ANALYSIS OF SLIPS AND FALLS AMONG WORKERS AT WORKPLACE
SHARIFAH AZNEE BT SAID ALI @ SYED ALI
A project report submitted in partial fulfilment of the
requirements for the award of the degree of
Master of Engineering
(Mechanical - Advanced Manufacturing Technology)
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
University Technology Malaysia
APRIL 2010
iii
To my beloved husband, Noor Ariman Bin Koya
and my adorable children Nik Muhammad Syafiq and Nik Nur Batrisyia Balqis.
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to take this opportunity to acknowledge my deepest gratefulness
and appreciation to the most important person for his invaluable advice, suggestions,
comments, and encouragements until my completion of this research. The important
person is my greatest supervisor, Assoc. Prof. Dr. Mat Rebi Bin Abdul Rani. Without
your help, it is hard for me to successfully complete this research. Thank you for all
your help.
Secondly, I would like to thank
En. Mohammad Kassim (Occupational
Safety & Health Officer) and En. Mohammad Shukri (Occupational Safety & Health
Manager) from SCA Hygiene Company and En. Sadiyuk Rigit (Research
Department) from Department of Occupational Safety and Health Ministry of
Human Resources Malaysia. Through their advice, many problems related to the
project can be solved much easier, also it acts as guidance for the completion of my
Master’s degree project.
Thirdly, I would like to thank FKM staff that include Cik Halimah as
technician in the Computer Laboratory, En. Khalid in Metrologi Laboratory and
technician in Fluid Mechanic Laboratory and En. Fitry from Department of
Mechanical Engineering, Polytechnic of Port Dickson for their full co-operation and
support during the execution of this project, therefore I manage to get facilities in
completing my research.
Last but not least, I would like to express my indebtedness to my loving
family and to everyone who has supported me in one way or another, your
continuous support, cooperation, patience and guidance has brought me this far. I
am so grateful to have all of you in my life.
Thank you.
v
ABSTRACT
Slips and falls are frequent incidents that occur everywhere either in an
office, a school, a factory, a public building or a warehouse, inside and outside. This
research focuses on slips and falls incident at workplace only because, workplace is
an area that employees are not protected from such hazards. There are several factors
that induce slips and fall incidents especially among workers. Although this incident
seldom occur but the effect of this accident surely cause various kind problem either
to victim or employer. The effects of slips and falls not only cause a small or simple
injury, instead it might result in serious injuries such as permanent injury and also
result in fatalities. Besides the injuries, the victim also have to support the medical
cost and at the same time the victim will loose of their jobs or salary result of the
slips and falls incident. Although victim may get their compensation claims from that
accident, it would commensurate for victim or victim’s family. Because of such
reason, this project will identify the main cause of slips and falls incident among
workers at workplace. This project will produce some of suggestion or guidelines
that have been identified to overcome the causes of slips and falls.
vi
ABSTRAK
Tergelincir dan terjatuh adalah merupakan satu kejadian yang kerap berlaku
di mana- mana sahaja sama ada di pejabat, sekolah di dalam ataupun di luar
bangunan. Namun, bagi tujuan kajian ini difokuskan kejadian tergelincir dan terjatuh
di kawasan tempat kerja kerana ia adalah satu tempat yang boleh menyebabkan para
pekerjanya terdedah kepada pelbagai jenis bahaya. Terdapat pelbagai faktor yang
menjadi punca utama berlakunya kejadian tergelincir dan terjatuh dikalangan para
pekerja. Walaupun masalah ini jarang-jarang berlaku namun kesan daripada
kemalangan ini pasti menyebabkan pelbagai masalah kepada mangsa mahupun pihak
majikan. Kejadian tergelincir dan jatuh ini bukan sahaja menyebabkan kecederaan
ringan namun boleh mengakibatkan kecederaan kekal malahan sehingga membawa
kepada kematian. Selain daripada kecederaan yang terpaksa ditanggung oleh mangsa,
kos perubatan atau kos rawatan juga menyebabkan masalah ini menjadi serius dan
mangsa juga akan kehilangan mata pencarian akibat daripada masalah tergelincir dan
terjatuh ini. Walaupun mangsa mendapat pampasan ataupun bayaran ganti rugi di
atas kemalangan yang menimpanya, namun adakah ia berbaloi untuk mangsa
mahupun keluarga mangsa. Oleh sebab itulah, projek ini diilhamkan untuk mengenal
pasti punca-punca utama berlakunya masalah tergelincir dan terjatuh dikalangan para
pekerja khasnya di tempat kerja. Seterusnya cuba mengatasi semua punca-punca
tersebut
seminima
mungkin
dan
memberikan
beberapa
penambahbaikan kepada garis panduan yang telah sedia ada.
cadangan
untuk
vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER
1
TOPIC
PAGE
DECLARATION
ii
DEDICATION
iii
ACKNOWLEGEDMENT
iv
ABSTRACT
v
ABSTRAK
vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
vii
LIST OF TABLES
xi
LIST OF FIGURES
xiii
LIST OF APPENDICES
xvi
INTRODUCTION
1.1
Introduction
1
1.2
Problem Statement
3
1.3
Background to the problems
5
1.4
Terminologies of slips and falls
8
1.4.1 Slip
8
1.4.2 Fall
8
1.4.3 Trip
8
1.5
Objective of study
9
1.6
Scope of study
10
1.7
Organization of thesis
10
1.8
Conclusion
10
viii
2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1
Introduction
11
2.2
Slips and Falls Theories
12
2.2.1 Slip and Fall Theory –
Extreme Order Statistics
12
2.2.2 Floor Reliability With Respect
To “Slip and Fall”
12
2.2.3 Stochastic Theory of Human Slipping
13
2.2.4 Slip and Fall Characterization of Floors
13
2.2.5 Extreme Value Formulation of Human Slip:
A Summary
2.3
Types of falls
15
2.3.1 Same level falls
16
2.3.2 Falls from heights
17
2.4
Slip and Fall Statistics
18
2.5
Workplace injuries
20
2.6
Slips and falls case study
26
2.6.1 Environmental issues
26
2.6.2 Housekeeping issues
27
2.6.3 Incident report Injury
29
Research from HSE/HSL
32
2.7.1 Pendulum
33
2.7.2 Surface micro roughness
34
2.8
Research for walkway surface
35
2.9
Conclusion
37
2.7
3
14
METHODOLOGY
3.1
Introduction
38
3.2
Strategy of Experiment
39
3.3
“Best-guess” experiments
39
3.3.1 Questionnaire Development
40
3.3.2 Data Collection
42
ix
3.4
4
3.3.3 Surface roughness value
44
One-factor-at-a-time (OFAT) experiments
45
3.4.1 Experiments
46
3.4.2 Experimental set up
48
3.4.3 Experimental layout
48
3.4.4 Experimental apparatus and liquid
50
3.4.4.1 Tape measurement
50
3.4.4.2 Digital Camera
51
3.4.4.3 Footwear
51
3.4.4.4 Weight measurement
53
3.4.4.5 Viscosity apparatus
54
3.4.4.6 Liquid
56
3.4.5 The experimental procedure
57
3.5
Data Analysis
58
3.6
Conclusion
59
RESULTS AND ANALYSIS
4.1
Introduction
60
4.2
Questionnaire result
60
4.3
Experiments result
64
4.3.1 Water as liquid
65
4.3.2 Combination of Water and Detergent
as liquid
5
67
4.3.3 Sharlu oil as liquid
69
4.3.4 Castrol oil as liquid
73
4.4
Result of loses (A case study)
78
4.5
Result of guidelines
79
4.6
Conclusion
80
DISCUSSION
5.1
Introduction
81
5.2
Review on Survey
81
x
6
5.3
Review on Experiment
83
5.4
Review on losses
85
5.5
Review on guideline
88
5.6
Conclusion
90
FUTURE WORK AND CONCLUSION
6.1
Introduction
91
6.2
Future Work
91
6.3
Conclusion
92
REFERENCES
94
APPENDIX
97
xi
LIST OF TABLES
TABLES NO.
TITLE
PAGE
1.1
Types of Accident from Year 2006 until June 2009
4
1.2
Types of body Injuries from Year 2006 until June 2009
6
1.3
Number of Permanent Disablements by Body Part Injured,
Year 2006 and 2007
2.1
Workplace Injuries by type of accident and degree of
disablement on Year 2007
2.2
7
21
Industrial Accident Reported to the Labour Department
and SOCSO by Industry1, 2004 – 2008
23
2.3
Number of Accidents by cause of accident – 2006
24
2.4
Slip potential classification, based on
Pendulum Test Value (PTV)
2.5
Slip potential classification, based on Ra micro
roughness values
2.6
34
Typical Ra surface micro roughness levels for a
low slip potential, as function of contaminant type
2.7
33
35
Example of Typical Roughness characteristics for Some
Common Floor surfaces
36
3.1
Point Likert Scale Indicator
42
3.2
Surface roughness for floor and footwear
45
3.3
Value of liquid
57
4.1
Water testing result
65
4.2
Water and detergent testing result
67
xii
4.3
Sharlu oil testing result
69
4.4
Castrol oil testing result
74
4.5
Guidelines from selected organizations
79
5.1
Recommended Guidelines
88
5.2
Typical Roughness characteristics of Floor surfaces
90
xiii
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURES NO.
TITLE
2.1
Primary fall, faller and prevention categorizations
2.2
Number of major injuries to employees by most kind of
accident 1996/97 to 2007/08
2.3
15
20
Total of industrial Accidents and Fatal Accident
(2004-2008)
2.4
PAGE
22
The unsuitable and suitable environment to avoid
Slips and Falls
27
2.5
Provide a clear workplace and systematic storage area
28
2.6
Poor housekeeping can easily cause a slip,
trip or fall hazard
28
2.7
Incident Report Injury (1-3)
29
2.8
Slip potential model
32
2.9
The pendulum CoF test
32
2.10
Surface micro roughness meters
33
3.1
Surtronic 3+
43
3.2
Flooring Surface
46
3.3
Footwear Surface
47
3.4
Water
47
3.5
Oil
47
3.6
Floor surface at Fitting laboratory
48
3.7
Plan layout of experimental set up
49
3.8
Location and position of experiment
49
xiv
3.9
Scale to measure slip distance
50
3.10
Tape measurement
50
3.11
Digital Camera
51
3.12
Type Shoe 1
52
3.13
Type Shoe 2
52
3.14
Weight measurement
53
3.15
Weight of three different person
54
3.16
Digital Viscometer model DV-II
55
3.17
Liquid to test in slip and fall experiment
56
4.1
Gender Respondent
61
4.2
Age Group Respondent
61
4.3
Respondent who have seen and know the Slip and Fall signs
62
4.4
Respondent have experience on slips and falls
63
4.5
Cause of Slip and Fall
64
4.6
Graph Water testing for subject no. 3 without footwear
66
4.7
Graph Water testing for subject no. 3 with old footwear
66
4.8
Graph Water + detergent testing for subject no. 3
without footwear
4.9
68
Graph Water + detergent testing for subject no. 3
with old footwear
68
4.10
Graph Sharlu oil testing for subject no. 1 without footwear
70
4.11
Graph Sharlu oil testing for subject no. 2 without footwear
70
4.12
Graph Sharlu oil testing for subject no. 3 without footwear
71
4.13
Graph Sharlu oil testing for subject no. 2 with old footwear
71
4.14
Graph Sharlu oil testing for subject no. 3 with old footwear
72
4.15
Graph Sharlu oil testing for subject no. 2 with new footwear
72
4.16
Graph Sharlu oil testing for subject no. 3 with new footwear
73
4.17
Graph Castrol oil testing for subject no. 1 without footwear
74
4.18
Graph Castrol oil testing for subject no. 2 without footwear
75
4.19
Graph Castrol oil testing for subject no. 3 without footwear
75
4.20
Graph Castrol oil testing for subject no. 2 with old footwear
76
4.21
Graph Castrol oil testing for subject no. 3 with old footwear
76
xv
4.22
Graph Castrol oil testing for subject no. 2 with new footwear
77
4.23
Graph Castrol oil testing for subject no. 3 with new footwear
77
xvi
LIST OF APPENDICES
APPENDIX
TITLE
A
The Company profile
B
The three source that have potential to cause slips
and falls at SCA Hygiene company
C
PAGE
97
100
The place of incident related to slip and fall at
SCA Hygiene company
102
D
The Questionnaire survey
103
E
The Surface roughness at SCA Hygiene Company
107
F
The Surface roughness for glasses
108
G
The Surface roughness at Fitting Laboratory
109
H
The Surface roughness for footwear
110
I
The Quantity of liquid
111
J
The graph distance of slip during experiment
115
K
Guidelines on Occupational Safety and
Health in the office
124
L
Guidelines for Protecting The Safety and Health
127
M
Occupational Health, Safety and
Welfare Regulation, 1995
131
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1
Introduction
Study about slips and falls are very interesting. The reason because slips and
falls are an intriguing problem. These are common incidents and can cause
everywhere either in an office setting, a school, a factory, a public building or a
warehouse, inside and outside. Slips usually occur as a result of too little friction or
traction between footwear and the walking surface, or tires and the road in the case
of sliding accidents and the most important is afflicting to human life from childhood
until old age. Slips and falls whether on or off the job are expensive, disruptive,
painful, and may be tragic. Although, the number of cases in Malaysia is less but the
impact will create lots of losses and become serious in the long term.
