vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER
TITLE
DECLARATION
PAGE
n
DEDICATION
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
iv
ABSTRACT
v
ABSTRAK
vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
vii
LIST OF TABLES
xi
LIST OF FIGURES
xiii
LIST OF SYMBOLS
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
LIST OF APPENDICES
XX
xxiii
xxv
INTRODUCTION
1
1.1
Background and Rationale
1
1.2
Problem Statement
4
1.3
Objectives of the Study
5
1.4
Scope and Limitation
5
1.5
Significance of the Study
7
1.6
ThesisOutline
LITERATURE REVIEW
10
2.1
Introduction
10
2.2
Soil Liquefaction
11
2.2.1
FlowLiquefaction
13
2.2.2
Cyclic Liquefaction
14
vin
2.3
2.4
Liquefaction Susceptibility Criteria
15
2.3.1
M odifiedChineseCriteria
16
2.3.2
SimplifiedProcedure
21
Critical State Soil Mechanics
26
2.4.1
Steady State ofDeformation
30
2.4.2
State Parameter
35
2.4.3
Critical State Line of Sand Matrix Soils
37
2.5
Liquefaction Studies on Clean Sand
42
2.6
The Roles ofFines on Liquefaction Susceptibility
51
2.6.1 Effect of Fines Content on Liquefaction
2.6.2
Susceptibility
55
EffectofPlasticityonL iquefactionSusceptibility
66
2.7
Seismic Risk in M alaysia
76
2.8
Summary
79
METHODOLOGY
82
3.1
Introduction
82
3.2
TestingConcept
84
3.3
TestM aterials
86
3.4
TestingProgramme
87
3.5
SoilClassificationTest
91
3.6
M icrostructureCharacteristics
92
3.6.1
ScanningElectronM icroscopic
93
3.6.2
X-rayDiffraction
93
3.7
3.8
IsotropicallyC onsolidatedU ndrainedTriaxialTest
94
3.7.1
D escriptionofEquipm ent
95
3.7.2
SpecimenPreparation
97
3.7.3
SaturationProcess
101
3.7.4
ConsolidationProcess
103
3.7.5
M onotonicTriaxialC om pressionTest
105
3.7.6
Tw o-w ayC yclicTriaxialTesting
106
D ataA nalysisandR esultPresentation
108
3.8.1
M onotonicTriaxialC om pressionTest
109
3.8.2
Tw o-w ayC yclicT riaxialTest
110
IX
4
CHARACTERISTICS OF SAND MATRIX SOILS
112
4.1
Introduction
112
4.2
IndexProperties
113
4.2.1
ParticleDensity
113
4.2.2
ParticleSizeD istribution
115
4.2.3
LimitingDensity
119
4.2.4
Atterberg Limit
124
4.2.5
Soil Classification
128
4.3
4.3
4.4
5
M icrostructureCharacteristics
131
4.3.1
ScanningElectronM icroscopic
131
4.3.2
X-rayDiffraction
133
Shear Strength
135
4.3.1
Stress-Strain Relationship
135
4.3.2
Peak Deviator Stress of Sand Matrix Soils
137
4.3 .3
Relationship ofP eak Deviator Stress with Index
Properties
142
4.3.4
M ohr-Coulom bFailureCriterion
147
4.3.5
C riticalStateFailureC riterion
158
Summary
179
LIQUEFACTION SUSCEPTIBILITY OF SAND
MATRIX SOILS
181
5.1
Introduction
181
5.2
C yclicB ehaviourofC leanSand
182
5.1.1
Effect of Effective Consolidation Pressure
187
5.1.2
E ffectoflnitialD ensity Index
188
5.1.3
LiquefactionSusceptibilityCurve
190
5.2
5.3
Roles ofFines on Liquefaction Susceptibility
191
5.2.1
Effect ofFines Content on Soil Liquefaction
196
5.2.2
Effect ofPlasticity Behaviour on Soil Liquefaction203
5.2.3
E ffectofC ohesiononSoilL iquefaction
209
Liquefaction Susceptibility Index
210
5.3.1 Statistical Significance
210
X
5.4
6
5.3.2
DimensionlessAnalysis
212
5.3.3
M ultivariableRegressionAnalysis
213
Summary
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
218
221
6.1
Introduction
221
6.2
Conclusion
221
6.3
Contributions of the Study
223
6.4
Recommendations for Future Research
224
REFERENCES
225
Appendices A - G
241
XI
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE NO.
