vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER
TITLE
DECLARATION
DEDICATION
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
ABSTRACT
ABSTRAK
TABLE OF CONTENT
LISTOF TABLES
LISTOF FIGURES
LIST OF ABBREVIATION
LIST OF APPENDICES
1
2
PAGE
ii
iii
iv
v
vi
vii
xii
xiv
xvii
xix
INTRODUCTION
1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
1.10
1
6
10
12
14
14
15
16
17
19
Research Background
Problem Statement
Justification of the Study Area
Research Gap
Research Aim and Objectives
Research Questions
Scope and Delimitation of the Study
Significance of the study
Structure of the Thesis
Summary
LANDSCAPE FRAGMENTATION IN THE URBAN
CONTEXT
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
Introduction
Conceptualising Urban Landscape Change
Landscapes in Malaysian Context
Urban Periphery:Desakota and Landscapes
Transition
Landscape Fragmentation in the Context of Rapid
Urban Growth
Measurement of Landscape Fragmentation
20
20
21
27
32
38
47
viii
2.7
2.8
2.9
2.10
3
URBAN LANDSCAPE CHANGE AND
SUSTAINABILITY DYNAMICS
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
4
Land Use and Land Cover Models for Landscape
Fragmentation
Socio-Ecological System and Landscape
Fragmentation
Landscape Fragmentation and Policy Issues
Summary
Introduction
Urban Planning and Urbanisation in the Era of
Globalisation
Globalisation and Physical Planning in Malaysia
Sustainability and Sustainable Development in the
New Urban Age
Scaling Landscape Sustainability in Urban and
Regional Context
Interdisciplinarity in the Context of Landscape
Fragmentation
Conceptual Framework and Research Variables
Summary
50
52
54
59
62
62
63
70
75
82
84
88
90
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND STUDY AREA
92
4.1
4.2
4.3
92
93
95
97
Introduction
The Study Approach
Research Design
4.3.1 Spatial Data Acquisition and Analysis
4.3.2 Measurement of Socio-Ecological Implications
of Fragmentation
4.3.3 Observing Fragmentation through Fieldwork
4.3.4 Documentation of Drivers of Landscape
Fragmentation
4.3.5 Evaluation of Sustainability Strategies in
Iskandar Malaysia
4.4 Relevant Geographical Features of Iskandar Malaysia
4.4.1 Location of Iskandar Malaysia
4.4.2 Geology and Topography
4.4.3 Landforms of Iskandar Malaysia
4.4.4 Weather and Climate
4.4.5 Vegetation and Wildlife
4.4.6 Historical Development of Settlements
4.4.7 Population Dynamics
4.4.8 Economy and Landscape Change
4.4.9 General and Green Infrastructure
4.4.10 Summary
104
112
115
116
124
125
127
128
129
130
132
134
134
136
137
ix
5
ANALYSIS OF RAPID LANDSCAPE
FRAGMENTATION
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
in
5.6
Introduction
Analysis of Landscape Structure Change
5.2.1 Patterns of Landscape Composition Change
5.2.2 Patterns of Landscape Configurational
Change
5.2.3 Landscape Fragmentation Transition
Socio-Ecological Implications of Landscape
Fragmentation
5.3.1 Analysis of Rasch Model Fit
5.3.2 Public Perception of the Effects of
Fragmentation
5.3.3 Spatial Differential Perceptions of
Fragmentation
5.3.4 Effects of Landscape Fragmentation on
Different Age Groups
5.3.5 Gender Dimensions of Landscape
Fragmentation
Real World Observations of Fragmentation of
Landscape
5.4.1 Urban Morphology Changes and Landscape
Services
5.4.2 Expanded Roads, Connectivity, and
Vulnerability
5.4.3 Effects of Fragmentation on Agricultural and
Cultural Landscapes
5.4.4. Mangrove Fragmentation and Transformation
5.4.5 Effects of Rural Morphology Changes on
Coastal Areas
5.4.6. Landscape Fragmentation and Flood
Vulnerability
5.4.7 Fragmentation and Urban Wildlife
Vulnerability
5.4.8 Effects of Fragmentation on Upland
Vegetation
5.5
Driving Forces of Landscape Fragmentation
Iskandar
5.5.1 Role of Public Policy in Driving
Fragmentation
5.5.2 Role of Institutions in Landscape
Fragmentation
5.5.3 Capital Influx and Landscape Fragmentation