Slips and falls are among the most frequent types of accidents
in the
workplace. Slips and falls can result in serious injuries including fractures, sprained
joints, back injuries, contusions and lacerations. These injuries cause a lot of pain
and suffering and sometimes result in death. Employees working daily almost 8
hours and above. During this period, they uncovered from any hazard and accident
can occur because at workplace there are employees, machine, equipment and so on.
2
In this case, the workplace have high potential and risk to attend the hazard and
cause the injuries to the employees. If the employees are not sensitive or avoid the
safety rules or wear proper safety apparatus, they might be the victims of slips and
fall accident.
Besides injuries, employer may face the loss of manpower. Their employees
might not fit well to their jobs and get the medical certificate or leave the jobs. So by
that time factory will face the less manpower especially if it involve skill workers.
So these problems will affect the production department. On the other hand, if there
are a lots of slips and falls problems, the company also could spent plenty of money
for compensation claim from employees.
So, this study is carried out to identify the factors why slips and falls occur at
work place. What are the main causes of slips and falls? Why these accident happen
and how to reduce the number of cases? From the result of study, some rules can be
produced useful to industries hence reduce their loss of human power at their work
place or other work that can reduce their loss of employees.
This study is important because slips and falls not only happen among
employees but it might happen to employers because those who work at the
workplace could have potential to involve in such accident. As human, accident
cannot be avoided but human can reduce it or take a first step to prevent it from
occurring especially at workplace because workplace is an area that most people
would spend their day time there.
The outcome of the study, some guidelines or rules can be identified to
reduce these accidents or establish the preventive measures of slips and falls at the
workplace.
3
1.2
Problems statement
Slip and fall are one of the frequent types of accident at workplace. Although
such accident is not a major accident but slip and fall can contribute to serious impact
when it occurs especially to people or employees.
Normally employees are trained when they enter a workplace. Employer will
give them training about safety and supply them with proper clothes or safety clothes
suitable to their tasks. Even though they are trained and wear proper clothes,
accidents still occur at workplaces especially in manufacturing industries. Why do
this accident still exist? Sometimes the number of such accident increase every year
and it become more serious when there are fatalities.
Table 1.1 shows in 2006 there are 786 cases of falls, which is 18% of the
total. However in 2007 it reduced to 659 falling cases but its percentage increased
to 20%. In 2008 the percentage was reduced to 458 cases which was 18.1% and in
2009 the cases recorded until June shows 172 cases on 14.4%. From the data, falls is
one of critical types of accident that give high number of cases compare to other
types of accident. The record shows that falling problems is a serious occurrence in
manufacturing industry and will effect employees at their workplace.
4
Table 1.1 : Types of Accident from Year 2006 until June 2009
(Source: Department of Occupational Safety and Health - DOSH)
Year 2006
Types of Accident
Unclassified due to lack of data
Fall of person
struck by falling object
Stepping on, striking against or struck by
object
Caught in or between object
Overexertion or strenuous movement
Contact or exposure to extreme
temperature
Contact or exposure to electrical current
Contact or exposure to dangerous
substances
Other type of accident n.e.c.
Total
Year 2007
No. of
Case
40
786
394
No data
Fall
Struck by falling object
Stepping on, striking against or struck by
objects
Caught in or between objects
No. of
Case
32
659
413
1133
83
Unspecified due to lack of data
Fall of person
Struck by falling object
Stepping on, striking against or struck by
object
Caught in or between objects
Strenous movement
156
Contact or exposure to extreme temperature
118
23
Contact or exposure to electrical current
Contact or exposure to dangerous
substances
Other types of accident, n.e.c
Total
32
1012
55
681
4363
Year 2008
Types of Accident
Types of Accident
636
989
86
58
236
3259
Year 2009 until June
No. of
Case
4
458
290
Types of Accident
Fall
Struck by falling object
Stepping on, striking against or struck by
objects
No. of
Case
172
161
244
497
Caught in or between objects
295
710
Overexertion or strenuous movements
Exposure to or contact with extreme
temperatures
101
Overexertion or strenuous movements
166
Exposure to or contact with extreme
temperatures
120
Exposure to or contact with electric current
21
Exposure to or contact with electric current
25
Exposure to or contact with harmful
substances
32
54
Other types of accident, n.e.c
92
Exposure to or contact with harmful
substances
Other types of accident, n.e.c
Total
208
2532
Total
Are the increasing injuries shows that employers are not serious in safety and
health for their employees or employees ignore safety rules? These two factors are
difficult to establish. Sometimes action taken by employer is very good and
employee also done their task very well. But accident still exist. Who want to take a
responsibility to this problem either the employers or the employees.
Thus, slips and falls should be reduced because they are not good for human
health and safety. So, this study want to identify what are the factors or causes of
72
1190
5
slips and falls especially at workplace, how to reduce or prevent it from occurring,
and at the end some rules can be listed for use as guidelines in industries to help them
control and reduce the slips and falls accident at their workplace.
1.3
Background to the problems
From the problems statement mentioned in Section 1.2, there are a lots of
accident occur in manufacturing field or more specific in factories. All these accident
definitely cause the workplace injuries to employees.
Table 1.2a to Table 1.2d shows the types of body injuries from 2006 until
June 2009. These data from Department of Occupational Safety and Health (DOSH),
Malaysia are for those accidents that occur in manufacturing industry. Although the
total number of the cases are reduced every year, but injuries are accounted for.
These body injuries data are referred to slips and falls problems.
Table 1.2, nobody can say that he or she will escape from slips and falls
incident. Slips and falls problems are common incident and can cause anywhere and
anytime. This problem can also occur to anybody without exception.
6
Table 1.2 : Types of body Injuries from Year 2006 until June 2009
(Source: Department of Occupational Safety and Health - DOSH)
Table 1.2 (a) : Year 2006
Types of body Injuries
Table 1.2 (b) : Year 2007
No. of
Case
6
No. of Case
Types of body Injuries
Head
10
Unspecified due to lack of data
Face
10
Head
15
Neck
1
Neck
1
Trunk
3
Trunk
15
Back
16
Upper Limb (except fingers)
49
Chest
3
Fingers
9
abdomen
1
Lower limb
61
Upper limb
3
Multiple location
16
Shoulder
10
General injuries
7
Upper arm
3
Unspecified due to lack of data
1
Elbow
4
Total
180
Forearm
3
Wrist
5
Table 1.2 (c) : Year 2008
Hand
35
Types of body Injuries
Finger
21
Head
No. of
Case
9
Lower limb
12
Neck
2
Knee
23
Trunk
4
Leg
41
Upper limb
32
Foot, ankle or toe
48
Fingers
8
Multiple location
27
Lower limb
39
General injuries
1
Multiple locations
10
Other locations n.e.c.
2
Other injuries, n.e.c
1
Total
282
Total
105
Table 1.2 (d) : Year 2009(up to
31st June)
Head
No. of
Case
2
Neck
1
Trunk
4
Upper limb
13
Fingers
2
Lower limb
21
Multiple locations
4
Other injuries, n.e.c
1
Types of body Injuries
Total
48
7
Table 1.3 shows that “Accident The Body Part Injured” for more than 9 in 10
permanent disablements (94%) reported in 2007 and this involved the upper limb,
predominantly hands (including fingers). Around 5.5% of the victims sustained
permanent injuries localized to the lower limb, down from 7.7% as compared to the
previous year.
Table 1.3 : Number of Permanent Disablements by Body Part Injured,
Year 2006 and 2007
(Source: Occupational Safety and Health Division, Singapore Ministry of
Manpower- MOM)
Table 1.2 and Table 1.3 clearly defined that slips and falls problems are not
suitable for occupational safety and health. The causes slips and falls to be known as
risk factors. The greater the number of risk factors to which an individual is exposed,
the greater the probability of a fall, and the more likely the results of the fall that will
threaten the person's health and independence.
Illnesses and physical conditions, whether related to aging or not, can affect
our strength and balance and contribute to a fall. Failure to exercise regularly can be
a factor too, because it results in poor muscle tone, decreased strength, and loss of
bone mass and flexibility. These could affect our physical and mental condition.
8
For example, when somebody slip and fall, the person will experience pain
on particular parts of the body. This injury might not be on the outer portion of the
body but may cause in deep or inside of the body such as problem in blood vessels.
This illness has to be treated immediately and it may affect the brain if the blood
vessels do not deliver adequate blood to the brain.
1.4
Terminologies of slips and falls
1.4.1 Slip
A sliding motion where the foot (shoe) losses traction with the floor surface
resulting in a loss of balance.
1.4.2 Fall
A drop in height of the human body.
1.4.3 Trip
Involves a loss of balance when the natural movement of the foot is interfered
with momentarily.
9
1.5
Objective of study
The main objectives of this project are:
a)
To identify and determine the main causes of slips.
b)
To analyze the relationship between the selected sources of slips.
c)
To compute the monetary losses by employees due to slips and falls
incidents (A case study).
d)
To establish the guidelines for factories to reduce the slips and falls
accident from occurring.
The main objective of this study is to identify and determine the main causes
of slips. Through this objective, a survey will be done to identify and determine what
is the main cause of slips to human when walk on that floor surface at the selected
company.
The second objective is to analyze the relationship between the selected
sources of slips. This objective will use the floor surface as a basic factor but will be
added with other factor for example wet floor. What causes wet floor, with either
water or oil. So through these added factors combined with floor factor will initiate
experiments to study their relationship between those factors.
The third objective is to compute the losses of employees. This objective
want to study about the effect and impact to the employees when slips and falls
occur. If this problem occur, some losses will be faced. Employees should take a
medical leave, the factory will loose their employees, and they have to pay a claim
and insurance that will cover injuries. So this objective would highlight the causes
after the slips and falls problem occur.
The fourth objective is to establish the guidelines for factory to reduce the
slips and falls accident from occurring. After all the three objective will achieve,
some rules or guidelines will be held to help the factories to overcome slips and falls
problems.
10
1.6
Scope of study
This project cover:
1.7
a)
Slips and falls incidents occur on the same level only.
b)
Concentrate on adult male working population.
c)
The study involve manufacturing industry (A case study).
Organization of Thesis
Chapter 1, explained the introduction and background of the slips and falls
incidents especially at work place. Chapter 2, the literature review will discuss on
slips and falls some information on its theories, types of fall and some case studies
related to slips and falls. Chapter 3 consists of methodology about how to apply and
carries out the analysis. This chapter provides the development of questionnaire to
obtain results. Chapter 4 provides the results of experiment and analysis that have
been used. Chapter 5 included discussion. Chapter 6 is about project conclusion
recommendations for future work.
1.8
Conclusion
This chapter provides an introduction on slips and falls. The main purpose of
doing this based on the problem statement have been stated clearly. Next chapter will
discuss the literature review of this study.
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1
Introduction
Slips and falls are accidents that can occur for a number of reasons. People
cannot stop the hazard but can reduce or eliminate the causes that contribute to
incident. By identifying the root problems in the slips and falls, such accidents could
be reduced.
This literature review, focus on the theories involves in slips and falls, the
types of falls. Some statistic related to slip and fall and an example of case study.
12
2.2
Slips and falls theories
2.2.1 Slip and Fall Theory - Extreme Order Statistics
Ralph L. Barnett (2002) highlighted the classical "slip and fall" analysis was
reformulated in this paper to account for the stochastic nature of friction. As it turned
out, the new theory, arising from this analysis, was a precise statement of the
distribution function for the smallest value among n independent observations. This
made it possible to invoke an important result from the asymptotic theory of extreme
order statistics that reduced the theory to a simple and elegant relationship among the
probability of slipping, the critical friction criterion, the distance traveled by the
walker, and the average, spread and asymmetry of the distribution of friction
coefficients. The new theory reveals that short walks lead to fewer falls; low friction
floors are sometimes better than high friction ones.