2.1
TITLE
PAGE
The summary ofliquefaction susceptibility of Chinese
Criteria
20
2.2
C orrectionfactorofSP T N -value(Y oud e? %A,2001)
22
2.3
Critical state parameters of sand, clay and sand matrix
soils
2.4
38
Comparison of various specimen preparation methods
for sand
46
2.5
Typicaltestfrequency(Ishihara,1996)
47
2.6
Definition on initiation of liquefaction by various
researchers
49
2.7
F inescontentofliquefiedsoilsinpreviousearthquakes
52
2.8
Summary of some findings on liquefaction susceptibility 53
2.9
Various definitions of void ratios
2.10
Relationship between maximum and minimum void ratio 66
2.11
Summary of ground motion in some cities in Malaysia
77
2.12
Earthquake in Peninsular Malaysia (Marto e?
78
3.1
The composition percentages of reconstituted sand
63
2013)
matrix soils
87
3.2
Thecom positionpercentagesofplasticfinesm ixtures
88
3 .3
Testing programme of soil classification tests
89
3.4
Testingprogram m eoftriaxialtests
90
3 .5
Summary of the soil classification test
91
3 .6
Strength of the association (Dancey and Reidy, 2014)
3 .7
Strength of regression behaviour (Marto, 1996b)
1100
111
xii
4.1
The correlation equation between maximum and
minimum void ratio
122
4.2
Index properties and soil classification of soil specimen 129
4.3
Peak deviator stress of sand matrix soils
4.4
Summary of consolidated undrained triaxial test for
clean sand and sand-kaolin mixtures
4.5
148
Summary of consolidated undrained triaxial test for
sand-fines mixtures
4.6
138
149
Summary of consolidated undrained triaxial test for
sand-bentonitemixtures
150
4.7
Shear strength parameters of sand matrix soils
153
4.8
Stresses of clean sand and sand-kaolin mixtures at
critical state
159
4.9
Stresses of sand-fines mixtures at critical state
160
4.10
Stresses of sand-bentonite mixtures at critical state
161
4.11
Critical state parameters of sand matrix soils
170
4.12
Correlation of critical state parameters and fines content 172
4.13
Correlation behaviour of critical state parameters and
plasticity index
5.1
The number of cycles at the initiation of liquefaction
forcleansan d
5.2
177
182
The number of cycles to initiate liquefaction for
sand matrix soils (CSR=0.1)
192
5.3
Results of correlation analysis
211
5.4
Results of multivariable regression analysis
213
5.5
Regression statistics from multivariable regression
analysis
5.6
213
Results of ANOVA test from multivariable
regressionanalysis
214
xin
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE NO.
1.1
TITLE
PAGE
The boundary limit ofliquefiable soils
(Ishihara e? %A,1980)
2.1
2
Liquefaction related phenomena (Robertson and
Wride, 1998)
12
2.2
Schematic diagram of flow liquefaction (Baki, 2011)
13
2.3
Schematic diagram of cyclic mobility (Baki, 2011)
15
2.4
M odifiedC hineseCriteria(Finn, 1991)
17
2.5
Definition of clay fraction for various code (after
M ossandC hen,2008)
18
2.6
Susceptibility criteria proposed by Seed e?
2.7
Susceptibility criteria proposed by Bray and
(2003)
Sancio (2006)
2.8
19
Summary ofliquefaction susceptibility criteria of
Chinese Criteria
2.9
1983)
(2001)
26
Isotropic view ofH vorslev surface and critical state line
(SchofieldandW roth,1968)
2.13
24
Revised liquefaction susceptibility curve for earthquake
of magnitude 7.5 by Idriss and Boulanger (2006)
2.12
23
Revised liquefaction susceptibility curve for earthquake
of magnitude 7.5by Youd e?
2.11
20
Original liquefaction susceptibility curve for earthquake
of magnitude 7.5 (Seed e?
2.10
18
28
Schematic diagram of critical state and instability line
(Lade, 2002)
29
xiv
2.14
Behaviour of soil distinguish by CSL in compression
space (Baki, 2011)
30
2.15
Undrained behaviour of Ottawa sand (Youd, 2003)
32
2.16
Schematic of various effective stress path (Yoshimine
34
and Ishihara, 1998)
2.17
Generalised Nor-Sand model introduced by
Jefferies (1993)
35
2.18
Definition of state parameter (Been and Jefferies, 1985)
36
2.19
CSL of sand matrix soils (Stamatopoulos, 2010)
39
2.20
Relationship between critical stress ratio and the clay
40
content (Naeemifar and Yasrobi, 2012)
2.21
CSL of sand with different fines content in
compression space (Naeini and Baziar, 2004)
2.22
40
Dependency of CSL on grading characteristics in
41
compression space (Wood and Maeda, 2008)
2.23
CSL of sand-fines in compression space (Abedi and
42
Yasrobi, 2010)
2.24
Undrained behaviour of sand at different density
(Rahman and Lo, 2014)
43
2.25
Undrained behaviour ofloose sand (Sadrekarimi, 2014b) 43
2.26
Stress path of sands with various roundness
(Cabalar e?