Evaluation of Existing Landscape Sustainability
Strategies
5.6.1 Experts’ Views on Priority Sustainability
Issues
5.6.2 Role of Planning Policy in Landscape
Sustainability
138
138
139
140
143
146
149
149
151
154
156
157
159
160
162
163
166
167
168
170
172
175
176
177
180
186
187
189
x
5.6.3
5.6.4
5.7
6
IMPLICATIONS OF FRAGMENTATION OF
LANDSCAPES ON URBAN SUSTAINABILITY
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
6.8
6.9
6.10
6.11
6.12
6.13
6.14
6.15
6.16
7
Experts Opinions on Cultural Landscapes
Private Sector Engagement and Sustainable
Landscapes
5.6.5 Conflicts and Overlaps in Landscape
Management
5.6.6 Mainstreaming Iskandar Malaysia
Sustainability Blueprints
5.6.7 Iskandar Malaysia’s Landscapes Beyond
2025
5.6.8 Public Participation in Landscape
Sustainability
Summary
Introduction
Landscape Fragmentation Research in the Context of
Global Urban Environmental Change
Effects of Landscape Structure Change on Ecosystem
Services
Effects of Landscape Change on Urban Morphology
Landscape Structure Change and Urban Biodiversity
Landscape Change and Its Effects on Landscape
Visual Quality
Landscape Fragmentation and Public Safety and
Welfare
Landscape Fragmentation and its Effects on Cultural
Landscapes
Landscape Fragmentation and Land Tenure Security
Landscape Fragmentation andthe Tragedy of the
Commons
Landscape Fragmentation, Gentrification and Rights
to Resource Use
Businesses and Risks of Accelerated Urban
Landscape Change
Sustainability Strategies in Special Economic Zones
Vulnerability and Adaptation in Special Economic
Regions
Special Economic Zones, Environmental Change and
Globalisation
Summary
189
190
191
192
194
195
196
198
198
199
202
205
207
209
211
214
216
219
220
223
227
233
235
236
CONCLUSIONS AND FURTHER STUDIES
238
7.1
7.2
7.3
238
239
240
Introduction
Highlights of the Study Findings
The Major Conclusions of the Study
7.3.1 Repositioning the Role Landscape Change in
the New Urban Age
240
xi
7.3.2
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.7
7.8
The Imperative of Human Dimensions in
Urban Environmental Change
7.3.3 The Necessity of Accountability in Urban
Environmental Change
7.3.4 Interdisciplinarity and Abatement of Urban
Environmental Change
7.3.5 Landscape Change, Urban Sustainability and
Path Dependency
7.3.6 Expanded Public Participation in Landscape
Change
7.3.7 Science and Policy Dialogue for Urban
Sustainability
Study Insights in the Context of Global Sustainability
Science and Development Discourse
Contributions to Science
Research Limitations
Policy and practice based Recommendations
Suggestions for Further Research
REFERENCES
Appendices A – E
241
242
242
243
244
244
245
246
247
247
248
250
282-292
xii
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE NO.
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
3.1
3.2
3.3
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
5.1
5.2
TITLE
PAGE
Examples of types of European cultural landscapes
An overview of landscape fragmentation perspectives from
literature
Key units in landscape ecology
Common landscape metrics used in landscape ecology
Example of configurational and compositional metrics
European Landscape Convention framework
Models of urban landscape management
Globalisation-city relations theories
Summary of review on landscapes, city and globalization
Share of FDIs in the national GDP of South East Asian
Countries
Summary of research design strategies
Land use and land cover of the 2006 and 2010 used for this
study
Landscape level metrics used for computing landscape
fragmentation between 2006 and 2010
Examples of land development projects around respondents’
localities
Codes used for the 12 questions raised to the respondents
The sites selected for observation reflect on a variety of
issues relating to fragmentation of landscape.