2.2.2 Floor Reliability With Respect to "Slip and Fall"
Barnett and Poczynok (2000) said for a given community of walkers and a
specific type of ambulation, force-plate studies have established the required level of
horizontal resistance for stable locomotion. This stochastic floor loading is resisted
by friction forces which must be great enough to prevent slipping. A statistical
characterization of frictional resistance has recently been developed using extreme
value statistics. Reliability theory provides a method for combining the floor loading
and friction resistance which, for the first time, enables one to determine in a rational
manner the probability of slipping. This study presented a formula describing the
"slip and fall" reliability of a floor or footwear couple.
13
2.2.3 Stochastic Theory of Human Slipping
Barnett et al (2003) claims that the conventional approach to human slipping
is essentially deterministic; it states that no slipping will occur when the average
friction coefficient is greater than some critical friction criterion. Under this
condition, pedestrians will not slip when they encounter the average friction
coefficient. On the other hand, to successfully negotiate a walk of n-steps they must
not slip when they encounter the smallest of the n friction coefficients. Consequently,
a new slip theory has been formulated as a problem in extreme value statistics. An
elegant relationship is obtained among the probability of slipping, the critical friction
criterion, the number of steps taken by the walker, and the central measure, scatter,
and asymmetry of the distribution of friction coefficients. The new theory reveals the
structure of human slipping in a startling way that introduces completely new
concepts: the go or no go nature of classical slip predictions is replaced by a
probability of slipping; low friction floor/footwear couples may lead to fewer slips
than high friction ones; slipping can occur in any case where conventional theory
predicts "no slip"; and the number of slips depends on the distance traveled by a
pedestrian. This study developed the idea that the slipperiness of a real floor must be
evaluated for a duty-cycle. Duty-cycles can be represented as frequency histograms
when a floor is homogeneous and isotropic.
2.2.4 Slip and Fall Characterization of Floors
Barnett and Poczynok (2004) conclude that during ambulation, every step
would cause feet to impose tangential loading at each contact with the floor. If the
frictional resistance at the contact point is less than the associated tangential loading,
slipping occurs and sometimes falling. There are five disciplines, some recently
developed, that enable one to develop the general theory for predicting the number of
walkers who will slip within a given time period on a statistically homogeneous and
isotropic floor. These include force-plate studies, floor duty cycles, tribometry,
14
extreme value theory of slipperiness, and floor reliability theory. When used with
some additional bookkeeping notions, the general theory will be extended to real
floors traversed by walkers with multiple ambulation styles and wearing a variety of
footwear.
2.2.5 Extreme Value Formulation of Human Slip: A Summary
Barnett and Glowiak (2005) pointed that conventional "slip and fall" theory
establishes a go-no-go criterion that indicates whether or not a given floor has
satisfactory slip resistance. Specifically, the theory states that no slip, and hence no
fall, will occur whenever the average coefficient of friction between a floor and some
"worst case standard footwear material," e.g. leather, is greater than a threshold
coefficient of friction. This threshold friction is not selected by some rational
protocol; it is often established by legislative fiat or consensus. Using extreme value
statistics, this paper reformulates classical "slip theory" to explicitly account for the
stochastic nature of friction coefficients. By abandoning the traditional deterministic
approach to slip in favor of a statistical formulation, fully integrated protocols are
able to be developed which predict the number of pedestrians who will slip or,
alternatively, who will violate a threshold slip criterion. A new theory emerges that
embraces everything from a simple floor with a single walker to very complicated
real floors traversed by a throng of pedestrians with multiple ambulation styles and
wearing a variety of footwear. It must be emphasized that the new slip protocol
merely provides a mathematical framework that enables walkway professionals to
make quantitative estimates of slip propensity. Like conventional theory, it also
suffers from the "garbage in-garbage out" syndrome. Accurate tribometers, for
example, are still required for precise predictions. On the other hand, the concept of
threshold criterion and worst case footwear surrogates are replaced by force-plate
data obtained by gait laboratories using various communities of walkers. Reliability
determination for real floors requires the introduction of floor duty cycles.
15
2.3
Types of falls
Lehtola et al (1990) highlighted that basically falls consist of two types which
are falls from heights and same level falls. Even though same level falls are most
frequent compare to falls from heights are more severe. Through same level fall it
has a high frequency but low severity, however fall from height has a lower
frequency but with high severity. Same-level falls are generally slips or trips in
which the individual is injured when he hits a walking or working surface, or strikes
some other object during the fall. Over 60 percent of elevated falls are of less than 10
feet.
Figure 2.1 show the customary to differentiate between falls on the level, falls
on steps and stairs and falls from height including ladders, raised walking areas,
windows and balconies.
Figure 2.1 : Primary fall, faller and prevention categorisations
16
2.3.1 Same level falls
i.
Slip and fall
Slips normally caused by a slippery surface and compounded by wearing the
wrong footwear. There are two types of slips occur. The first of these is when the
forward foot contacts the walking surface at an angle near the rear edge of the heel.
Through this type of slip the front foot slips forward and the person falls backward.
The second type of fall is when the rear foot slips backward. The force to move
forward is on the sole of the rear foot. As the rear heal is lifted and the force moves
forward to the front of the sole, the foot slips back and the person falls.
ii.
Trip and fall
Trips occur when foot strikes an object and is suddenly stopped. Lose our
balance and fall. As little as a 3/8 inch obstruction in a walkway can cause a person
to "stub" his toe resulting in a trip and fall. The same thing can happen going up a
flight of stairs. Uneven stair heights can cause trip and fall.
iii.
Step and fall
Step occurs when the front foot lands on a surface lower than expected. A
good example is unexpectedly stepping off a curb in the dark. By this type of fall,
we will normally fall forward. A second type of step and fall occurs when either the
inside or outside of the foot lands on an object higher than the other side as you step
forward or down. The ankle turns, and tend to fall forward and sideways.
17
2.3.2 Falls from heights
Generally, falls from heights are less frequent, but more severe than falls to
the same level. Falls from ladders are the most common falls from heights. However,
there are significant numbers of falls from vehicles, equipment and other structures.
i.
Falls from ladders
Ladders come in many lengths, are made of several types of materials, and
are rated according to how much weight they can hold. For example, ladders can be
two feet high (step-stools) or 40 feet or longer (extension-type ladders). Ladders can
be made of wood, metal or fiberglass. They can be rated light, medium, heavy, or
extra-heavy duty. The type of ladder you select will depend on how you will be using
that ladder.
ii.
Falls from vehicles and equipment
Death or serious injury is a frequent result of extra riders falling from
tractors, equipment or the bed of a truck. Unless the operation requires riders, such as
on certain planting and harvesting equipment where seats or protected work areas are
provided, extra riders should never be permitted. Riding on tractor fenders, drawbars on equipment, or the bed of a truck is an invitation for a disaster. The safe way
is "NO RIDERS".
Far too many injuries occur in the simple process of getting in and out of
trucks, on or off tractors, machinery, wagons, trailers or truck beds. When the steps
are metal, there is a low COF which becomes even lower if they are wet, muddy or
oily. Keep the steps clean and dry.
18
iii.
Falls from Loading Docks
Loading docks and ramps are dangerous areas. They are frequently
congested, heavy-traffic areas, and working and walking surfaces are often wet.
Metal dock plates can wear smooth and become very slippery; in particular, the edge
of a dock plate invites trips and falls.
Accidental backward steps can result in a fall from the dock. Portable
railings, which can be easily removed from the edge of the dock, could prevent many
dangerous falls. They are removed when a truck or tractor is at the dock, and
replaced as soon as the truck or trailer leaves.
iv.
Falls on Stairs
Climbing stairs is common so it is easy to forget that they can be hazardous.
Stairwells should be well-lighted, with sturdy handrails installed on both sides. When
using stairwells, remember to keep one hand free so you can use the handrail.
Falls on stairs occur most often when someone is traveling down stairs
without holding onto a handrail. Loss of traction, or friction, causes many stairway
slip and fall accidents and is usually due to water or other liquids on the steps. Other
conditions that may lead to accidents on stairs include running or losing your
balance.
2.4
Slip and Fall Statistics
In some ways, a slip and fall accident does not sound serious and, many
times, we fall down and only come away with a few scrapes, bruises, or scratches.
However, many people are shocked to discover how many people are seriously
19
injured in slip and fall accidents as well as how expensive these injuries can be. Slips
and fall premises liability cases can happen out on the street, at work, in a store, at a
construction site, or even on private property.
Here are some basic slip and fall statistics, taken from the National Safety
Council and the Bureau of Labor Statistics:

Over one million people in the United States experience a significant slip,
trip, or fall each year.

An average of 17,000 Americans die from their slip and fall accidents

Falls account for one quarter of serious injuries in the workplace.

The most frequently injuries incurred from all are back, wrist, elbow,
shoulder, and knee injuries. In general, joint injuries are most common.

A death from an on-the-job slip and fall is estimated to cost an average of
$940,000 - on top of the victim's family's loss and trauma.

Slips and falls are the third largest cause of workplace injuries.

Slips and falls are the single most common reason for visits to the
emergency room.

The average cost of a slip and fall injury is $28,000, including medical
bills, physical therapy, and missed wages.

Slips and falls are the number two cause of accident death and disability,
following behind automobile accidents.

Slips and falls lead to 104 million lost workdays per year in North
America - that's 4,000 lifetimes!

Seventy percent of slips and falls occur on level ground.

Trip and fall injuries cost the US $36 billion each year.
20
2.5
Workplace injuries
Firstly, base on an analysis of Workers’ Compensation in Florida agriculture
that was conducted in 1991, the number of falls was nearly 25% of serious disabling
work injuries: 17% were elevated falls, 8% were same-level falls. The average direct
cost for one disabling injury now costly $28,000. Conservative estimates of indirect
cost are significantly increase to $46,000. In the case of a death on the job, the
average cost has recently estimated at $940,000. Add to these the personel and
family costs and trauma, so it is evident that slips, trips and fall should be avoided.
Secondly, from Figure 2.2, the Health and Safety Executive in UK reported
that their study about RIDDOR (Reporting of Injuries, Diseases and Dangerous
Occurrences Regulations) gave this statistic. This case study shows that the slips,
trips and falls on the same level is the highest amount compare to other injuries from
years 1996/1997 to 2007/2008. The amount of injuries are highest area 8000 to
12000 employees involving in the slips, trips or fall on the same level. From this,
shows that the slip, trips and falls on the same level are not the small injuries and
effects of these injuries also give high risk to partial permanent incapacity, temporary
incapacity, permanent or serious injury but also cause death or fatal.
Figure 2.2 : Number of major injuries to employees by most kind of accident
1996/97 to 2007/08
(Source : RIDDOR (Reporting of Injuries, Diseases and Dangerous Occurrences
Regulations) from Health and Safety Executive)
21
Thirdly, from Table 2.1, shows that more than 10,000 cases workplace
injuries on 2007 which are give effect to fatalities or non fatalities. This source from
Singapore Ministry of Manpower. Step on, strike against or by objects is the high
injuries compare to others type of injuries. However the fall of persons is main type
of accident cause the fatalities. Hence, this table shows fall of person is the high risk
to fatalities and also the highest number of workplace injuries compare to other types
of accident.
Table 2.1 : Workplace Injuries by type of accident and degree of disablement on
Year 2007
(Source: Occupational Safety and Health Division, Singapore Ministry of
Manpower- MOM)
Notes:
1) Figures are based on incident reports made under the Workplace Safety and
Health (Incident Reporting) Regulations.
2) Figures are victim-based.
Finally, statistic from Social Security Ministry of Human Resources,
Malaysia. As shown in Figure 2.3, total number of industrial accident is more than
50,000 cases every year. Although the number is reduce from 2004 until 2007.
However it increase on 2008. Besides that the number of Fatal Accident also shown
22
the increasing amount especially year 2007 to 2008. It’s a drastically increasing
number from 1169 to 1301 number of fatalise.
