Regression Analysis
The purpose of the correlation and regression analysis was to identify the
relationship between shade density and activity (preference) that occurred in all
samples. Furthermore, this analysis was done in order to answer the research
question whether the urban shade have any significance influence to the activities at
outdoors. Shade density and pattern was obtained either from buildings or trees
shadow. Shade variables can be defined as the sum of proportion (percentage) of
shaded area by each tree or building that falls on each samples surface.
144
Based on literature review and the methodology in chapter 3, the density of
activities on each sample was converted to proportion value, which means the
density of activity has been indicated by walking intensity as indicator of proportion
of each activity (see appendix F and G). In other words, proportion was derived from
the number of each activity divided by the density of other categorized activities
including the intensity of people walking.
Thus, correlation analysis will be applied to these two variables in order to
define their relationship. The correlation analysis has been divided into two periods.
The purpose of this method is to identify the differences between both periods in
order answer the research question of which activity has significant relationship in
terms of period in commercial area.
The results of correlation and regression analysis showed that the relationship
between shade density and each activity that exist in samples space would be
discussed in the following sub-sections.
4.6.1 Result
The result of correlation analysis shows (see appendix H) that there were
significant negative correlation between density of human activities (chatting or
talking) indicated by A5 and urban shade variables in period 1 (table 4.23). The
correlation is close to -1 (r=-0.90). In other words, although there was no significant
shade density on sample spaces, but the chatting activity was the highest number that
occurred. Meanwhile, in period 2 (table 4.24), there were significant positive
correlation between shade density and activity (eating or drinking) indicated by A4
where the correlation was near to +1 (r=0.70).
145
4.6.2 Output Analysis
According to the previous correlation analysis, further Anova analysis is
needed, especially on A5 in period 1 (r=-0.90). The purpose of Anova analysis was
to define the significant influence from shade density (X) to A5 (Y) by using F-test.
The model of regression analysis will be applied in order to predict the density of
shade needed to provide for the human activity.
Table 4.18: Result of Regression analysis to shade and frequency of human activities (A5)
Regression Statistics
Multiple R
0.907502
R Square
0.82356
Adjusted R
Square
0.764746
Standard Error
0.900677
Observations
5
ANOVA
df
Regression
Residual
Total
1
3
4
SS
11.35944
2.433656
13.79309
MS
11.35944
0.811219
F
14.00293
Significance F
0.033298
Hypothesis:
H0: There was no significanat correlation between X and Y
H1: There was significant correlation between X and Y
F-Test
From the table 4.21 found that the value of R2 and F value. Thus, this two
values could be interpreted that R2= 0.82356, means that 82.356% activity (A5)
would be influenced by the shade density and the rest of the activities would be
influenced by another variables. F-Output value= 14.00293 and it would be
146
correlated with F-table with the requisite: (1) if F-Out > F-table thus H0 could be
rejected and vice versa. However, in this case, there was no need to compare with Ftable because its significance could be seen from P-value. In other word, if P-value
<0.05, means that F-output value was significant. Thus, it was found that F-output >
F-table and it could be rejected the H0. It is concluded that there is a significant
correlation between X and Y.
T-Test
Table 4.19: Result of T-Test
Coefficients
Standard
Error
t Stat
P-value
Intercept
7.509217
1.048689
7.160573
0.00561
X
Variable 1
-5.04629
1.348536
-3.74205
0.033298
Hypothesis 1:
H0: Intercept for regressrion model would not significant
H1: Intercept for regression model significant
Result from the table 4.22 above shows that t-output value was 7.160573 and
would be compared with t-table. If t-output > t-table, H0 could be rejected. However,
if the significance of intercept from P-value was < 0.05, the intercept was significant
to develop the model regression.
Result shows that t-output > t-table, thus H0 is rejected. Intercept value
7.1605773 was significant and could be used in the model.
Hypothesis 2:
H0: Coefficient for model regression is not significance
147
H1: Coefficient for model regression is significance
It was found that t-output > t-table. It means H0 is rejected. The conclusion is,
the coeffiecient value which was -5.04629 was significant to develop regression
model.