Events organised or facilitated by IRDA created windows
for understanding sustainability issues in Iskandar Malaysia
Analytic Hierarchy Process metrics (after Kirytopoulos et
al. 2008)
Examples of wildlife species within and around Iskandar
Malaysia
Results of the computed landscape level fragmentation in
Iskandar Malaysia
Land use/Land Cover transition in Iskandar Malaysia
26
42
45
45
49
57
59
65
66
67
96
99
101
107
111
114
117
122
131
140
146
xiii
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
5.8
5.9
5.10
6.1
Rasch Model fit analysis for respondents
Model fit analysis for items (questions/coded variables)
Analysis of Rasch Model performance values based on
individual items
Examples of priority development projects in Iskandar
Malaysia
Summary of investment sectors in Iskandar Malaysia 2007 2010
FDIs and land use in various economic sectors of Iskandar
Malaysia
Local investments in property development in various
sectors of the economy in Iskandar Malaysia
Experts’ priorities on the seven criteria for landscape
sustainability
Summary the study research objectives and research
questions
150
150
153
181
182
183
184
187
199
xiv
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE NO.
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
TITLE
Some of thekampungs in Iskandar Malaysia
A hypothetical map of a typical desakota region in
Asia
An illustration of rapid fragmentation of landscape
(a&b) where the dark patches in (a) represent new
built-up areas from urban and per-urban areas
A graphical depiction of urban socio-ecological
system
An integrated structure of Malaysia’s spatial and
socio-economic planning
Complexities of urban-global-sustainability nexus
affect landscape at various scales
Major academic disciplines with potentials for urban
interdisciplinarity
Some of the most influential urban theories from the
19th to 21st century
Researchers from many disciplines contribute to
urban sustainability theory development
The keywords underlining the study conceptual
framework
The conceptual framework recognises multiple
dimensions of fragmentation of landscape
The study process integrates wide range of data,
methods for analysis of human dimensions of
landscape fragmentation
A Screen grab of the 2010 land use data attribute
table
Map of sampling sites based on proximity to catalyst
projects
Delphi technique process representing more than one
round of an anonymous dialogue
A hierarchy of goal, criteria and alternatives for
sustainable landscapes
PAGE
30
34
45
53
72
76
86
87
88
89
90
97
98
108
119
124
xv
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
5.8
5.9
5.10
5.11
5.12
5.13
5.14
5.15
Iskandar Malaysia is strategically located in
Malaysia and Southeast Asia
Map of Iskandar Malaysia showing its major towns
and flagships
Rural–urban mix and history of settlement
morphology in Johor
State of landscapes in Iskandar Malaysia in 1970s
Map of Landscape level spatio-temporal patterns
change in Iskandar Malaysia
Agriculture was the most dominant land use activity
in Iskandar Malaysia around 2006
The 2010 urban land use not only reduced the
dominance of agriculture but it also affected other
land use types.
Wright Map showing a graphic presentation of
public perception on the effects of landscape
fragmentation in Iskandar Malaysia
Landscape fragmentation impact perceptions of
people from across five flagships of Iskandar
Malaysia.
Age groups response dynamics to fragmentation
implications age 50 and above marked 1, 40-49
marked 2, age group 30-39 marked 3
Gender dimension of landscape fragmentation show
marked differences in the way landscape
fragmentation could affect population.
Some of the effects of landscape fragmentation on
urban morphology
An example of environmentally friendly architecture
in Kampung Sungai Melayu
Scenes of hotel and harbour development on a
previously existing mangrove swamps in Flagship B
– Nusajaya.