Figure 2.3 : Total of industrial Accidents and Fatal Accident (2004-2008)
(Source : Social Security Organization SOCSO, Ministry of Human Resources)
Table 2.2, shows the Industrial Accident from 2004 to 2008. This table
actually related to Figure 2.2 whereas Table 2.2 give the detail types of Industries
Accident that give the highest amount to Figure 2.2. Manufacturing is the main type
of industries that give the highest number of accident in Malaysia from 2004 until
2008. Although the number is reducing every year but the amount still reach more
than 15,000 cases for 2008. This means a lot of action should be done to overcome
this problem to reduce it.
23
Table 2.2: Industrial Accident Reported to the Labour Department and
SOCSO by Industry1, 2004 – 2008
24
Table 2.3 shows the number of Accidents by cause of accident for 2006 in
Table 2.3 : Number of Accidents by cause of accident – 2006
(Source : SOCSO)
Malaysia.
Table 2.3 : Number of Accidents by cause of accident – 2006
(Source : SOCSO)
25
26
2.6
Slips and falls case study
There are some case study made by The Retail Industry Reference Group
together with WorkCover New South Wales (NSW).
2.6.1 Environmental issues
i. Climatic impact on the workplace.
It happen when a woman slips over at work. Her names is Jenny
which is working at Cara’s Clothing, women’s fashion retailer housed in a
large retail building on a busy city street. One environmental issues impacting
on the store’s interior is its south-westerly aspect, which cause both
temperature and light levels within the store to rise in the afternoon. As parts
of its design the floor is polished concrete. The front door is kept open during
operating hours (as it is quite old and difficult to push) see Figure 2.4(a) and
Figure 2.4(b).
Because of the lighting has been designed to cope with the bright
afternoon sun, the entrance to the store can often appear to be very poorly lit
when there is reduced morning sun. Jenny, a casual sales assistant, attended
work one morning on a cold, wet day. Just inside the store’s front door she
noticed several small puddles of fluid on the cement flooring.
It was Jenny’s job to reorganize the window display during her shift,
which involved moving several boxes between the back and front of the store.
While moving the box Jenny slipped in the puddle of fluid located near the
front door, causing her to fall and injure her shoulder and back. This injury
resulted in Jenny missing two weeks work on a worker’s compensation claim.
27
(a) The unsuitable environment
(b) The suitable environment
Figure 2.4 : The unsuitable and suitable environment to avoid Slips and Falls
2.6.2 Housekeeping issues
ii. Obstructions to main walkway areas
This case study happen when worker names John trips over boxes
obstructing aisle. John was an 18 years old casual employee working at a
variety store over the Christmas period. While the stored carried a wide range
of stock throughout the year, there was always a marked increase in the
amount of stock delivered for Christmas and with limited space available, it
became common practice among staff to leave empty boxes and packaging
material on the floor in their haste to replenish the shelves, see Figure 2.5(a)
and Figure 2.5(b).
As a result, when moving quickly down an aisle towards the front of
the store to assist a customer, John tripped and fell over some empty boxes.
He injured his left knee and required surgery and ongoing physiotherapy as
he was unable to walk without difficulty for a significant amount of time and
28
was considered unfit for work for several weeks. Prior to the injury, John was
fit and active, played competitive sport, jogged and had a good social life.
John’s ability to continue his sporting and social activities, even on a longterm basis, has been greatly reduced.
(a) Unclear and unsystematic storage
(b) Clear and systematic storage
Figure 2.5 : Provide a clear workplace and systematic storage area
iii. Spills or leaks on a floor surfaces
This case study happened when ongoing problem with leaking
refrigeration unit. A small supermarket had an old, outdated refrigeration unit
that leaked, causing large puddles of fluid to collect on the floor around the
unit. Employees placed “ Slippery when wet” signs around the refrigeration
unit, kept a mop and bucket nearby and had raised the issue as an OHS
concern. Customers had also complained about the issue. The rate of slips
and falls began to increase for both staff and customers as repairs to the unit
were costly and took many weeks. Figure 2.6 shows that there is some
drinking water on the floor that should be avoid slippery wet floor.
Figure 2.6 : Poor housekeeping can easily cause a slip, trip or fall hazard
29
2.6.3 Incident report Injury
This sample of incident report injury from factory visit that have been made
rd
on 3 September 2009 at SCA Hygiene Malaysia Sdn. Bhd. (see Appendix A to C)
at No. 3, Jalan Gicing Hulu 28/33, Hicom Industrial Estate Sektor C, Seksyen 28,
Taman Alam Megah, 40400 Shah Alam Selangor. See Figure 2.7.
Figure 2.7 : Incident Report Injury (1/3)
30
Figure 2.7 : Incident Report Injury (2/3)
31
Figure 2.7 : Incident Report Injury (3/3)
32
2.7
Research from HSE/HSL
Research by the Health and Safety Laboratory (HSL) on behalf of Health and
Safety Executive (HSE) has shown that a combination of factors can contribute to
slip accidents. A slip potential model has been developed, in which the relative
importance of the factors contributing to a slip are assessed and quantified (see
Figure 2.8)
Figure 2.8 : Slip potential model
The methodology is based on two instruments:
i.
a pendulum coefficient of friction (CoF) test (HSE’s preferred method of
slipperiness assessment (Figure 2.9)
Figure 2.9 : The pendulum CoF test
33
ii.
a surface micro roughness meter (Figure 2.10).
Figure 2.10 : Surface micro roughness meters ( left to right : Mitutoyo Surftest
SJ201P, Surtronic Duo, Surtronic 25)
2.7.1 Pendulum
The pendulum CoF test also known as the portable skid resistance tester, the
British pendulum, and the TRRL pendulum (Figure 2.9) is the subject of a British
Standard, BS 7976: Parts 1-3, 2002.
Research has confirmed the pendulum to be a reliable and accurate test,
leading to its adoption as the standard HSE test method for the assessment of floor
slipperiness in dry and contaminated conditions.
Pendulum result should be interpreted using the information reproduced in Table 2.4.
Table 2.4 : Slip potential classification, based on Pendulum Test Value (PTV)
Slip Potential
PTV
High
0 – 24
Moderate
25 – 35
Low
36 +
34
2.7.2 Surface micro roughness
An indicator of slipperiness in water-contaminated conditions may be simply
obtained by measuring the surface roughness of flooring materials. Roughness
measurements may also be used to monitor changes in floor surface characteristic,
such as wear. Research has shown that measurement of the Ra parameter allows
slipperiness to be predicted for a range of common material. Ra is a measure of total
surface roughness, calculated as the mean of several peak-to-valley measurement.
When surface roughness data is used to supplement pendulum test data, the
roughness results should be interpreted using the information reproduced in Table
2.4 (from UKSRG, 2005). Where only roughness data is available.
The figure quoted in Table 2.5 related to floor surface slipperiness in watercontaminated conditions. If there are other contaminated, differing levels of
roughness will be needed to lower slip potential. As a general rule, a higher level of
surface roughness is needed to maintain slip resistance with a more viscous (thicker)
contaminant.
Table 2.5 : Slip potential classification, based on Ra micro roughness values
Ra surface roughness
Slip Potential
Below 10 m
High
10 – 20 m
Moderate
20 + m
Low
The figures in Table 2.6 are typical Ra surface micro roughness levels at
which floors are likely to result in a low slip potential, as a function of contaminant
type and should not be used on their own for specifying floors.
35
Table 2.6 : Typical Ra surface micro roughness levels for a low slip potential, as
function of contaminant type
2.8
Minimum roughness (Ra)
Contaminant
20 m
Clean water, coffee, soft drinks
45 m
Soup solution, milk
60 m
Cooking stock
70 m
Motor oil, olive oil
Above 70 m
Gear oil, margarine
Research for walkway surface
Research findings on the influences of walkway surface roughness on
slipperiness were first reported by Jung and Riediger (1982), Gronqvist et al’ (1988b,
1990), Harris and Shaw (1988) and Wieder (1988). From this research, Jung (1991)
summarized the required minimum values for flooring roughness parameter Ra
(arithmetic average of surface heights), Rz (DIN) and Rm (average of peak to valley
height) in several lubricant condition by transforming the parameter values to Rz
(DIN) values.
The suggested minimum requirements expressed using Rz (DIN) were as
follow : 7.6 – 8.8 m for damp surface, around 34 m for wet surfaces, 31 – 39 m
for surfaces contaminated with concentrated glycerol and 34 – 140 m for oily
surfaces. The example of typical roughness characteristics for some common floor
surfaces are presented in Table 2.7.
36
Table 2.7 : Example of Typical Roughness characteristics for Some
Common Floor surfaces
( Source : Books of Understanding and Preventing Falls)
Surface Roughness Parameter
Floor surface
Stainless steel
(smooth)
Glazed ceramic tile
(smooth)
Semiglazed ceramic
tile (rough)
Unglazed ceramic
tile (semirough)
Vinly tile (smooth)
Antislip vinly with
silicon carbide
particles
Concrete with acrylic
resin coating
Epoxy resin with
quartz particles
(semirough)
Acrylic resin with
quartz particles
(rough)
Abrasive safety floor
tape (rough)
Amplitude
(m)a
Ra
Wavelength
(m)b
q
Slope
(degrees)c
q
Skewnessd
Rsk
0.15
120
0.55
+0.91
0.75
600
0.55
-0.01
17.0
670
12.0
+1.30
2.9
150
9.20
-0.50
1.5
–
–
–
7.5
–
–
–
6.0
–
–
–
5.0
–
–
–
14.0
–
–
–
22.0
–
–
–
– = missing parameter value
a
Larger amplitude indicative of better slip resistance in wet or oily
conditions.
b
Smaller wavelength indicative of better slip resistance in wet or oily
conditions.
c
Larger slope indicative of better slip resistance in wet or oily conditions.
d
Symmetric profiles with equal numbers of peaks and valley have zero
skewness, positive skewness provides larger void volume for better
contaminant displacement, however, negative skewness provides larger
apparent contact area.
37
2.9
Conclusion
The literature review discuss in this chapter especially on Slips and falls
theories, several types of fall, statistics and some case study will guide the selection
of the methodology that will discuss further in Chapter 3.
CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
3.1
Introduction
This chapter will discuss the methodology of the study. This chapter is
important to give a guidelines to obtain information for analyzing and decision
making in order to meet the specified objectives.
Experiments will be carried out to test the output according to the input that
achieve from the literature review. The objectives of doing the experiments are to
determine which variables are most influential on the response(y), to determine
where to set the influential x’s so that y is almost always near the desired nominal
value, to determine where to set the influential x’s so that variability in y is small or
to determine where to set the influential x’s so that the effects of the uncontrollable
variables z1, z2, …are minimized.
The outcomes of the experimental techniques can result in achieving the
objectives of the study, ie. to establish the criteria of floor surface roughness with
rate accident cases and to compare the selected sources of slips and falls. From the
result of both objectives, the third and fourth objectives can be analyzed to compute
39
the losses of employees and establish the guidelines for factory to reduce the slips
and falls accident from occurring especially at the workplace.
3.2
Strategy of Experiment
There were are two types of strategy of doing an experiment which are “Bestguess” experiments and One-factor-at-a-time (OFAT) experiments.
a) “Best-guess” experiments
By using this strategy, it used a lot of guess or other factors that might
related to the experiment.
b) One-factor-at-a-time (OFAT) experiments
Sometimes associated with the “scientific” or “engineering” method.
3.3
“Best-guess” experiments
By using this strategy several factors will be to guess in order to identify the
main factors that might cause the slips and falls problems. In order to identify the
factors, a questionnaire is developed and distribute in a selected factory.
40
3.3.1 Questionnaire Development
Questionnaire are used to achieve the research target to select the main
sources of slips and falls at workplace. So the questionnaire is developed according
the objectives and scope of the study. To develop the questionnaire there are the
criteria have to be considered which are demographic, construct and method of
scoring.
i.
Demographic
Demographic is the basis of study of the statistics of age, gender, working
experience, style of working and so on. The proper questions are developed for the
purposes of this study. Normally, as referred to previous study, the questions in this
section are gender, age, marital status, working experience, style of working and so
on. For the purpose of this study, the demographic status for company size, working
hours, lighting at workplace and basic question about slips and falls figure are also
included. These questions are in need for results analysis to achieve the objectives of
the study.
ii.
Constructs
Before developing the questions, constructs are used to build the model of the
questionnaire. The constructs are as written below:
1. Demographics
2. Part A (Causes of falls)
Approximately 30 questions related to the objectives and used in the
questionnaires.