2013)
2.27
Effect of density on Oued Russ sand (Krim e?
2.28
Undrained response of silty sand (Yamamuro and
44
2013) 45
45
Wood, 2004)
2.29
Undrained cyclic response ofR ed Hill sand
(Lombardi e?
2.30
Failure mode in cyclic triaxial test (Hyodo e?
2.31
Number of cycles for liquefaction initiation
(Salem e?
2.32
2013)
1991)
48
50
Transition behaviour of fines (Boulanger and
Idriss, 2006)
2.33
47
2014)
54
Effect of silt content on liquefaction resistance of
sand matrix soils (Amini and Qi, 2000)
55
XV
2.34
Stress path of Ottawa sand (Lade and Yamamuro, 1997) 56
2.35
Cyclic resistance ofM onterey Sand (Polito and
M artinII,2001)
2.36
57
Schematic diagram of sand-fines interaction (Lade
andY am am uro,1997)
2.37
58
Schematic diagram of fine threshold content
(Lade e? %A,1998)
2.38
58
Transition behaviour of sand-fines mixtures
(Y am am uroandC overt,2001)
2.39
59
Soil classification system and contact density for sand
matrix soils (Thevanayagam and Martin, 2002)
2.40
61
Cyclic stress ratio in function of density index
(Cubrinovski e?
,2010)
62
2.41
Variation of void ratio (Papadopoulou and Tika, 2008)
2.42
Pore pressure generation of sand matrix soils
(Carraro e?
2009)
2.43
Effect of types of fines on liquefaction
2.44
Clayey sand behaviour (Ghahremani and
67
67
Ghalandarzadeh, 2006)
2.45
69
Liquefaction resistance plotted by Guo and
Prakash (2000)
70
2.46
Effect of plasticity on liquefaction (Gratchev e?
2.47
Liquefaction resistance of sand matrix soils at various
2006) 71
density(P arkandK im ,2013)
2.48
Microfabric of sand, silt and kaolin (Carraro e?
2.49
Cyclic resistance of various soils (Beroya e?
2.50
Effect ofbentonite content and microstructure
(Gratchev e?
2.51
2009) 72
2009)
73
73
Microfabric of different mine tailings (Geremew
74
Schematic diagrams of clay at different pH
(Gratchev e?
2.53
71
2007)
andY anful,2012)
2.52
65
2006)
75
Liquefaction resistance at various pH (Gratchev
and Sassa, 2009)
75
xvi
2.54
Seismic hazard map ofM alaysia (Marto e?
2007)
2.55
Location of epicenter of 2015 Sabah Earthquake
76
(T heStar,2015)
79
3.1
Overallframework
83
3 .2
Loose state sand matrix soils specimen in compression
space diagram
85
3.3
The materials used to reconstitute sand matrix soils
86
3.4
S E M m odelZ E IS S E V 0 50
93
3.5
B rukerD 8 X-rayDiffractometer
94
3 .6
GDSLAB test plan for consolidated undrained triaxial
test
95
3.7
EnterpriseLevelD ynam icTriaxialSystem (ELD Y N )
96
3 .8
General setup of a soil specimen inside a triaxial cell
98
3.9
Schem aticofm ouldsetupbeforesoildeposition
98
3 .10
Test setup for saturation ramps
3.11
Typical cell and pore pressure developed with time
102
duringsaturationram p
102
3.12
T estsetupforB -check
103
3 .13
Test setup for consolidation
104
3 .14
Typical changes of pore pressures with time during
consolidationprocess
104
3 .15
Test setup for monotonic triaxial compression test
105
3 .16
Schematic diagram of extension top cap configuration
106
3 .17
Test setup for two-way cyclic triaxial test
108
4.1
Particle density of sand matrix soil
114
4.2
Particle density of plastic fines mixtures and sand
matrix soils (20 % fines)
4.3
115
Particle size distribution of clean sand and plastic
finesm ixtures
116
4.4
Particle size distribution of sand matrix soils
117
4.5
Coefficient of curvature for sand matrix soils at
various fines content
119
4.6
Minimum and maximum densities of sand matrix soils
120
4.7
Minimum and maximum void ratios of sand matrix soils 121
xvii
4.8
Relationship between maximum and minimum void
ratios of sand matrix soils
4.9
122
The relationship between various void ratio and
fines content
124
4.10
Atterberg limit of plastic fines mixtures
125
4.11
Classification of plastic fines using plasticity chart
(afterH ead,2006)
4.12
126
Atterberg limit of sand matrix soils with 20 % fines
by weight
127
4.13
SEM image ofkaolin
132
4.14
SEM image ofbentonite
133
4.15
X R D resulto fk ao lin
134
4.16
X R D resultofbentonite
134
4.17
Typical test results of deviator stress against
