Warm-up Discussions
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Please find someone sit next to you and
engage in a discussion about these authors’
theories
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Frederick Taylor; Elton Mayo’s Hawthorne
Studies; Chris Argyris; Maslow; McGregor;
Herzberg
What are their theories? Do they make
sense?
Approaches to reviewing leadership literature
Watkins
Foster
Bush & Hughes
The trait approach
Trait views of leadership
Formal models
The ‘situational’ approach
Leader behaviors;
consideration and
initiation of structure
Democratic models
The authoritariandemocratic continuum
Decision making models
Political models
Fiedler’s Contingency
Theory
Contingency models
Subjective models
Alternative formulations of
leadership
Ambiguity models
Six perspectives on the history of leadership theories
Greenfield
Hallinger
Hoyle
Sergiovanni
& Starratt
Smith &
Pererson,
Tyack
From 1945,
Administrative
science,
positivist
methodologies as
the sloe means of
understanding
administration
1920’s-1960’s
Administrative
Manager
Pre-1950’s:
Trait theory
Pre-1930’s:
Traditional Science
Management’
Pre 20th century:
heroic leaders,
ideal types
Late 19th century:
Decentralized
structures
1960’s-1970’s:
Program
Manager
1950’s-1960’s:
Rise of
Contingency
Theories
1930’s-1960’s:
Human relations
Supervision
Trait theory
1900-1950:
Administrative
Progressives
1960’s:
Revisionist period
Leadership
behavior theory
19660’s-1970’s:
Militancy and
challenges
Contingency
theory
1980’s: Back to
Basics
1970’s, the
philosophical
work of
Hodgkinson as a
moment of
change in
direction of
questions asked
1980’s:
Instructional
Leader
1990’s:
Transformational leader
1970’s-1980’s:
School
Effectiveness and
Decision Making
‘Neo-scientific
Management’
‘Human Resource
Supervision’
Metaphors for Principal
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Spiritual leaders (Cubberley, 1923; Johnson, 1925)
Business managers (Callahan, 1962; Strayer, 1930)
Soldiers (ASCD, 1945; Gregg, 1943; Van Til, 1946)
Social scientists (Griffiths, 1959; Hunt & Pierce, 1958)
Bureaucrats (Abbott, 1969; Sergiovanni, 1969)
Public relations experts (Burden & Whitt, 1973)
Instructional leaders (Clark & Lotto, 1982; Greenfield,
1987; Sergiovanni & Starratt, 2002)
Metaphorical themes in principalship
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The
The
The
The
The
The
The
The
1920s
1930s
1940s
1950s
1960s
1970s
1980s
1990s
value broker
scientific manager
democratic leader
theory-guided administrator
bureaucratic executive
humanistic facilitator
instructional leader (Beck & Murphy, 1993)
accountability holder
FIGURE 2.1 Analysis of metaphors of 1920s
Dominant Metaphorical Themes
The work of the principal is linked with absolute, spiritual truths and
values.
The principalship is a role energized by a zeal for education and guided by
principles of scientific management.
The principal is expected to be a social leader in the community.
For all of these reasons, the role is considered to be a noble, honorable
one.
Dominant Tone
Optimistic because of grounding in spiritual values and science
Dominant Values
Absolute values–both traditional and spiritual
Principles of scientific management
Accepted social values
FIGURE 2.1 Analysis of metaphors of 1920s (Cont.)
Relationship to Others
To superintendents—
Member of an educational team
To teachers—
Presiding officer
Organizer
Guide
To students—
Transmitter of values
Teacher
Disciplinarian
To the community--Public servant
Standards for Evaluation
Success is assumed if values held and methods used
Figure 3.1 Analysis of Metaphors of the 1940s
Dominant metaphorical Themes
During the war the principal is viewed as the school’s leader on the home front.
The principal is expected to demonstrate democratic leadership so that students and
teachers can lead peaceful and productive lives.
In fulfilling the school’s social roles, the principal is expected to be a curriculum
developer, a group leader and coordinator, and a supervisor.
The principal is viewed as the school’s public relations representative within the
community.