41
The construct of demographics questions is concentrated on basic questions
(for the first 10 questions). The basic question such as marital status, age, gender,
working experience, working hours and so on. But after 10 questions had been asked,
the next are focusing on slips and falls. Begin with the slips and falls figure, it is
necessary to identify either Malaysian workers or employees are knowledgeable or
not about slips and falls figure. Based on that figure, they have to choose what are
the main factors of the slips and falls especially at their workplace. They are also
given questions on which parts of their body will have a potential to injure if they
experience slips and falls. The next questions are to prove that the other factors that
will caused the slips and falls.
Part A is built to support the demographics questions especially about the
sources of the slips and falls. This type of question is built to give a support to
demographics questions and to identify the awareness among workers at workplace
in slips and falls. The questions are concerned with the working area condition which
are related to slip and fall. The outcome from these questions is to examine either the
workers are aware of the factors or sources that will cause slips and falls at their
workplace.
The worker may not be knowledgeable at such to focus on all the surrounding
circumstance and based on past experience and current knowledge is likely to expect
a successful outcome. Retrospective mapping seen from an investigator outside view
may give the impression that the workers have a number of choices, whereas from
the inside (the workers point of view in contact), it may have seemed as if there were
few or no practical alternative.
The challenge in the investigation and analysis is to understand the individual
workers knowledge and information and how they make a decision to choose the
score.
42
iii.
Method of Scoring
In order to give better accessibility to the respondents, Likert Scale is used as
this scoring is acknowledged to have scoring easiness. The measurement is in the
form of 5 point Likert Scale. The Table 3.1 shows the points’ indicators for every
construct.
Table 3.1: Point Likert Scale Indicator
Likert Scale Points
Part A
1
Disagree
2
Uncertain
3
Quite agree
4
Agree
5
Strongly agree
Respondents are required to circle only one point which the represents the
closes mark to their situations for each question in each construct. (see Appendix D)
3.3.2 Data Collection
The questionnaire is built especially to be answered by Malaysian workers
who are involved in Manufacturing field that are prone to slips and falls incidents.
The target is to get as many respondents as possible to meet the terms of statistical
analysis. One factory will be selected and visited to get the real situation at factory.
By factory visit, it gives a focusing and easier to identify how potential of slips and
falls at the selected factory. During the visit, employees will given the questionnaires
to answer and the questionnaires are collected for analysis. In addition, workers who
are warded in hospital or have related case on slips and falls will be interviewed for
more information. This information will be used to support the data about slips and
falls.
43
Besides the questionnaires, a statistic data from a factory also important to
identify either there is a case on slips and falls. The data will be analyzed and some
pictures will be taken to prove that the factory have a potential for slips and falls to
occur or not.
The flooring surface will be tested using Surtronic 3+, as shown in Figure
3.1. The purpose of testing the floor surface is to identify the surface roughness at
the factory. By the surface roughness data, it can be determined either the floor
surface that have a potential to slips and falls or not.
Figure 3.1 : Surtronic 3+
Surtronic 3+ is used to determine the surface roughness accurately, portable
for workshop or laboratory use, selectable parameters and large range of accessories,
optional PC software for advanced analysis and reporting capability. Surtronic 3+
combines advanced technology with accuracy and value to give effective
measurement of surface finish in the workshop, inspection room or laboratory.
Portable and flexible, Surtronic 3+ is ideal for measuring a wide range of
components even if they are inaccessible or difficult to move.
Besides measuring the surface roughness of the factory floor, the equipment
measures the surface roughness floor used in the experiment and the surface
roughness of footwears.
44
3.3.3 Surface roughness value
Table 3.2 show the surface roughness of floors at SCA Hygiene company,
glasses, flooring at Fitting Lab and footwear. From Table 3.2 the surface roughness
value at SCA Hygiene workshop floor is 9.4m and the value of surface roughness
at workplace are 1.00m, 3.7m, 0.82m and 0.4m. The highest value of surface
roughness for workplace floor is 3.7m and the lowest value is 0.4m. (see
Appendix E)
However for comparison value of surface roughness for glass which are
0.02m, 0.06m, 0.00m and 0.04m. The highest value of surface roughness for
glass is 0.06m and the lowest value is 0m. (see Appendix F)
Besides that, the surface roughness in the Fitting lab which is the location on
doing testing are 1.52m, 1.4m, 1.8m, 3.0m, 1.6m and 2.0m. (see Appendix
G)
Finally, the surface roughness value for two different type of footwear which
are for new footwear are 9.5m for front part of the sole of footwear and 8.3m for
back part of the sole of footwear. For old footwear are 8.5m for front part of the
sole of footwear and 8.5m for back part of the sole of footwear. (see Appendix H)
45
Table 3.2 : Surface roughness for floor and footwear
No.
1.
2.
Location
SCA Hygiene
3.
4.
5.
6.
3.4
Material
Surface roughness value
Workshop floor
9.4m
Workplace area
1.00m, 3.7m, 0.82m and 0.4m
Glass
0.02m, 0.06m, 0.00m and 0.04m
Fitting
1.52m, 1.4m, 1.8m, 3.0m,
laboratory
1.6m and 2.0m
Footwear
New footwear
8.3m(heel) and 9.5m(toe)
Old footwear
8.5m(heel) and 8.5m(toe)
One-factor-at-a-time (OFAT) experiments
Based on the questionnaire survey, those data will be used to carry out
experiments. The factors will be identified and classified into levels. The purpose of
the experiment is to recognize the floor is slippery when there are wet due to water,
oil, or dusk, wear a wrong shoes, environment, contamination, cleaning process,
obstacles, human factors and also health factors. These causes will cause slips and
falls if no action is taken to rectify the condition.
According to the factors, an experiment will be carried out based on the
combination of selected factors to overcome slips and falls accidents. These
relationship will give results for example the surface roughness have the potential to
slip but will be affected by external factor would cause slips and falls. If it is wet,
due to water or oil, the floor will become slippery.
From the factorial designs with several factors and level from each factor, the
experiment involve flooring surface roughness, footwear, water and oil are the main
factors that will cause the slips and falls. From those experimental, the output can
46
contribute a guidelines to the factory to avoid those conditions so that slips and falls
problems will be reduced at their workplace.
3.4.1 Experiments
Form the questionnaire survey, there are three main factors that will be
analyzed by One-factor-at-a-time (OFAT) experiments. The factors are flooring,
footwear and cleaning. Flooring is the main cause to distribute slip and fall with
28.6 % of the respondent to respond to this factor. However footwear is the second
factor cause to slip and fall problems and the third factor selected is cleaning factor
which include water and oil. The figures below show the factor that will use to set up
the experiments by using all these factors.
Figure 3.2 shows the floor of working area. From questionnaire survey
clearly stated that the floor is the most important factor that will contribute to slips
and falls accident. According to research by The Health and Safety Laboratory if the
surface roughness is less than 10.00m, it would have high slip potential. So the
experiments will prove that either flooring will effect the slip and fall incident.
Figure 3.2 : Flooring Surface
47
Figure 3.3 shows the footwear surface. The footwear is second factor that
causes slip and fall at workplace. The footwear and flooring will give the result of
slip and fall incident.
Figure 3.3 : Footwear Surface
Figure 3.4 show that water is selected to become a third factor to study the
relationship between flooring and footwear. This factor will be used as a material in
experimental set up.
Figure 3.4 : Water
Figure 3.5 shows that oil is another factor selected in the same category as
water in cleaning factor. Some selected oil will be used for testing during the
experiment.
Figure 3.5 : Oil
48
3.4.2 Experimental set up
Experimental set up is important. From the survey, three factors are selected
to continue the testing. The selected location is Fitting laboratory at Polytechnic Port
Dickson. The next step is setting the layout for testing. Experimental apparatus and
types of liquid are selected and will be discussed later.
Figure 3.6 shows the floor surface at the Fitting laboratory. As usual the
surface roughness of the floor should be measured to make sure that the floor is
similar or still with the range of the surface finish of factory workplace.
Figure 3.6 : Floor surface at Fitting laboratory
3.4.3 Experimental layout
An experimental layout is important before testing. This is essential to give a
consistence result compared to different location. Figure 3.7 shows the location at the
starting point for subjects to do the walking step, target area with liquid where
digital camera is located. The area of the experimental set up is 550cm x 300cm.
49
50
80
180
35
180
table
25
table
90
120
155
Step of walking
C
300
310
550
Starting point
Target area to put a liquid
C
Position of digital camera
All dimension in cm
Figure 3.7 : Plan layout of experimental set up
Figure 3.8 shows the scene where the experiment is carried out where the
subject would walk pass, the position of digital camera and the targeted spot where a
liquid is placed either water or oil.
Starting point
Step of walking
Position of digital
camera
Target area to put a
liquid
Figure 3.8 : Location and position of experiment
50
Figure 3.9 shows the picture of scale used to measure the distance of slip in
centimeter.
Scale to measure slip distance
Figure 3.9 : Scale to measure slip distance
3.4.4 Experimental apparatus and liquid
3.4.4.1 Tape measurement
Figure 3.10 shows the tape measurement that can measure for 3 metres
distance. This tape is used to measure the distance of slip during the experiment. The
tape will be used manually if there is slip incident occurring during testing.
Specification of tape measurement : To measure distance until 3 metres
Figure 3.10 : Tape measurement
51
3.4.4.2 Digital Camera
Figure 3.11 shows the picture of a digital camera. This digital camera brand
Olympus model FE-360 can produce the picture 8 megapixel and achieve until 3 x
optical zoom with 6.3 to 18.9mm. This model can also record the video. This digital
camera was used not only to capture the picture but also to record video in the
experiment. The digital camera is located at the position shown in Figure 3.8.
Figure 3.11 : Digital Camera
3.4.4.3 Footwear
Selection of a suitable footwear is important to make sure this footwear is
suitable at workplace. The selected footwear that have been chosen is flat footwear.
To test the slip and fall experiment, two models of footwear are selected which are
shown in Figure 3.12 and Figure 3.13. Figure 3.12 is a new footwear and it is divided
into two parts which are Figure 3.12 (a) shows the front part of that footwear and
Figure 3.12 (b) shows the bottom part of the footwear.
52
(b)
(a)
Figure 3.12 : Type Shoe 1
Figure 3.13 shows the second model of the shoe which is really a used
footwear. It is divided into two parts which are Figure 3.13 (a) shows the front part
of the footwear and Figure 3.13 (b) shows the bottom part of used footwear.
(b)
(a)
Figure 3.13 : Type Shoe 2
53
Both of these footwears will be used by three persons who are involved in
the testing. They will start their step from the starting point and walk through passing
the targeted place or area which is spread with liquid as shown in Figure 3.8.
3.4.4.4 Weight measurement
Figure 3.14 shows the picture of weight measurement. This weight
measurement is used to measure weight of person which is involve in slip testing.
The weight measurement is analog and considered to measure weight from 0 until to
130kg.
Specification:
Consider weight from 0 to
130kg
Figure 3.14 : Weight measurement
Figure 3.15 shows that the weight of three different persons as the subjects in
experiment. The objective of selecting three different weights is to study the
relationships and make comparisons between the weights that influence to slip. The
weight of the first person is 65kg shows in Figure 3.15 (a), the second person weight
is 70kg shown in Figure 3.15 (b) and the third person weight is 80kg shown in Figure
3.15 (c).
54
Ghazali
Firdaus
(a)
(b)
Ariman
(c)
Figure 3.15 : Weight of three different person
3.4.4.5 Viscosity apparatus
Digital Viscometer model DV-II is a viscometer measurement (Figure 3.16).
It can measure viscosity in Cps (Centipoise).
55
Figure 3.16 : Digital Viscometer model DV-II
Viscosity describes a fluids resistance to flow. Dynamic viscosity is obtained
by dividing the Shear stress by the rate of shear strain. The units of dynamic
viscosity are : Force / area x time.
The Pascal unit (Pa) is used to describe pressure or stress = force per area.
This unit can be combined with time (sec) to define dynamic viscosity.
 = Pa•s which is 1.00 Pa•s = 10 Poise = 1000 Centipoise
Centipoise (cP) is commonly used to describe dynamic viscosity because
water at a temperature of 20°C has a viscosity of 1.002 Centipoise. This value must
be converted back to 1.002 x 10-3 Pa•s for use in calculations.
56
3.4.4.6 Liquid
Figure 3.17 show that there are four types of liquid used. Figure 3.17(a)
shows of water, Figure 3.17(b) shows a combination of water and detergent. Figure
3.17(c) shows lubricant oil from Castrol and Figure 3.17(d) shows hydraulic oil from
Sharlu.