cumulative axial strain
4.18
Typical test results of excess pore pressure against
cumulative axial strain
4.19
151
Mohr-Coulomb effective stress failure envelope of
sand matrix soils
4.25
146
Mohr-Coulomb effective stress failure envelope of
cleansand
4.24
144
The plot of peak deviator stress versus clay content
and plasticity index
4.23
141
The plot of peak deviator stress versus density and
mean grain size
4.22
139
Peak deviator stress of sand matrix soils at various
effective consolidation pressure
4.21
136
Peak deviator stress of sand matrix soils at various
fines content
4.20
136
152
Shear strength parameters of sand matrix soils at
variousfinescontent
154
4.26
Shear strength parameters of different sand matrix soils 155
4.27
Effective failure envelope of sand matrix soils
4.28
Effective stress paths and critical state line of clean sand 162
157
xvin
4.29
Critical state line of clean sand in compression space
163
4.30
Critical state line of clean sand in v versus In p' plot
163
4.31
Critical state line of sand matrix soils in stress space
165
4.32
Critical stress ratio of sand matrix soils at various
fines content
4.33
Critical state line of sand-kaolin mixtures in
compression space
4.34
168
Critical state line of sand-bentonite mixtures in
compression space
4.36
167
Critical state line of sand-fines mixtures in
compression space
4.35
166
169
Compression index and intercept of CSL on v axis in
compression space of sand matrix soils at various
fines content
171
4.37
Critical state parameters against fines content
173
4.38
Critical state parameters against plasticity index
175
4.39
Critical stress ratio against density and plasticity index
178
5.1
Typical results of sinusoidal axial stress versus number
ofcycle
183
5.2
Typical results of excess pore pressure development
184
5.3
Typical results of cumulative double amplitude
185
5.4
Effective stress path ofloose sand in two-way cyclic
loading
5.5
Effective stress path of dense sand in two-way cyclic
loading
5.6
186
186
Effect of effective consolidation pressure on cyclic
behaviour of sand at 20 % Io and 1Hz cyclic frequency 188
5.7
Effect of density index on cyclic behaviour of sand at
100 kPa c '3c and 1 Hz cyclic frequency
5.8
189
Liquefaction susceptibility curve of SAND100 at Io of
20 %, effective consolidation pressure of 100 kPa and
cyclic frequency o f l H z
191
XIX
5.9
Number of cycles to initiate liquefaction against fines
content of sand matrix soils ( c '3c = 100 kPa, CSR=0.1
and f = l Hz)
5.10
Liquefaction resistance of sand matrix soils against
fines content
5.11
209
Effect of density ratio on liquefaction susceptibility
of sand matrix soils at various plasticity
5.22
208
Liquefaction resistance of sand matrix soils against
effective cohesion
5.21
206
Liquefaction resistance of sand matrix soils against
plasticity index
5.20
206
Liquefaction resistance of sand matrix soils against
plastic limit
5.19
205
Liquefaction resistance of sand matrix soils against
liquid limit
5.18
203
Liquefaction resistance of sand matrix soils against
clay content
5.17
201
Relation between mean grain size and state parameter
with fines content
5.16
200
Liquefaction resistance of sand matrix soils against
state parameter
5.15
199
Liquefaction resistance of sand matrix soils against
coefficient of curvature
5.14
197
Liquefaction resistance of sand matrix soils against
mean grain size
5.13
195
Liquefaction resistance of sand matrix soils against
density
5.12
194
215
Effect of plasticity on liquefaction susceptibility
of sand matrix soils at various density ratio
217
XX
LIST OF SYMBOLS
A
-
Activity
&max
-
Peak ground acceleration
B
-
Pore pressure coefficient
c'
-
Effective cohesion
Cc
Coefficient of curvature
Cu
Coefficient of uniformity
Cw
Correction factor for depth
CE
-
Correction factor for energy ratio
CB
-
Correction factor for borehole diameter
CR
.
Correction factor for rod length
Cs
-
Correction factor for sampling method
C02
-
Carbon dioxide
Dio
-
Effective size
D30
.