From the table 4.26, the regression model (A5 in period 1) could be described
as follows:
Y = 7.509217-5.04629 X
A5 = 7.509217-5.04629 Shd.den
Nevertheless, A5 has a significant relationship with the shade density where
the activity occured in outdoors even it is located in an exposed area.
Meanwhile, for model 2 (A4 in period2), there was not enough reasons to
reject H0 because there might be another possibility where the shade density increase
would be result in influencing the activity. It can be seen from the correlation value
(r = 0.746066).
4.7
Summary
The result of three sections has been discussed. The results were (1) existing
typology of outdoor in order to understand how shadow pattern occur in several
148
periods, (2) the density of people’s activities was calculated related to time
measurement, and (3) the relationship between shade density and people’s activities.
First, the analysis of existing typology shown that the shade derived from
building shadow generally has influence to the outdoor activities. According to
geometry analysis, if the outdoor spaces located closer to buildings, the shadow will
shade the outdoors and provided comfort for people’s activities and of course, it
depends on the time where shadow was fall on to the surfaces. Meanwhile, the
orientation analysis resulted that outdoor spaces are oriented to NW-SE from
building blocks have more opportunities to be shaded – related to the case study
where the urban block geometry was oriented to true NW-SE orientation. Second,
the density of people whose resides on sample spaces related to shaded area has
indicated that the activity patterns has been influenced by the shade patterns
especially in the late morning.
Third, the result of the correlation and regression analysis in terms of
relationship between those variables – urban shade and people’s activities – has
indicated that frequency of the usage of the outdoors has been increase in period 2. It
can be concluded that commercial area is a place where people tend to come after
working hours until the evening. Furthermore, another result has shown that even the
area was exposed to the sunlight – direct sunshine - in the morning; people are still
appreciated to utilize the area. It can be seen from correlation analysis; there was
negative correlation between period 1 and the chatting activities. Low temperature in
the morning might have significant influence to the people. However, the positive
relationship has been found in period 2, when eating/drinking activities have
increased in the late afternoon. Thus, it might be assumed that people started to be
able to eat/drink outdoor freely while/after working, and might be having some
pleasures in shopping complex.
CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
5.1
Introduction
This chapter presents a summary of the main findings of the study and
the conclusion in four sections. The first part introduces the concluding part
of the research. The summary findings will be presented in the second part.
The third part deals with suggestion for further studies and the last section the
general conclusion of the research would be presented.
This concluding chapter intends to re-address the actual concern of
this exercise, i.e. the relationship between urban shade and people’s activities
on outdoor spaces within the commercial area.
150
5.2
Summary of the Findings
The primary objective of this study is to describe the relationship
between urban shade and people’s outdoor activities concerned within
commercial area in order to sustain them. In other words, the result findings
of existing typologies of outdoors became other indicators to support the
findings about relationship between those variables – urban shade as the
independent variable, and people activities as the dependent variable.
Furthermore, summary of the findings of this study will be presented
into three parts. First, it is about the typology of existing outdoors which
provides significant impact to the shadow pattern, which casted into sample
spaces according to the period of daytime. According to the day when the
observation done, it was found that, SA-5 (sample area 5) was the most
shaded area. The shade was provided by building shadow. Figure 5.1
illustrated the differences of shade density level among five sample areas.
SA-5
SA-1
Most Shaded
SA-4
Shaded
SA-2
SA-3
Least Shaded
Figure 5.1: The level of shade density among sample spaces
There might be three factors that influenced the shadow density of the
SA-5:
•
Solar azimuth and altitude angles in Singapore (observation done on
January 13, 2009)
151
•
Orientation and geometry of outdoor to the structures that provide
shades
•
The canyon or ratio-height of building (H) / width of outdoor (W)
Singapore Sun path on January 13, 2009.