Dominant Tone
Distinctively American with an emphasis on social issues
Dominant Values
Faith in humanity’s ability to solve social problems
Commitment to equality of educational opportunity
Belief in democracy
Dominant Values
Uniformity and standardization in preparation programs, administrative and
instructional techniques, and evaluative strategies
Figure 3.1 Analysis of Metaphors of the 1940s (Cont.)
Relationship to others
To superintendents—
Colleague
Co-leader
To teachers—
Sharer of responsibility
Equal
Facilitator of group leadership
To students, parents, and community--Co-planner
Standards for Evaluation
Wise use of resources
The degree to which principal leads democratically
Figure 5.1 Analysis of the Metaphors of the 1960s
Dominant Metaphorical Themes
The principal of the sixties is viewed as a member of well-developed educational
bureaucracy.
The principal is expected to function as protector of the bureaucracy, guarding the
various distributions of power.
Categorical, quantitative, empirical terms increasingly dominate discussions of the
principals’ work, suggesting that he or she is expected to use increasingly
sophisticated scientific strategies.
Faith that “correct” technique and modern technology will produce expected
outcomes results in the belief that the principal can be held accountable for her
or his decisions and activities.
The pressures of this accountability and the political demands on school leaders
leave the principal feeling vulnerable and confused about role expectations.
Dominant Tone
Technical and mechanistic
Figure 5.1 Analysis of the Metaphors of the 1960s (Cont.)
Relationship to Others
To state level policy makers and district level superintendents-Subordinate
Lieutenant responsible for carrying out directives
To teachers--Builder of morale
Dispenser of pedagogical knowledge
To students—
Instructional and disciplinary influence through teachers
To parents and community members—
Builder of harmonious, supportive relationships
Standards for Evaluation
Principals are evaluated on the performance or quality of the “pupil product”
as measured by standardized tests
Evaluation is both formative and summative. It tends to focus on discovering
problems and working to correct them
FIGURE 7.1 Analysis of Metaphors of the 1980s
Dominant Metaphorical Themes
The principal is expected to serve as an instructional leader, guiding
teachers and students toward productive learning experiences.
Central to the concept of instructional leadership is the idea that the
principal is to solve problems and provide resources.
The principal of the eighties is frequently asked to be a visionary,
developing and communicating a picture of the ideal school.
The principals is expected to go beyond painting a portrait of a good
school and is charged with functioning as a change agent.
Dominant Tones
Urgent and demanding
Businesslike
FIGURE 7.1 Analysis of Metaphors of the 1980s (Cont.)
Dominant Values
Effectiveness
Accountability
Relationship to Others
To superintendents, boards and other governing bodies—
Steward of available resources
To teachers—
Facilitator of personal and professional development
Monitor
To students—
In prescriptive work, the standard setter
In descriptive work, an involved person and educator
Standards for Evaluation
Principals are judged by student achievement outcomes as measured by
elaborate assessment instruments.
Assumptions and the Structure of Educational Theories
Assumptions
About human nature
Assumptions
about knowledge
Assumptions
about educational purpose
Educational theories and recommendation
Assumptions in Theories of Leadership
The leader
(trait, style, behavior,
vision, charisma)
The led (follower)
(motivations, readiness,
attitudes)
The organization
(structural, political, moral purpose)
The task
(from holistic to
reductionism,
needing discretion or
direction)
Taylor’s Scientific Management
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When Taylor described how the handler
increased his rate of 12.5 tons per day to
47.5 per day, he wrote the following:” ‘ Now
pick up a pig and walk. Now sit down and
rest. Now walk—now rest,’ etc. He (the
handler) worked when he was told to work,
and rested when he was told to rest, and at
half-past five in the afternoon had his 47.5
tons loaded on the cart” (Taylor, 1911, p. 47).
Trends in the assumptions
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Leader—from trait, behavior, style to
cognitive and affective orientations
Led—from passive receiver (mistrust) to
active participant (trust)
Organization—from structural, to
political, and to democratic perspectives
Task—from reductionist to the holistic