(a)
(c)
(b)
(d)
Figure 3.17 : Liquid to test in slip and fall experiment
As mention in part 3.4.4.5 before this, Digital Viscometer model DV-II
(Figure 3.16) is used to measure all four types of liquid. The value is measured at
room temperature in the Fluid Mechanic Laboratory at the Faculty of Mechanical
Engineering, UTM.
Table 3.3 shows that the viscosity of water is 1.248 Centipoise (Cps),
viscosity for both combination water and detergent is 1.56 Centipoise (Cps). For
57
Sharlu oil, the viscosity is 3.914 Centipoise (Cps) and the last type is for Castrol oil
viscosity is 4.7925 Centipoise (Cps).
Table 3.3 : Value of liquid
Material
Unit
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Average
Water
0.62
0.93
1.25
1.57
1.87
1.248
Water +
Detergent
Sharlu
oil
Castrol
oil
Centipoise
0.62
2.35
0.93
3.14
1.25
3.91
1.56
4.69
1.87
5.48
2.19
2.5
1.56
3.914
3.14
3.91
4.69
5.48
6.26
7.03
7.83
4.7925
These four liquids will be put on the target area. During the experiment water
is the first liquid followed by combination water with detergent then followed by
Sharlu oil and the final with Castrol oil will be testing.
Each liquid will be used in the tests with five different quantity starting from
100ml, 200ml, 300ml, 400ml and 500ml. (see Appendix I)
3.4.5 The experimental procedure
The subject walked from starting point through the steps provided on the
floor surface. After several step of walking the person will touch the targeted area
which is provided with different types of liquid starting from water, combination of
water and detergent, Sharlu oil and Castrol oil. During the walking process, it will be
recorded on the digital camera located as shown in Figure 3.8. The camera will be
58
stopped when the person or subject arrive at the end point and if there is any slip
incident occur, the distance will be measured using tape measurement as shown in
Figure 3.10.
3.5
Data Analysis
To analyze data, two softwares are used : Minitab Release 14 and Statistical
Package for Social Science (SPSS).
Minitab is used to process the data from questionnaire survey. This software
is a leader in delivering statistical software and services for quality improvement,
education and research. It provide data analysis tools that are accurate, reliable and
easy to use. There are two ways to save work in Minitab which are Project (.MPJ)
files store or Worksheet (.MTW) files store. In a project, we can manipulate data,
perform analyses and generate graphs. Project (.MPJ) files store contain one or more
worksheets which are Worksheets, Graphs, Session window output, Session
command history, Dialog box settings, Window layout and Preferences. However in
Worksheet (.MTW) files store contains Columns, Constant, Matrices, Design
objects, Column descriptions and Worksheet descriptions. The differences between
save work as a project and worksheet is when save work as a project file keeping all
our data, graphs, dialog box settings and preferences together but save as worksheet
file can be used in several projects and sent electronically without sending the entire
project.
However Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) software is used to
analyze the experimental data. This software is useful to analyze the Table Curve 2D.
The specialty about this software is that it gives us the power to find the ideal model
for even the most complex data by putting thousands of equations. Table Curve 2D
59
built-in library that include a wide array of linear and nonlinear models for any
application including equations that may never have been considered.
3.6
Conclusion
The methodology mention in this chapter provided the explanation on the
model applied in this research and the sequence to carry out the analysis. The result
of the experiment and data analysis will be discussed further in Chapter 4.
CHAPTER 4
RESULTS AND ANALYSIS
4.1
Introduction
This chapter explains the result of experiment and analysis. By using Best
Guess experiment, questionnaire are developed to survey and select the main sources
of slips and falls at the workplace. However using One-factor-at-a-time (OFAT)
experiments, an experiment will be done using the data from questionnaire which
selected several factors that have potential to slips and falls especially at workplace.
The result from both methodology will be discuss in detail.
4.2
Questionnaire result
From the questionnaire survey, the data will be analyzed using Minitab
software . The results of survey are as shown below.
Figure 4.1 shows that the majority of the respondents are from male category
with 66. 7 % compared to female category with 33.3 % of the respondents.
61
Figure 4.1 : Gender Respondent
Figure 4.2 shows 54.2 % is for category age from 21 – 30 years of the
respondents, then 21.7 % of the respondents from 13 – 20 years old. For age group
31 – 40 years is 16.7 % of the respondents and the last age group is 41 – 50 years old
which is 7.5 % from the respondents.
Figure 4.2 : Age Group Respondent
Figure 4.3 shows two different responses from respondents who have seen
the slips and falls signs and those who might know about the slips and falls signs.
From the response, majority of the respondents who have seen the slips and falls
62
signs are 82.5 % and 91.7 % of them know about slips and falls signs. And just 17.5
% of the respondents have not seen the slips and falls signs similar to 8.3 % of
respondents who did not know about slips and falls signs.
Figure 4.3 : Respondent who have seen and know the Slip and Fall signs
63
Figure 4.4 shows that 57.5 % of the respondent have seldom experience on
slips and falls problem. Instead 35.8 % of the respondents never have experience on
slips and falls and 6.7 % of them have experience on slips and falls.
Figure 4.4 : Respondent have experience on slips and falls
Figure 4.5 shows that respondents need to give their opinion on what are the
main factors that cause slips and falls. Flooring is the main factor that contribute to
slip and fall with 28.6 % of the respondent vote for this factor. Then footwear is the
second source to slip and fall with 18.8 % respond from the respondents.
Environment is third source that contribute to slip and fall with 13.3 %. Environment
means the working area is unsuitable environment such as temperature and lighting
level, there are some boxes or apparatus that are not in proper arrangement and so on.
64
The fourth cause of slip and fall is cleaning with 12.9 %. Cleaning means there are
some liquid of the walking area such as water, detergent or oily. People or human
factor contribute 9.4 % of the cause to slip and falls. The sixth factor is obstacles
which is 9.0 % of the respondent vote for this factor. And 3.9 % of the respondent
said that our health is responsible to cause slip and fall problems.
Figure 4.5 : Cause of Slip and Fall
4.3
Experiments result
Each liquid was tested for five different quantities from 100ml, 200ml,
300ml, 400ml and 500ml. For each subject, he had to repeat the test three times by
65
walking in three ways such as without footwear, using new footwear and with old
footwear.
4.3.1
Water as liquid
Table 4.1 shows the result of experiment using water as the liquid. The table
showed that by using water, the slips occur for subject no 3. While he did the
walking without using any footwear cause a slip on the quantity of water 100ml until
500ml. However when he did the walking experiment with old footwear the slip
occur on 500ml quantity of water only. (see Appendix J)
Table 4.1 : Water testing result
Quantity
Liquid/Person
/Footwear
Subject No. 1
(Firdaus)
Water
Subject No. 2
(Ghazali)
Subject No. 3
(Ariman)
WOF
NF
OF
WOF
NF
OF
WOF
NF
OF
100ml
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
20cm
NS
NS
200ml
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
15cm
NS
NS
300ml
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
25cm
NS
NS
400ml
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
30cm
NS
NS
500ml
NS
NS NS
NS
NS
NS 35cm NS
8cm
WOF - Without footwear, NF - New footwear, OF - Old footwear ,
NS - Non Slipping
Figure 4.6 shows the graph for data subject no. 3 whose data uses water as a
liquid without wearing any footwear. This graph shows that a linear line with
positive slope was produced with the mean values of 25 and the median is 25.
66
Figure 4.6 : Graph Water testing for subject no. 3 without footwear
Figure 4.7 shows the graph for subject no. 3 which is testing using water as a
liquid by wearing old footwear. This graph show a linear line with positive slope
was produce which is the value of mean for this graph is 1.6 and the median is 0.
Figure 4.7 : Graph Water testing for subject no. 3 with old footwear
67
4.3.2
Combination of Water and Detergent as liquid
Table 4.2 shows the result of experiment using the combination of water and
detergent as a liquid. The table shows that by using water and detergent as a liquid,
the slips still occur for subject no. 3. While he did the walking without using any
footwear for 200ml of quantity water and detergent and by wearing old footwear for
200ml and 300ml quantity of water and detergent. (see Appendix J)
Table 4.2 : Water and detergent testing result
Quantity
Liquid/Person
/Footwear
Subject No. 1
(Firdaus)
Water + Detergent
Subject No. 2
(Ghazali)
Subject No. 3
(Ariman)
WOF
NF
OF
WOF
NF
OF
WOF
NF
OF
100ml
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
200ml
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
15cm
NS
13cm
300ml
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
15cm
400ml
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
500ml
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
NS
WOF - Without footwear , NF - New footwear , OF - Old footwear ,
NS - Non Slipping
NS
Figure 4.8 shows the graph for subject no. 3 which is testing by using water
and detergent as liquid without wearing footwear. This graph shows that a linear line
with negative slope was produced with the mean value of 3 and the median is 0.
68
Figure 4.8 : Graph Water + detergent testing for subject no. 3 without footwear
Figure 4.9 shows the graph for subject no. 3 which is testing using water and
detergent as liquid by wearing old footwear. This graph shows that a linear line with
negative slope was produce with decrease value with the mean value of 5.6 and the
median is 0.
Figure 4.9 : Graph Water + detergent testing for subject no. 3 with old footwear
69
4.3.3
Sharlu oil as liquid
Table 4.3 show the result of experiment by using Sharlu oil as a liquid. The
table shown that by using Sharlu oil as a liquid, the slips occur for each person which
is for subject no. 1 during the experiment without using footwear for every quantity
of Sharlu oil. For subject no. 2, the slip occur when he not wear a footwear and using
old footwear for all five quantity of Sharlu oil and three slip on new footwear for
200ml, 300ml and 500ml. However for subject no. 3, slip occur for all quantity of
Sharlu oil either without footwear, new footwear and also by using old footwear (see
Appendix J).
Table 4.3 : Sharlu oil testing result
Quantity
Liquid/Person
/Footwear
Subject No. 1
(Firdaus)
Sharlu oil
Subject No. 2
(Ghazali)
Subject No. 3
(Ariman)
WOF
NF
OF
WOF
NF
OF
WOF
NF
OF
100ml
57cm
NS
NS
43cm
NS
25cm
70cm
17cm
33cm
200ml
62cm
NS
NS
53cm
30cm
25cm
62cm
21cm
12cm
300ml
81cm
NS
NS
71cm
29cm
30cm
102cm
22cm
23cm
400ml
63cm
NS
NS
49cm
NS
35cm
83cm
25cm
24cm
500ml
64cm NS NS 51cm 5cm 36cm 89cm 18cm
WOF - Without footwear , NF - New footwear , OF - Old footwear ,
NS - Non Slipping
28cm
Figure 4.10 show the graph for data subject no. 1 which is testing using
Sharlu oil as liquid without wearing any footwear. This graph show that a linear line
with positive slope was produce with increase value with the mean value of 65.4 and
the median is 63.
70
Figure 4.10 : Graph Sharlu oil testing for subject no. 1 without footwear
Figure 4.11 shows the graph for data subject no. 2 which is testing using
Sharlu oil as liquid without wearing any footwear. This graph show that a linear line
with positive slope was produce the mean value of 53.4 and the median is 51.
Figure 4.11 : Graph Sharlu oil testing for subject no. 2 without footwear
71
Figure 4.12 shows the graph for data subject no. 3 which is testing using
Sharlu oil as liquid without wearing any footwear. This graph show that a linear line
with positive slope was produce with increase value which is the value of mean for
this graph is 81.2 and the median is 83.
Figure 4.12 : Graph Sharlu oil testing for subject no. 3 without footwear
Figure 4.13 shows the graph for data subject no. 2 which is testing using
Sharlu oil as liquid with wearing old footwear. This graph show that a linear line
with positive slope was produce with increase value which is the value of mean for
this graph is 30.2 and the median is 30.
Figure 4.13 : Graph Sharlu oil testing for subject no. 2 with old footwear
72
Figure 4.14 shows the graph for data subject no. 3 which is testing using
Sharlu oil as liquid with wearing old footwear. This graph show that a linear line
with negative slope was produce with decrease value which is the value of mean for
this graph is 24 and the median is also 24.
Figure 4.14 : Graph Sharlu oil testing for subject no. 3 with old footwear
Figure 4.15 show the graph for data subject no. 2 which is testing using
Sharlu oil as liquid with wearing new footwear. This graph show that a linear line
with positive slope was produce with increase value which is the value of mean for
this graph is 12.8 and the median is 5.