Orientation typology: NW-SE – NE-SW
Ratio (W/H) of SA-5
Geometry Typology: Surrounded by building
Figure 5.2: Physical setting of SA-5
Figure 5.2 illustrates the factors that influenced shade density on SA5. Solar position is considered as most important factor of how the shadow
pattern falls on the ground. First, solar azimuth and altitude angles and pass
from east to west is always moving across the sky day by day during one
year. Second, the canyon or urban ratio was considered as next factor
influencing the shaded area. As it can be seen, SA-5 is surrounded by tall
152
building. In addition, the last depending factor is the orientation and geometry
of outdoor to the building. From three categorizations of geometry analysis, it
can be concluded that the geometry which surrounded by building has more
opportunity to be shaded by building. On the other hand, NW-SE – NE-SW
according to sun position has given significant implications to outdoors to be
gradually shaded.
Second finding is shadow pattern provided significant impact to the
people’s activities pattern as well. Result of people density analysis showed
that people still appreciated the outdoors when they were shaded, except in
the morning.
The result of correlation and regression analysis has been proved the
second finding while the negative and positive relationship between urban
shade and people’s activities done. In period 1 (morning), the result showed a
negative relationship. Morning outdoors activities are still happening when
most of the sample spaces were under direct exposure to the sunlight. Positive
relationship showed up during the period 2 (afternoon) when the sample
spaces were shaded.
The conclusion of these findings can be summarized as follows:
i)
Understanding the typology of an outdoor is important to understand
the shadow pattern in terms of their geometry and orientation to the
structures or natural environment that are able to shade the area of
people’s activities.
ii)
Commercial area has unique characteristics in term of people’s
activities. This is because people who resides the central commercial
area came from different backgrounds – age, sex, race, economics,
status, their existence (visitors, tourists, or local residents), and their
availability to experience the shopping complex.
153
iii)
The most activity occurred in the commercial area is chatting/talking
in the morning, however from afternoon near to evening
eating/drinking was the most activity found as the result.
iv)
People still appreciate shades to prevent direct solar radiation
especially in the afternoon where the sun position is approximately in
the highest latitude in daytime.
v)
Outdoor spaces within the pedestrian mall is very significant for the
people to provide them space for their needs – to rest, pause, to
socialize, recreation, pleasure etc.
5.3
Suggestion for Further Studies
As mentioned in the first chapter, the primary concern of this study is
the relationship between urban shade and people’s outdoor activities in the
commercial area spaces, focusing on the pedestrian mall. Research limitation
for this study is including the limitation to several options such as air
temperature, humidity, wind speed etc., and the availability of authentic
existing maps, especially maps on usage of the street space. The author had to
conduct some preliminary surveys in order to produce some street space,
usage maps, street width, trees planting etc.
Furthermore, the density of people and the frequency of relationship
between urban shade density and people’s activities in hourly were just as
estimated and predicted. Since the recording and measuring was done in 10 to
15 minutes of the whole duration. Thereby, the limited range of time to
complete this study comprehendingly was impossible.
Moreover, as
mentioned previously, the several excluded factors in this study should be
take into account in order to get the real fact of this relationship.
154
In this area of research, the following further studies are
recommended as follows:
1.
A study should be carried out on the commercial area comprising all
the aspect of urban form and morphology. This study should provide
complete urban designers a guideline on the commercial area of urban
cultural entity, without neglecting the significant of informal street
activities like pedestrian mall as demonstrated in this study.
2.
Some factors, such as air temperature, humidity, wind speed etc.
should be taken into consideration to be included, in order to support
the result findings and other excluding variables that might be
influenced.
3.
Method procedures and measuring process should be extended if the
research expectation to get the real fact of time. For example, the
recording should have done hourly to get the complete data of
people’s activity, walking intensity etc.
4.
The background of people who reside on the study area should be
considered as well to prevent bias of the research. Sex, age and race
are might be influence the relationship between these variables.
5.4
Conclusion
The study has revealed the relationship between urban shade and
people’s activities on outdoor spaces as a significant element, which
contribute to the pedestrian’s characteristic in particular, an urban image in
general.