Diameter corresponding to 3 0 % finer
D 50
.
Mean grain size
D60
-
Diameter corresponding to 60 % finer
e
-
Global void ratio
ef
.
Interfine void ratio
Cg
-
Equivalent intergranular void ratio
Granular void ratio
c g
6s
-
Intergranular void ratio
Csketeton -
Sand skeleton void ratio
^max
-
Maximum void ratio
Cmin
-
Minimum void ratio
ec
-
Critical void ratio
Sa
-
Axial strain
^DA
*
Double amplitude shear strain
XXI
f
-
F requency
fih
-
T hreshold fines content
g
-
A cceleration o f gravity
ID
-
D ensity index
IG
-
G rading state index
Ip
-
P lasticity index
m
-
M ass
M
-
C ritical stress ratio in stress space
-
M om ent M agn itude
N
-
Standard penetration resistance
(Ni)60
-
C orrected N by an energy ratio o f 60 % h am m er efficiency
(Ni)60CS-
C orrected N by fines content
N,
-
N u m b er o f cycles
Pmax
*
M axim um density
Pmin
*
M inim um density
Ps
*
P article density
P20
-
D ensity at 20 %
P50
-
D ensity a t 5 0 %
*
E ffective internal friction angle
P^
*
M ean norm al effective stress
q
-
D ev iato r stress
Qmax
*
P eak deviator stress
R
-
C oefficient o f correlation
R^
-
C oefficient o f determ ination
Td
-
Stress reduction factor
Su (criticat)-
U ndrained shear strength at critical state
Su (peak) -
P eak undrained shear strength
O
-
Total stress
o'
-
E ffective stress
c 'i
-
E ffective m ajor principal stress
c '3
-
E ffective m in o r principal stress
o' 3C
-
E ffective consolidation pressure
T
-
Shear stress
Tcyc
-
C yclic shear stress am plitude
xxn
u
.
Pore water pressure
Uf
-
Pore water pressure at failure
Au
-
Excess pore water pressure
Vs
-
Volume of solids
Vv
-
Volume of void
v
-
Specific volume
X
-
Compression index in compression space (slope of v vs In p' graph)
r
-
Intercept of the CSL with v axis in compression space
V
-
State parameter
^'cs
-
Critical state frictional angle
-
Effective frictional angle
w
-
Moisture content
WL
-
Liquid limit
wp
-
Plastic limit
xxin
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
AASTHO -
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
ANOVA
-
Analysis of variance
ASTM
-
American Society ofTesting and Materials
BS
-
British Standard
BSCS
-
British Soil Classification System
CC
-
Clay Content
CE
- Extremely high plasticity clay
CRR
-
Cyclic Resistance Ratio
CSR
-
Cyclic Stress Ratio
CS
-
Critical State
CSL
-
Critical State Line
CSSM
-
Critical State Soil Mechanics
DSC
- Digital Signal Controller
CU
-
ESP
- Effective Stress Path
EFE
- Effective Stress Failure Envelope
ELDCS
-
Enterprise Level Dynamic Control System
ELDPC
-
Enterprise Level Pressure Controller
ELDYN
- Enterprise Level Dynamic Triaxial System
FC
- Fines Content
FOS
- Factor of Safety
GDS
-
Geotechnical Digital System
IL
-
Instability Line
MI
-
Intermediate plasticity silt
MS
- Malaysian Standard
MV
-
NCEER
- National Centre for Earthquake Engineering Research
Consolidated Undrained
Very high plasticity silt
xxiv
PT
-
Phase Transformation
PTL
- Phase Transformation Line
QSS
-
Quasi Steady State
SC
-
Silt Content
SC
-
Clayey Sand
SEM
-
Scanning Electron Microscopic
SM
-
Silty sand
SP
- Poorly graded sand
SP-SM
-
Poorly graded sand with silt
SPSS
-
Statistical Package for the Social Science
SPT
-
Standard Penetration Test
SPT-N
-
Standard Penetration Resistance
SS
-
SteadyStateofD eform ation
SSL
-
Steady State Line
uses
-
Unified Soil Classification System
USS
-
Ultimate Steady State
XRD
-
X-ray Diffraction
XXV
LIST OF APPENDICES
APPENDIX
TITLE
PAGE
A
Calibration Certificate
241
B
Particle Density Test
245
C
Particle Size Distribution Test
249
D
L im itingD ensityT est
255
E
Atterberg Limit Test
256
F
Mohr-Colomb Failure Envelope
260
G
Critical State Line of Sand Matrix Soils
264