Figure 4.15 : Graph Sharlu oil testing for subject no. 2 with new footwear
73
Figure 4.16 show the graph for data subject no. 3 which is testing using
Sharlu oil as liquid with wearing new footwear. This graph show that a linear line
with positive slope was produce with increase value which is the value of mean for
this graph is 20.6 and the median is 21.
Figure 4.16 : Graph Sharlu oil testing for subject no. 3 with new footwear
4.3.4
Castrol oil as liquid
Table 4.4 show the result of experiment by using Castrol oil as a liquid. The
table shown that by using Castrol oil as a liquid, the slips occur for each subject
which is for subject no. 1 during the experiment without using footwear for every
quantity of Castrol oil. For subject no. 2, the slip occur when he not wear a footwear
for all five quantity of Castrol oil and two slip on new footwear for 300ml and 400ml
and by using old footwear, the slip occur on 300ml, 400ml and 500ml. However for
subject no. 3, slip occur for all quantity of Castrol oil either without footwear, new
footwear and also by using old footwear. (see Appendix J)
74
Table 4.4 : Castrol oil testing result
Quantity
Liquid/Person
/Footwear
Subject No. 1
(Firdaus)
Castrol oil
Subject No. 2
(Ghazali)
Subject No. 3
(Ariman)
WOF
NF
OF
WOF
NF
OF
WOF
NF
OF
100ml
30cm
NS
NS
79cm
NS
NS
55cm
5cm
15cm
200ml
46cm
NS
NS
56cm
NS
NS
68cm
2cm
3cm
300ml
59cm
NS
NS
63cm
25cm
28cm
85cm
3cm
17cm
400ml
60cm
NS
NS
71cm
25cm
30cm
90cm
50cm
36cm
500ml
64cm NS NS 48cm
NS
32cm 98cm 28cm
WOF - Without footwear , NF - New footwear , OF - Old footwear ,
NS - Non Slipping
27cm
Figure 4.17 shows the graph for data subject no. 1 which is testing using
Castrol oil as liquid without wearing any footwear. This graph show that a linear
line with positive slope was produced with increase value with the mean value of
51.8 and the median is 59.
Figure 4.17 : Graph Castrol oil testing for subject no. 1 without footwear
75
Figure 4.18 shows the graph for data subject no. 2 which is testing using
Castrol oil as liquid without wearing any footwear. This graph show that a linear
line with negative slope was produce with the mean value of 63.4 and the median is
63.
Figure 4.18 : Graph Castrol oil testing for subject no. 2 without footwear
Figure 4.19 shows the graph for data subject no. 3 which is testing using
Castrol oil as liquid without wearing any footwear. This graph show that a linear
line with positive slope was produce with the mean value of 79.2 and the median is
85.
Figure 4.19 : Graph Castrol oil testing for subject no. 3 without footwear
76
Figure 4.20 shows the graph for data subject no. 2 which is testing using
Castrol oil as liquid with wearing old footwear. This graph show that a linear line
with positive slope was produce with the mean value of 18 and the median is 28.
Figure 4.20 : Graph Castrol oil testing for subject no. 2 with old footwear
Figure 4.21 shows the graph for data subject no. 3 which is testing using
Castrol oil as liquid with wearing old footwear. This graph show that a linear line
with positive slope was produce with the mean value of 19.6 and the median is 17.
Figure 4.21 : Graph Castrol oil testing for subject no. 3 with old footwear
77
Figure 4.22 shows the graph for data subject no. 2 which is testing using
Castrol oil as liquid with wearing new footwear. This graph show that a linear line
with positive slope was produce with the mean value of 10 and the median is 0.
Figure 4.22 : Graph Castrol oil testing for subject no. 2 with new footwear
Figure 4.23 shows the graph for data subject no. 3 which is testing using
Castrol oil as liquid with wearing new footwear. This graph show that a linear line
with positive slope was produce with the mean value of 17.6 and the median is 5.
Figure 4.23 : Graph Castrol oil testing for subject no. 3 with new footwear
78
4.4
Result of loses (A case study)
As mention in part 2.6.3 Chapter 2 Literature Review, there was example of
Incident Report Injury. This report from the SCA Hygiene Company which is this
incident related to slip and fall incident.
The cost from the incident as shown below :
A project manager was slip and fall at the slippery platform surface. As a
result he got muscles sprained causing blockages to blood circulation. He went to the
Chinese Medical Hall to have acupuncture and massage treatment and received one
day medical leave. He has to repeat this treatment every 3 days in a week. The cost
of the treatment is :
1.
2.
Direct cost – treatment cost
First treatment
= RM250
Repeated treatment
= RM150 x 2 = RM300
Indirect cost – loss of working time
a) Working time, 1 day MC = RM8500 (salary) / 26days = RM327.00
b) Working time involving other person:
Security
– 2 hours x RM1200 (salary) / (26days x 8.5 hours) = RM11.00
Time send patient to treatment
– 3 hours x RM5000 (salary) / (26days x 8.5 hours) = RM67.90
3.
Indirect cost – others matter
a) For the employee that taking insurance,
1 day MC is paid RM110 – RM200 (average RM155)
Total cost of slip including employee who taking insurance = RM250 + RM300 +
RM327 + RM11.00 + RM67.90 + RM155 = RM 1110.90
79
4.5
Result of guidelines
Guidelines provided in safety and health especially for manufacturing
industries are as shown in Table 4.5. (see Appendices K, L and M)
Table 4.5 : Guidelines from selected organizations
80
4.6
Conclusion
This chapter concentrate on result of the questionnaire survey, the experiment
and analysis result, the result of the losses especially a case study at SCA Hygiene
company and result of some guidelines related to slip and fall incident. All the result
from each concept had been elaborated. The discussion will be explain further in
Chapter 5.
CHAPTER 5
DISCUSSION
5.1
Introduction
This chapter elaborate and discuss all the information that mention from
Chapter 1 until Chapter 4 on previous result of experiment and analysis carried out.
5.2
Review on Survey
From the result of the survey, there are several factors that contribute to slip
and fall at the workplace. The factors are floor, footwear, cleaning process, human or
people and environment. Most of the respondent agreed that these five factors are
very close to slip and fall accidents.
Flooring is used as a main factor to contribute to slip and falls among
workers. The surface roughness of the floor is measured and identify to prove that if
the surface roughness less than 10m means that floor have high potential for slip
82
and fall to occur. However from the experiment, it shows that most of the surface
roughness at the company and also at the Fitting laboratory are less than 10m.
Although the surface roughness value less than 10m it does not mean that those
person or people walking on that surface will experience slip and fall incidents
immediately. Slip and fall incident will occur with combination other factors too.
Second factor is footwear. Roughness of footwear was measured to identify
the potential slip and fall. This will affect friction and slip resistance. From both
sample of footwear which are new and old footwear. So, both types of footwear are
used in the experiment slip and fall at the Fitting laboratory. The roughness of the
new footwear is higher than the old footwear.
Cleaning process is a third factor that contribute to slip and fall incident.
Cleaning involve cleaning procedure at the workplace. Normally they used water,
detergent and oil as a sources. On the other hand if there is some leaking from the
machine or there is some spill on the floor, cleaning jobs are carried out to make sure
that slip and fall incident can be avoided by proper and immediate action from
housekeeping department. By using similar material such as water, water and
detergent and oil as a liquid, the third factor will be tested together with the two
factors mentioned earlier.
The fourth factor is human or people. Human vary widely to relate them to
slip and fall incidents. This is because of several criteria that can be aspected such as
gender, weight, height, ageing, personal health, style of walking and so on. Every
person has different criteria personality. Rarely among human or person have the
same criteria even though they are twins. Sometimes if they are in the same weight
and age, but maybe their health condition is not similar. Meaning those factors
contribute and cause different incident in slip and fall.
Finally environment is the fifth factor to contribute to slip and fall incident at
the workplace. Temperature, lighting and arrangement of apparatus or machine are
83
criteria in the environment. This factor can contribute to slip and fall incident such as
insufficient lighting level especially near the office area or walkway is littered with
thick wires or spill with oily or water that create an obvious slippery hazard. Hence,
this factor also need to be considered to avoid or reduce slip and fall incident at
workplace.
5.3
Review on Experiment
In the second methodology, the experimental set up utilized the combination
of floor, footwear, human and cleaning factors to generate result and potential of slip
and fall. In the experiment, distance of slip is measured in each test.
Floor is used as a main factor but human, footwear and types of liquid are
used as a variable method. There are three persons who are subjects in the testing,
four types of liquid, each type of liquid is tested in five different quantities from
100ml to 500ml and the test involve two different type of footwear. However there is
also an experiment on a person who has to walk on targeted step without any
footwear.
The result from the testing show that by using water as a liquid, there are no
slip for subject no. 1 and subject no. 2. But for the third subject, slip occur for him
when he is not wear any footwear and with wearing old footwear. Using a
combination of water and detergent as a liquid, the third person face slip for wearing
old footwear and without using any footwear. For liquid like Sharlu oil and Castrol
oil, there are some differences compare to water and combination water and
detergent as a liquid. These type of oil result in slip for all the three person when they
walk without wearing any footwear. However, for wearing old footwear and new
footwear, just subject no. 2 and 3 only experience slip during testing.
84
From the result, there are four main criteria that can be discussed in detail
which is the first condition is wearing either new footwear, old footwear or without
wearing any footwear. Second criteria is weight of human or person which are the
weight of three different person from 65kg, 70kg and 80kg. Third criteria is aging for
each person which is the subject no. 1 and no 2 who are 22 years old. However
subject no. 3 is 34 years old. Fourth criteria is different type of liquid that were four
different type of liquid such as water, water and detergent, Sharlu oil and Castrol oil.
For the first condition without wearing any footwear, wearing old footwear or
wearing new footwear. Here clearly result that human will have high potential to slip
and fall when they are not wearing any footwear especially when they are walking on
oily surface. On the other hand, if they were wearing a new footwear the risk is less
compare to wearing an old footwear. This is because footwear became polished
during walking on oily and wet floor surfaces.
The old footwear will reduce
friction. Coefficient of friction (COF) means the ratio of the weight of an object
being moved along a surface and the force that maintains contact between the object
and the surface. For this case slip is the opposite of friction. "High slip" denotes low
COF and low slip denotes a high COF.
Second condition is weight of human or person. From the testing clearly
shown that subject no. 3 almost occur slip in every type of liquid and while not wear
any footwear and wear an old footwear. However with wearing new footwear
sometimes there were slip especially for oily surface but rarely to new footwear.
This means that weight of human is a factor to cause a slip and fall incident. When
somebody is heavy by weight, that person have high potential to experience slip and
fall compare to person who is less heavy by weight. The weight for subject no. 3 is
80kg compare to other persons on who weights 65kg and 70kg. Meaning, when a
person is heavy by weight the person might face a balance problem hence difficulty
to control or balance of themselves. Besides that over weight also cause lower body
weakness and sometime every person have their own style of walking or gait.
85
Third criteria is aging. These three person have different age which are the
first and second person, their age is around 22 years old compare to third person
which is 34 years old. Among older people, the risk of falling increases with age.
Meaning that older person will have high potential to occur slip and fall compare to
younger people. This is because when the person became older, the body strength,
stamina, balance and other risks could be experienced also.
Fourth criteria is different type of liquid which consisted of four different
type of liquid such as water, water and detergent, Sharlu oil and Castrol oil. These
type of liquid, oil has high potential to occur slip compare to water and combination
water with detergent. Normally when there was spill of water, if the spill of water is
not immediately cleaned, after some time the water will dry itself. However if there
was spill of oily, after some time it will not dry itself and it will affect of mossy
surface. The mossy surface is dangerous for everybody who walks through such an
area because oil will adhere on the surface either floor or footwear surface.
5.4
Review on losses
As mention in part 4.4 Chapter 4 result of losses which is a case study from
the SCA Hygiene Company that involved an incident related to slip and fall.
From the example of slip and fall incident that occurred in that factory,
clearly shown that from a simple mistake can cause very high cost of treatment or
compensation claim.
Hence, the slip and fall incident should be avoided because it will give a very
high impact either to individual involve or to company. The example show some of
the cost borne by individual and some of them will be borne by company and
86
insurance agency. The costs are medical cost, loss production cost, loss properties
cost, negative publicity or reputation, compensation claim to victim, good damage
cost, cost to train new employees and regulation or law cost.
Medical cost include those cost involving victim to get any treatment either at
public hospital, private hospital or alternative treatment such as traditional treatment.