155
From the result of analysis previously described, this study could be
concluded that there was a significant positive correlation between urban
shade and people’s activities on outdoor spaces in pedestrian mall of Orchard
road. Secondly, although there has significant negative relationship with the
people’s activities in the morning, it can be argue that people still feel
comfort with the air condition in the morning where the air temperature still
low .
The magnitude of R value of the Multiple Regression model indicates
that shade (buildings and trees) only explain more than half of the variation of
the people’s activities.
Finally, it can be concluded that due to the
significance of shade on the sustainability of people’s activities on an outdoor
spaces, designer – architect, urban design, planner etc.- should thoroughly
consider the application of shade on their design of building, landscape, and
particularly the outdoor area to provide people’s activities in enhancing the
quality of urban environment.
156
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163
APPENDIX A
Orchard Road Plan
164
APPENDIX B
Sample Areas Plan
165
APPENDIX C
Pedestrian Mall Plan
166
APPENDIX D
Pedestrian Connections Plan
167
APPENDIX E
Hourly Dry Bulb Temperature (C0) of Changi Met Station
Singapore
168
APPENDIX F
The Measurement of People’s Activities and Walking Intensity on
Sample Spaces
Step 1: Counting the density of activities in 10 – 15 minute, hourly prediction, and
established the proportion of activities
Period I, 10am-11am
SA-1
Density
Person/minute
0.60
0.60
0.00
0.00
0.40
1.60
Mean Duration
(minute/person)
2.59
1.55
0.00
0.00
2.90
7.04
Activity
Sitting
Standing
Reading
Eating/drinking
Chatting/talking
Total
Prediction (n)
(person/hour)
36
36
0
0
24
96
Proportion/hour
(fr % )
1.89
1.89
0.00
0.00
1.26
5.03
measured in 10 mnt
Intensity of Walking
Intensity of Walking (a)
(person/minute)
(person/hour)
30.20
1812
density(10 mnt)
302
SA-2
Activity
Mean Duration
(minute/person)
Sitting
Standing
Reading
Eating
Chatting/talking
Total
7.08
1.21
6.17
0.00
2.52
16.99
Density
Person/minute
0.33
0.40
0.07
0.00
0.47
1.27
Prediction
(n)
(person/hour)
20
24
4
0
28
76
Density
(15 mnt)
5
6
1
0
7
19
Proportion/hour
(fr % )
2.46
2.96
0.49
0.00
3.45
9.36
169
measured in 15 mnt
Intensity of Walking
(person/minute)
Intensity of Walking (a)
(person/hour)
density(15 mnt)
12.27
736
184
SA-3
Activity
Mean Duration
(minute/person)
Sitting
Standing
Reading
Eating/drinking
Chatting/talking
Total
8.33
0.68
0.00
0.00
10.40
19.41
Density
Person/minute
0.33
0.60
0.00
0.00
0.60
1.53
Prediction
(n)
(person/hour)
20
36
0
0
36
92
Density
(15 mnt)
5
9
0
0
9
23
Proportion/hour
(fr % )
3.21
5.77
0.00
0.00
5.77
14.74
measured in 15 mnt
Intensity of Walking
(person/minute)
Intensity of Walking (a)
(person/hour)
density(15 mnt)
8.87
532
133
SA-4
Activity
Mean Duration
(minute/person)
Sitting
Standing
Reading
Eating/drinking
Chatting/talking
Total
4.67
0.36
8.57
0.00
3.03
16.64
Density
Person/minute
0.53
0.07
0.07
0.00
0.40
1.07
Prediction
(n)
(person/hour)
32
4
4
0
24
64
Density
(15 mnt)
8
1
1
0
6
16
Proportion/hour
(fr % )
4.49
0.56
0.56
0.00
3.37
8.99
170
measured in 15 mnt
Intensity of Walking
(person/minute)
Intensity of Walking (a)
(person/hour)
density(15 mnt)
10.80
648
162
SA-5
Activity
Mean Duration
(minute/person)
Sitting
Standing
Reading
Eating/drinking
Chatting/talking
Total
7.06
0.00
14.20
5.50
5.28
32.04
Density
Person/minute
0.33
0.00
0.07
0.07
0.73
1.20
Prediction
(n)
(person/hour)
20
0
4
4
44
72
Density
(15 mnt)
5
0
1
1
11
18
Proportion/hour
(fr % )
2.54
0.00
0.51
0.51
5.58
9.14
measured in 15 mnt
Intensity of Walking
(person/minute)
Intensity of Walking (a)
(person/hour)
density(15 mnt)
11.93
716
179
Note: Proportion/hour (fr) obtained from n (prediction one of activity) divided to
total n plus a (intensity of people walking) times 100%.
