Taking Control of Cognitive
Aging: Psychosocial and
Behavioral Factors
Margie E. Lachman
Psychology Department
Brandeis University
Cognitive Aging Summit
Washington, D.C.
October 10-12, 2007
Collaborators and Support
Christina Röcke, Christopher Rosnick,
Eileen Kranz, Kymberlee O’Brien,
Kelly Cotter, Chandra Murphy, Pat Tun
Lifespan Developmental Psychology Lab
John D. and Catherine T.
MacArthur Foundation (MIDUS I)
NIA AG17920
NIA PO1 AG20166 (MIDUS II)
Overview
! Variation in cognition by age and
education (MIDUS II data)
! Beliefs matter- Sense of control
! Psychosocial and behavioral moderators
" Anxiety
" Cognitive Activity
! Conclusions and future directions
Lower Performance on Multiple
Cognitive Tests (BTACT) with Age:
MIDUS II National Sample (N=4705)
0.6
Backward Counting
Word List Delayed
Category Fluency
Word List Immediate
Number Series
Digits Backwards
0.5
Mean Z-Score
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
-0.1
-0.2
-0.3
-0.4
-0.5
-0.6
-0.7
-0.8
32-44
45-54 55-64 65-74
Age Group
75-84
Variability within Age and Education
for MIDUS II Cognitive Mechanics
Composite Measure
No College Degree
BA Degree or higher
Age Group
Reaction Time Increases Across Age
Groups and Task ComplexityMIDUS II Stop and Go Switch Task
1.6
Slower
1.5
Latency (s)
1.4
1.3
1.2
Increasing
task
complexity
1.1
1.0
0.9
0.8
Faster
0.7
32-44 45-54 55-64 65-74 75-85
Age Group
Variability in Reaction Time Within Age
and Education for MIDUS II Switch Task
No College Degree
Age Group
BA Degree or higher
Moderators of Age and Education
Differences in Cognition
!Identify modifiable factors
" Attenuate age differences
" Reduce education disparities
Guiding Conceptual Model:
Biopsychosocial Pathways to Healthy
Cognitive Aging
Biological
Factors
SocioDemographic
Factors
• Age
• Education
Challenges
& Stress
Social
Factors
Psychological
Factors
• Control Beliefs
•Anxiety
Behaviors
• Healthrelated
•Cognitive
Cognitive
Functioning
•Memory
•Executive
function
•Speed of
processing
Expectancies about Aging and Beliefs
about Control Make a Difference
! Beliefs, misconceptions, and
stereotypes about aging matter for
performance outcomes (e.g.,Levy, 2003)
! A low sense of control is a risk factor
for poor aging-related outcomes (Caplan
& Schooler, 2003; Krause, 2007; Lachman, 2006;
Mirowsky, 1995; Rowe and Kahn, 1998)
Control Beliefs: Percent Reporting
“A Lot of Control” Varies by Domain
100%
80%
74%
62%
60%
50%
47%
45%
Health
Thinking as
quickly as
you used to
Memory
40%
20%
0%
Life in
general, at
present
Appearance
From MIDUS II National and Boston-Area
Samples
Correlations by Age: Higher Control
Beliefs Associated with More Frequent
Cognitive and Physical Activity
0.25
Correlation
0.20
0.20**
0.21**
0.16**
0.15
0.14**
0.08*
0.10
0.10**
Young
Middle
Old
0.05
0.00
Cognitive Activity
Exercise
*p<.01
**p<.001
Correlations by Age: Higher Control
Beliefs Associated with More Strategy
Use and Better Recall
.52*
0.5
.37*
Correlations
0.4
.36*
Middle
.27*
0.3
Old
.21
0.2
0.1
0
-.05
-0.1
-.05
Strategy Use
Lachman (2006)
Young
Recall
Anxiety Moderates Age Differences in
Recall: High Anxiety has a Damaging
Effect on Recall for Older Adults
Low Anxiety
Average
High Anxiety
27
Recall
25
23
21
19
Young
Andreoletti et al. (2006)
Middle
Age Group
Old
Cognitive Activity Moderates Education Effects
on Switch Reaction Time: Cognitive Activity
has Compensatory Effect for Low Education
Latency (seconds)
Slower 1.12
Faster
Low Cognitive Activity
Medium Cognitive Activity
1.1
High Cognitive Activity
1.08
1.06
1.04
1.02
Low Education
Medium Education
High Education
Where do we go from here?
! Inspired by American Cancer Society
message…
Take Control of Your Health
(American Cancer Society)
Studies show that at least two-thirds of cancer
deaths can be prevented by:
! Not using tobacco products
! Maintaining a health weight
! Getting plenty of physical activity
! Eating healthy foods
! Avoiding the midday sun and protecting
skin from the sun
Treatment is most successful when cancer is
detected early.
Can we apply this approach to
cognitive aging?
What would our version look like?