Different types of hospital charge of treatment is different and it is known that
private hospital can cause more than that of public hospital. Some of the cases should
be referred to specialist hospital or doctor, meaning this treatment also need to pay in
high cost that involve a specialist doctor. The treatment would normally take very
long time and sometimes have to be repeated periodically.
Loss production cost means the cost that the victim fail to perform his normal
job functions. This cost include cost of medical certificates for medical leave from
the doctor for several days, weeks or years. Sometimes if the victim is skilled
employee, somebody has to undertake his or her job during the leave. This cost also
give a bad implication either to victim or company because the victim cannot do the
job because of the incident and at the same time the company will face loss of
productivity and also have to hire other people to undertake the job. The victim
would loose the salary but the victim also cannot work maybe for the difficult task
for the next time and these will give a higher losses to individual as he might add to
his family.
Negative publicity or reputation means the company or individual loss of
their reputation result of the accident. The impact to individual might be the person
cannot do the same job because of his disability and the company does not want to
take any risk of such disable workers. The company also might be tarnish the
reputation because the incident will show that the company is not seriously to take
care of their employees or may be the company will face legal implication such as
litigation and OH&S compliance.
87
Compensation claim to victim meaning that either victim have their own
insurance or company insurance have to cover the accident that occur. Sometime the
insurance package is not covering for all accidents and sometimes the injured may
cause fatal. This compensation claim have to be paid to the victim or directly to the
hospital that give treatment to victims.
Good damage cost also refer to properties cost. If the slip and fall occur and
the accident involve the machine or equipment in the company. So the company have
to solve the problem either repair the machine or get the new one, or add some of the
element to prevent the occurrence of slip and fall incident such as that at the SCA
Hygiene company. This company has to put the antislip material at all the platform to
overcome the slip and fall incident from happen again. So this is an example of good
damage or apparatus cost. If the company have to repair or buy a new one, it just not
only involving the repairing cost but also can waste time of production. This
problems will create a bigger losses to company if this slip and fall incident happen.
Cost to train new employees. Absolutely when there is slip and fall incident
and the victim was a skilled worker, the company would hire other workers to take
over the victim task. This cost also give other side effect to company production line.
Regulation or law cost is the cost that involve penalty from such organization
such as Department of Occupational Safety and Health (DOSH) and so on. This
penalty normally will be charged to the company for failure to comply to the relevant
regulation.
88
5.5
Review on guideline
From the result of guidelines in part 4.5 Chapter 4, a discussion on guidelines
is suggested. The recommended guidelines from previous part are as shown in Table
5.1.
Table 5.1 : Recommended Guidelines
Criteria
Guidelines
Justification
a) Suitable light levels based on From DOSH guidelines on
Malaysia
Standard
for
interior lighting, there are suggestion
lighting (see COP for Interior suitable light levels for interior
company.
Lighting) are
Lighting
(DOSH)
This
level
is
 General background 200 Lux
important to follow to make
 Routine Office work 400 Lux
sure
 Work with poor contrast 600 Lux
sufficient level of lighting
LUX (Lumens per square metre)
system to make sure that
that
workplace
have
employees can see anything
and are covered from any
hazards.
a) Floors and indoor traffic routes For cleanliness, DOSH also
should be cleaned at least once per suggested that floors should be
week.
b) Any
cleaned at least once per week
waste
material
that and any waste material should
accumulates should be removed on be removed on daily basis.
Cleanliness
(DOSH)
a daily basis.
This is because, if there any
spills either from water or oily,
it should be clean or remove
immediately to make sure that
the floor is safety to employee
and avoid slips and falls
incident.
89
The floors in wet and greasy areas From NIOSH
(around
sinks,
dishwashers
and recommendation, some
stoves), should be made of nonskid or improvement is suggested such
covered with nonskid mats. Spilled as:
foods, liquids and broken dishes
should
Floor
(NIOSH)
be
swept
or
clean
up
a) The
flooring
roughness
surface
for
the
immediately, or the area should be
workplace should be more
clearly marked and roped off until
than 10m to avoid the
cleanup. Where surface are slippery,
potential of slip incident.
workers should wear shoes with slip-
b) If there a different floor
resistant soles. Damaged floor mats
surface, should be follow
should
Table 5.2 below as a basic
be
repaired
or
replace
promptly.
value to avoid the slip
incident
at
their
work
place.
Safety shoes are recommended to NIOSH recommendation that
prevent injury to the feet from falling shoes
recommended
to
objects and other hazards. They are prevent injury to feet from
particularly important where heavy falling
objects
materials or parts are handles and hazards.
during
shipping
and
receiving Strandberg
and
According
(1985),
other
to
shoe
operation. Appropriate footwear with solings without tread-pattern or
Footwear
(NIOSH)
good traction should be worn for wet with closed cavities should be
or
slippery
areas.
Periodic avoided. Coarse textures in the
conductivity checks should be made sole may cause a small draping
on footwear worn in surgical areas, area in the shoe-floor contact
disposable shoe covers should be and thus can contribute to a
readily available to minimize the poor slip resistance.
potential
for
surgical areas.
static
electricity
in
90
Table 5.2 : Typical Roughness characteristics of Floor surfaces
( Source : Raoul Gronqvist, 1992)
Floor surface
5.6
Surface Roughness
Parameter (m) Ra
Stainless steel (smooth)
0.15
Glazed ceramic tile (smooth)
0.75
Vinly tile (smooth)
1.5
Unglazed ceramic tile (semirough)
2.9
Epoxy resin with quartz particles (semirough)
5.0
Concrete with acrylic resin coating
6.0
Antislip vinly with silicon carbide particles
7.5
Acrylic resin with quartz particles (rough)
14.0
Semiglazed ceramic tile (rough)
17.0
Abrasive safety floor tape (rough)
22.0
Conclusion
This chapter explain more detail about the outcomes from the methodology of
the project. The discussion clearly on result of the experiment that
have been
achieved. This chapter also review on losses and some of guidelines related to the
objective of this project.
CHAPTER 6
FUTURE WORK AND CONCLUSION
6.1
Introduction
This
chapter
discusses
the
conclusion
for
this
study and
three
recommendations are provided based on findings and the other is made for future
research.
6.2
Future Work
There are some improvements that can be performed because of the risk
person involve in slips and falls in industries is increasing from time to time
especially in manufacturing industries. In real situation or environment, there are
both gender among employees in factories, therefore this experiment also should be
tested for female or women. Comparison can be done to show either male or female
have a high potential to slip and fall at work place.
92
Experiment also can be expanded for different body weights. As mention, this
research focused on three persons whose weight range from 60kg until 80kg. So by
expanding the targeted weight from 40kg until 90kg would give different results to
show the relationship between weights and potential of slip and fall.
Last but not least, scope of the project also can be spread into different areas
such as research at school and also shopping area. Both of these location also have a
high potential of slipping and falling incident. Study about slips and falls at school
area at the same time can give pupils basic knowledge on slip and fall and teach them
to avoid the incidents.
6.3
Conclusion
This chapter gives the overall reviews of the project. The research starts with
determining the objectives. There are four objectives in this research.
The first objective is to identify and determine the main causes of slips.
Through this objective, there is questionnaire development to achieve this objective.
As a result for this objective, there are several factors that causes slips and falls at the
workplace which are floor, footwear, cleaning process, human or people and
environment. After the first objective has been achieved, next step is looking for
second objective.
Second objective is to analyze the relationship between the selected sources
of slips. From the result of first objective, the factors will use to conduct an
experiments which are the main purposes of this testing is to analyze the relationship
between each factors and relate them to slips and falls among workers especially at
the workplace. If one factor stand alone, it is hard to say cause of slip and fall but
93
with combination those factors will create a slip and fall incident. So concentration
should be given to all the factors.
Then the third objective is to compute the monetary losses by employers due
to slips and falls incidents (A case study). This objective use a simple case study that
had been done in SCA Hygiene company which experience one slip and fall incident.
From the case study, notice that there are lot of losses and it will cause very high
cost when there is slip and fall incident. This losses not only affect the victims but
also to company.
And the fourth objective is to establish the guidelines for factory to reduce the
slips and falls accident from occurring. The current guidelines or recommendation
from other department involve in safety and health are useful to monitor and give a
guide to those in manufacturing industries. There are three selected department to
guide or recommend their rules. They are Department Of Occupational Safety and
Health (DOSH), National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) and
Occupational Health, Safety and Welfare Regulation (OSHW). From the three
guidelines, there are several recommendations that had been selected.
All the objectives manage to clearly define that slips and falls incident among
workers at workplace should be avoided because there are bad impact either to
victims or to company. This incident can also cause high cost and it really adverse to
those who are involved in slips and falls incident. That why the slips and falls
incident should be minimized or eliminated from our life.
94
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Guidelines On Occupational Safety And Health In The Office (1996). Department Of
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Guidelines for the Interior Lighting and the Visual Environment, Department of
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Heinrich, H.W, Peterson, D and Roos, N (1980). Industrial Accident Prevention A
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Occupational Safety and Health Act (1994). Government of Malaysia.
Porritt, the Right Honourable Lord (1985). Slipping, tripping and falling: familiarity
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Ralph L. Barnett, Suzanne A. Glowiak and Peter J. Poczynok (2003). Triodyne
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Zebatakis, Assessment of Physical Work Load for Industrial Injury,
97
APPENDIX A – The Company profile
SCA Hygiene Malaysia Sdn. Bhd. addressed No. 3, Jalan Gicing Hulu 28/33, Hicom
Industrial Estate Sector C, 40400 Shah Alam, Selangor.
98
99
100
APPENDIX B – The three source that have potential to cause slips and falls at SCA
Hygiene company
mineral oil
super absorbent polymer (SAP)
101
Technical white oil and solvent
102
APPENDIX C – The place of incident related to slip and fall at SCA Hygiene
company
Before incident
After incident ( install anti-slip strips along the platform slope)
The surface roughness after install anti-slip strips
103
APPENDIX D – The Questionnaire survey
104
105
106
107
APPENDIX E – The Surface roughness at SCA Hygiene Company
Surface roughness of workshop floor
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Surface roughness of workplace floor
108
APPENDIX F – The Surface roughness for glasses
(a)
(b)
(d)
(c)
Surface roughness for glass
109
APPENDIX G – The Surface roughness at Fitting Laboratory
(a)
(c)
(e)
(b)
(d)
(f)
Surface roughness at Fitting Laboratory floor
110
APPENDIX H – The Surface roughness for footwear
8.3
Average Surface roughness for shoe
1
9.5
8.5
Average Surface roughness for shoe 2
8.5
111
APPENDIX I – The Quantity of liquid
(a) 100ml
(b) 200ml
(c) 300ml
(d) 400ml
(e) 500ml
Water as a liquid
112
(a) 100ml
(b) 200ml
(c) 300ml
(d) 400ml
(e) 500ml
Combination Water with detergent as a liquid
113
(a) 100ml
(b) 200ml
(c) 300ml
(d) 400ml
(e) 500ml
Sharlu oil as a liquid
114
(a) 100ml
(b) 200ml
(c) 300ml
(d) 400ml
(e) 500ml
Castrol oil as a liquid
115
APPENDIX J – The graph distance of slip during experiment
Water No Footwear subject no. 3
Water Old Footwear subject no. 3
116
Water + detergent no footwear for subject no. 3
Water + detergent old footwear for subject no. 3
117
Sharlu oil for subject no. 1 with no footwear
Sharlu oil for subject no. 2 with no footwear
118
Sharlu oil for subject no. 3 with no footwear
Sharlu oil for subject no. 2 with old footwear
119
Sharlu oil for subject no. 3 with old footwear
Sharlu oil for subject no. 2 with new footwear
120
Sharlu oil subject no. 3 new footwear
Castrol oil for subject no. 1 with no footwear
121
Castrol oil for subject no. 2 with no footwear
Castrol oil for subject no. 3 with no footwear
122
Castrol oil for subject no. 2 with old footwear
Castrol oil for subject no. 3 with old footwear
123
Castrol oil for subject no. 2 with new footwear
Castrol oil for subject no. 3 with new footwear
124
APPENDIX K
The example of Guidelines on Occupational Safety and Health in the office from
Department of Occupational Safety and Health Ministry of Human Resources
Malaysia
125
126
127
APPENDIX L
The example of Guidelines for Protecting The Safety and Health of Health Care
Workers from U.S. Department of Health and Human Service
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
128
129
130
131
APPENDIX M
The example of Occupational Health, Safety and Welfare Regulation, 1995
from Government of South Australia
132
133
134