171
Period II, 2pm-3pm
SA-1
Mean Duration
(minute/person)
Activity
Sitting
Standing
Reading
Eating/drinking
Chatting/talking
Total
3.30
0.86
7.03
0.00
1.10
12.29
Density
Person/min
ute
0.20
0.60
0.20
0.00
0.30
1.30
Prediction
(n)
(person/hour
)
12
36
12
0
18
78
Density
(10 mnt)
2
6
2
0
3
13
Proportion/ho
ur
(fr % )
0.57
1.72
0.57
0.00
0.86
3.72
measured in 10 mnt
Intensity of Walking
Intensity of Walking (a)
(person/minute)
(person/hour)
33.60
2016
density(10 mnt)
336
SA-2
Activity
Mean Duration
(minute/person)
Sitting
Standing
Reading
Eating/drinking
Chatting/talking
Total
0.25
0.00
0.00
0.00
1.75
2.00
Density
Person/minute
0.10
0.00
0.00
0.00
1.00
1.10
Prediction
(n)
(person/hour)
6
0
0
0
60
66
measured in 10 mnt
Intensity of Walking
Intensity of Walking (a)
(person/minute)
(person/hour)
31.10
1866
density(10 mnt)
311
Density
(10 mnt)
1
0
0
0
10
11
Proportion/hour
(fr % )
0.31
0.00
0.00
0.00
3.11
3.42
172
SA-3
Activity
Mean Duration
(minute/person)
Sitting
Standing
Reading
Eating/drinking
Chatting/talking
Total
7.26
0.99
8.40
0.00
4.18
20.83
Density
Person/minute
1.30
1.30
0.20
0.00
1.50
4.30
Prediction
(n)
(person/hour)
78
78
12
0
90
258
Density
(10 mnt)
13
13
2
0
15
43
Proportion/hour
(fr % )
4.04
4.04
0.62
0.00
4.66
13.35
measured in 10 mnt
Intensity of Walking
Intensity of Walking (a)
(person/minute)
(person/hour)
27.90
1674
density(10 mnt)
279
SA-4
Activity
Mean Duration
(minute/person)
Sitting
Standing
Reading
Eating/drinking
Chatting/talking
Total
3.03
2.11
9.31
0.00
6.55
21.00
Density
Person/minute
0.20
0.20
0.13
0.00
0.40
0.93
Prediction
(n)
(person/hour)
12
12
8
0
24
56
Density
(15 mnt)
measured in 10 mnt
Intensity of Walking
Intensity of Walking (a)
(person/minute)
(person/hour)
31.00
1860
density(10 mnt)
310
3
3
2
0
6
14
Proportion/hour
(fr % )
0.63
0.63
0.42
0.00
1.25
2.92
173
SA-5
Activity
Mean Duration
(minute/person)
Sitting
Standing
Reading
Eating/drinking
Chatting/talking
Total
5.67
0.54
0.00
2.51
5.71
14.43
Density
Person/minute
0.67
0.27
0.00
0.07
0.80
1.80
Prediction
(n)
(person/hour)
40
16
0
4
48
108
Density
(15 mnt)
10
4
0
1
12
27
measured in 15 mnt
Intensity of Walking
Intensity of Walking (a)
(person/minute)
(person/hour)
37.50
2250
density(15 mnt)
375
Results Summary of the proportion (fr) in period I and period II
SA-1
Mean (10am-11am)
Mean (2pm-3pm)
Proportion (fr)
Proportion (fr)
Sitting
Standing
1.89
0.57
1.89
1.72
Reading
0.00
0.57
Eating
0.00
0.00
Chatting/talking
1.26
0.86
Total
5.03
3.72
Activity
Proportion/hour
(fr % )
1.70
0.68