! What are the likely recommendations
based on current state of research?
! What further research is needed for
us to be able to say?:
Studies show that cognitive
declines can be reduced, delayed,
or prevented by:
Take Control of Your Cognitive Aging?
Studies show that cognitive declines can be
reduced, delayed, or prevented by:
!
!
!
!
!
Getting a good education
Reducing stress and anxiety
Trying new and challenging activities
Adopting a healthy lifestyle (e.g.exercise)
Staying socially engaged
The effects are most beneficial when
started early in adulthood
Conclusions and Future Directions
! Clarify directionality- experimental and
longitudinal designs
! Apply new methods for study of change
! Integrate lab and survey techniques
! Increase sample diversity
! Focus on midlife and earlier adulthood
! Multimodal interventions-examine
mechanisms
End of Ten Minute Presentation
Extra Slides for Notebook
Self-Regulatory Processes and Aging
Aging-related
Outcomes/Performance
Self-Efficacy
Contingency
Mastery
Constraints
Attributions
Stereotypes
Control
Beliefs
Background
Factors:
Education
Gender
Health
Age
Mediators:
Behavioral, Motivational,
Affective, Physiological
Lachman, 2006
Cognition
Memory
Strength
Fitness
Disability
Well-being
Effort/Activity
Strategy Use
Social Support
Stress Reactivity
Anxiety
Exercise
MIDUS Study
! MIDMAC- MacArthur Foundation Research
Network on Successful Midlife Development
Midlife in the U.S. (MIDUS I)- 1995-96
! National Institute on Aging- Integrative
Pathways to Health and Illness (MIDUS II),
Program Project based at University of
Wisconsin- 2004-06
Time 1: Ages- 24-75 (N=7020)
Time 2: Ages- 34-85 (N=4942)
MIDUS II Telephone Cognitive Battery
(BTACT) Lachman & Tun, in press
Task
Theoretical
Construct(s)
Word List Recall
(immediate and
delayed)
Episodic verbal memory
Backward Digit Span
Working memory span
Test Used
Free recall of a list of 15 words drawn from the Rey
Auditory-Verbal Learning Test
(Rey, 1964; Lezak, 1995)
Highest span achieved in repeating strings of digits
backwards
(Wechsler, 1997)
Category Fluency
Verbal fluency: Executive
function, semantic memory
retrieval
Number of animal names produced in one minute
Number Series
Inductive reasoning
Complete the pattern in a series of 5 numbers with a
final number (eg. 2, 4, 6, 8, 10… 12). Five problems
include 3 types of patterns.
(after Borkowski, Benton & Spreen, 1967; see also
Tombaugh, Kozak, & Rees, 1999)
(After Schaie, 1996; Salthouse & Prill, 1987)
Backward Counting
Processing speed
Maximum number of items produced counting
backwards from 100 in 30 seconds
(after AHEAD study: Herzog & Wallace, 1997)
Attention-Switching
(Stop and Go Task)
Reaction time, attention,
task-switching, inhibition
Speeded two-choice response, either:
1.blocked (in baseline), or
2.alternating tasks (task-switching)
(after Cepeda, Kramer, & Gonzalez de Sather, 2001)
MIDUS II Stop & Go Switch Task:
Reaction Time and Switching by Telephone
CONGRUENT CONDITION: “NORMAL”
Latency (seconds)
Latency (seconds)
“GREEN”
Experimenter
“RED”
Lachman & Tun, in press
INCONGRUENT CONDITION: “REVERSE”
“GO”
Respondent
“STOP”
“RED”
Experimenter
“GREEN”
Single and Mixed Tasks
“GO”
Respondent
“STOP”
References
Andreoletti, C., Veratii, B., & Lachman, M. E. (2006). Age differences in the
relationship between anxiety and recall. Aging and Mental Health, 10, 265-271.
Caplan, L. J. & Schooler, C. (2003). The roles of fatalism, self-confidence, and
intellectual resources in the disablement process in older adults. Psychology and
Aging, 18, 551-561.
Krause, N. (2007). Age and decline in role-specific feelings of control. Journal of
Gerontology: Social Sciences, 62B, S28-S35.
Lachman, M. E. (2006). Perceived control over aging-related declines: Adaptive
beliefs and behaviors. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 15, 282-286.
Lachman, M. E., & Tun, P. A. (in press). Cognitive testing in large-scale surveys:
Assessment
by telephone. In D. Alwin & S. Hofer (Eds.). Handbook on
Cognitive Aging: Interdisciplinary Perspectives. Sage Publishers.
Levy, B. (2003). Mind matters: Cognitive and physical effects of aging self
stereotypes. Journal of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences, 58, 203-211.
Mirowsky J. (1995). Age and the sense of control. Social Psychology Quarterly, 58,
31-43.
Rowe, J. W. & Kahn, R. L. (1998). Successful Aging. New York: Random House, Inc.