Homestay business around PulauKukup Ramsar site
bring economic benefits for local communities
Parts of flooded areas in PasirGudang showing
submerged industry and plantation extracted from
IKONOS satellite image
A section of a neighbourhood road in Taman Pulai
Emas
New land development poses threat to upland
ecosystem
The undisturbed hills within UTM campus illustrate
harmonious existences between humans and wildlife
126
127
133
135
147
148
148
151
154
157
158
161
165
167
168
169
172
173
174
xvi
5.16
5.17
5.18
5.19
5.20
5.21
5.22
5.23
5.24
5.25
5.26
An overview of sustainability strategy agenda for
Iskandar Malaysia
Trends in foreign and local investment influx in
Iskandar Malaysia
Distribution of catalyst land related investments
across the five flagships
Experts’ preferences among the seven factors of
landscape management
Experts’ normative views on the role of planning
policy
Experts’ judgment on conservation of cultural
landscapes
Role of private sector in managing landscapes for the
future
Conflict resolution as a strategy for landscape
sustainability
Experts’ views on blueprints integration as strategy
for sustainability
Strategies for achieving sustainable landscapes
beyond 2025
Public participation for future landscape
management
179
182
185
188
189
190
191
192
193
194
195
xvii
LIST OF ABBREVIATION
AAAS
AHP
ASEAN
AWMFD
AWMPSI
CA
CBD
CFT
CHANS
CONTAG
CDP
CPT
CIESIN
ELC
ELECTRE
FDI
FELDA
FELCRA
GIS
GLTN
ICLARM
-
ICSU
IGBP
IMS-GT
KEJORA
IRDA
LPI
LSI
LULCC
LUCC
MAUT
MAVT
MPS
MSC
-
American Association for Advancement of Science
Analytic Hierarchy Process
Association of Southeast Asian Nations
Area Weighted Mean Fractal Dimension
Area Weighted Mean Patch Shape Index
Class Area
Convention on Biological Diversity
Central Flow Theory
Coupled Human and Natural Systems
Contagion
Comprehensive Development Plan
Central Place Theory
Center for International Earth Science Information Network
European Landscape Convention
Elimination and Choice Expressing Reality
Foreign Direct Investment
Federal Land Development Authority
Federal Land Consolidation and Rehabilitation Authority
Geographic Information System
Global Land Tools Network
International Centre for Living Aquatic Resources
Management
International Council for Science Union
International Geosphere and Biosphere Project
Indonesia-Malaysia-Singapore Growth Triangle
KemajuanJohorTenggara [Southern Johor Development]
Iskandar Regional Development Authority
Large Patch Index
Landscape Shape Index
Land and Land Cover Change
Land Use and Cover Change
Multi-Attribute Utility Theory
Multi-Attribute Value Theory
Mean Patch Shape
Multimedia Super Corridor
xviii
NKEAs
NKRAs
NEP
NPP
PDT
PROMETH
EE
PSSD
SDGs
SES
SEZ
SJER
SIJORI
TCPA
TOPSIS
TPDD
TVA
UTM
UNCED
-
WCED
WMO
WSSD
-
-
National Key Economic Areas
National Key Result Areas
National Environmental Policy
National Physical Planning
Peripheral Dependency Theory
Preference Ranking Organization Method for Enrichment
Evaluation
Patch size Standard Deviation
Sustainable Development Goals
Socio-ecological Systems
Special Economic Zones
Southern Johor Economic Region
Singapore-Johore-Riau
Town and Country Planning Act
Technique for Order Preference by Similarity
Total Planning and Development Doctrine
Tennessee Valley Authority
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
United Nations Conference on Environment and
Development
World Commission on Environment and Development
World Meteorological Organisation
World Summit on Sustainable Development
xix
LIST OF APPENDICES
APPENDIX
A
B
C
D
E
TITLE
Questionnaire for public Perception survey on the
effects of landscape fragmentation in Iskandar
Malaysia
Malay Version of the translated version of the
questionnaire for public Perception survey on the
effects of landscape fragmentation in Iskandar
Malaysia
A Sample of Delphi-AHP Questionnaire
List of Delphi experts survey participants
Experts Ranking of Alternatives
PAGE
282
284
286
289
290