0.00
0.17
2.04
4.58
174
SA-2
Activity
Mean (9am-12pm)
Mean (2pm-4pm)
Proportion (fr)
Proportion (fr)
Sitting
Standing
2.46
0.31
2.96
0.00
Reading
0.49
0.00
Eating
0.00
0.00
Chatting/talking
3.45
3.11
Total
9.36
3.42
Mean (9am-12pm)
Proportion (fr)
3.21
5.77
0.00
0.00
5.77
14.74
Mean (2pm-4pm)
Proportion (fr)
4.04
4.04
0.62
0.00
4.66
13.35
Mean (9am-12pm)
Proportion (fr)
4.49
0.56
0.56
0.00
3.37
8.99
Mean (1pm-4pm)
Proportion (fr)
0.63
0.63
0.42
0.00
1.25
2.92
SA-3
Activity
Sitting
Standing
Reading
Eating
Chatting/talking
Total
SA-4
Activity
Sitting
Standing
Reading
Eating
Chatting/talking
Total
SA-5
Activity
Sitting
Standing
Reading
Eating
Chatting/talking
Total
Mean (9am-11pm)
Proportion (fr)
2.54
0.00
0.51
0.51
5.58
9.14
Mean (1pm-3pm)
Proportion (fr)
1.70
0.68
0.00
0.17
2.04
4.58
175
APPENDIX G
The Measurement of Shade Density on
Sample Spaces
Step 2: Counting the density of Shade and established the frequency on entire
samples
Note: The reasons and purposes of mean frequency is to correlate the measurement
time of activities simultaneously and used for as variables of correlation analysis
Period I, 10am-11am
SA-1
Hour
Shadow Cast
(%)
9
10
11
12
100
100
100
100
Total I
Period II, 1-4pm
1
2
3
4
70
40
0
0
Total II
Sum Total I + II
Frequency
(f)
1
1
1
1
4
Mean
Frequency
1
0.7
0.4
0
0
1.10
0.2
5.10
176
SA-2
Period I, 9-12pm
Hour
Shadow Cast (%)
Frequency (f)
9
10
11
12
99
99
80
70
0.99
0.99
0.80
0.70
3.48
40
30
25
10
0.40
0.30
0.25
0.10
Total I
Period I, 1-4pm
1
2
3
4
Total II
Sum Total I + II
Mean
Frequency
0.90
0.28
1.05
4.53
SA-3
Period I, 9-12pm
Duration
(hour)
Hour
Shadow Cast (%)
9
10
11
12
98
60
15
5
0.98
0.60
0.15
0.05
1.78
5
35
60
80
0.05
0.35
0.6
0.8
1.80
Total
Period I, 1-4pm
1
2
3
4
Total
Sum Total I + II
Mean
Frequency
0.38
0.48
3.58
177
SA-4
Period I, 9-12pm
Hour
Shadow Cast (%)
Frequency (f)
9
10
11
12
0
95
100
30
0.00
0.95
1.00
0.30
2.25
20
40
100
100
0.2
0.4
1
1
2.60
Total
Period I, 1-4pm
1
2
3
4
Total
Sum Total I + II
Mean
Frequency
0.98
0.70
4.85
SA-5
Period I, 9-12pm
Hour
Shadow Cast (%)
Frequency (f)
9
100
1.00
10
15
0.15
11
12
50
100
0.50
1.00
2.65
1
20
0.2
2
80
0.8
3
100
1
4
100
1
Total
Period I, 1-4pm
Total
Sum Total I + II
Mean
Frequency
0.33
0.90
3.00
5.65
178
APPENDIX H
Correlation and Regression Analysis between Shades and Activities
Step 3: Processes of Correlation and regression analysis
Codes:
Code
SA-1
SA-2
SA-3
SA-4
SA-5
P1
P2
A1
A2
A3
A4
A5
Definition
Sample Area 1
Sample Area-2
Sample Area-3
Sample Area-4
Sample Area-5
Period 1
Period 2
Sitting
Standing
Reading
Eating/Drinking
Chatting/Talking
1. Summary of shade density and proportion of activity on each sample in period I
Sample
SA-1
SA-2
SA-3
SA-4
SA-5
Mean frequency
of Shade (%)
10-11am
1.00
0.90
0.38
0.98
0.33
Proportion of Activity (fr %)
A1
1.89
2.46
3.21
4.49
2.54
A2
1.89
2.96
5.77
0.56
0.00
A3
0.00
0.49
0.00
0.56
0.51
A4
0.00
0.49
0.00
0.00
0.51
A5
1.26
3.45
5.77
3.37
5.58
2. Summary of shade density and proportion of activity on each sample in period II
179
Mean frequency
of Shade (%)
Sample
2-3pm
SA-1
0.20
SA-2
0.28
SA-3
0.48
SA-4
0.70
SA-5
0.90
Proportion of Activity (fr %)
A1
0.57
0.31
4.04
0.63
1.70
A2
1.72
0.00
4.04
0.63
0.68
A3
0.57
0.00
0.62
0.42
0.00
A4
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.17
A5
0.86
3.11
4.66
1.25
2.04
3. Result of correlation analysis among variables in period I
Shade
Density
1.00
1.89
0.90
0.38
0.98
0.33
2.46
3.21
4.49
2.54
Shade
Density
1.00
0.90
0.38
0.98
0.33
Shade
Density
A1
Shd.
Den
A1
A3
0.00
0.49
0.00
0.56
0.51
Shd.
Den
A3
Shd. Den
A1
1
0.067358
1
Shd.Den
A3
1
0.104294
1
A2
1.00
1.89
Shd.Den
0.90
0.38
0.98
0.33
2.96
5.77
0.56
0.00
A2
Shade
Density
A4
1.00
0.00
Shd.Den
0.90
0.38
0.98
0.33
0.49
0.00
0.00
0.51
A4
Shd.Den
1
0.23985
Shd.den
1
0.29319
A2
1
A4
1
180
Shade
Density
Shd.Den
A5
1.00
0.90
0.38
0.98
0.33
1.26
3.45
5.77
3.37
5.58
Shd.Den
A5
1
-0.9075
A5
1
4. Result of correlation analysis among variables in period II
Shade
Density
0.20
0.28
0.48
0.70
0.90
Shade
Density
0.20
0.28
0.48
0.70
0.90
0.57
0.31
4.04
0.63
1.70
Sha.Den
Sha.
Den
A1
1
0.220899
A1
1
A3
Shd.
Den
0.57
0.00
0.62
0.42
0.00
Shade Density
0.20
0.28
0.48
0.70
0.90
Shade
Density
A1
Shd.
Den
A3
A3
1
-0.3402
1
A2
0.20
0.28
0.48
0.70
0.90
1.72
0.00
4.04
0.63
0.68
Shade
Density
A4
0.20
Shd.
Den
A2
0.00
0.28
0.48
0.70
0.90
Shd.
Den
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.17
A4
A5
0.86
3.11
4.66
1.25
2.04
Shd. Den
Shd. Den
A5
A5
1
-0.06302
1
Sha. Den
A2
1
-0.15373
1
Shd. Den
A4
1
0.746066
1
181
5. Output analysis of Regression model
Regression Statistics
Multiple R
0.907502
R Square
0.82356
Adjusted R
Square
0.764746
Standard Error
0.900677
Observations
5
ANOVA
df
Regression
Residual
Total
1
3
4
SS
11.35944
2.433656
13.79309
MS
11.35944
0.811219
F
14.00293
6. Result of T-Test
Coefficients
Standard
Error
t Stat
Intercept
7.509217
1.048689
7.160573
0.00561
X Variable
1
-5.04629
1.348536
-3.74205
0.033298
7. Regression Model
Y = 7.509217-5.04629 X
A5 = 7.509217-5.04629 Shd.den
P-value
Significance F
0.033298