European Journal of Educational Studies 5(1), 2013
European Journal of Educational Studies 5(1), 2013
© 2013 Ozean Publication
WHY CHOOSE TEACHING IN THE REPUBLIC OF IRELAND? – STUDENT
TEACHERS’ MOTIVATIONS AND PERCEPTIONS OF TEACHING AS A
CAREER AND THEIR EVALUATIONS OF IRISH SECOND-LEVEL
EDUCATION
MANUELA HEINZ
School of Education, National University of Ireland, Galway
E-mail address for correspondence: manuela.heinz@nuigalway.ie
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Abstract: This paper explores second-level student teachers’ reasons for choosing a career in teaching,
their perceptions of the teaching career and their assessments of second-level education in the Republic
of Ireland. It is the first study to use theoretically grounded and validated scales incorporating themes
from the teacher education as well as the career-choice literature more generally (FIT-Choice model Watt and Richardson, 2007) to measure the importance of different motivational factors in the Irish
context. Its results show that many who enter second-level teacher education in Ireland do so with high
expectations, high levels of confidence and commitment and laudable altruistic intentions which are, to a
certain extent, balanced by a number of realistic concerns and critical perspectives on Irish second-level
education. Implications for teacher education at policy and programme level are discussed.
Keywords: student teachers, career motivations, perceptions, concerns, backgrounds, teacher education
_____________________________________________________________________________________
INTRODUCTION
As pointed out by the OECD in Teacher Matter, “the reasons that people give for deciding to become a
teacher are important considerations in designing recruitment strategies, and in identifying the sources of
job satisfaction that influence whether people are likely to stay in the career” (OECD, 2005, 68). As a
result, research investigating student teachers‟ backgrounds and motivations has often been conducted in
response to shortages in teacher supply. The fact that educational planners in Ireland have not been
threatened by a “meltdown scenario” under which teacher shortages turn into a real staffing crisis
(OECD, 2005, 19) but have, rather, been experiencing continuously very high levels of interest in teacher
education programmes which have, in many subject areas, resulted in an oversupply of qualified teachers,
might have contributed to the dearth of research studies exploring second-level student teachers‟
backgrounds and motivations in Ireland so far (Heinz, 2008). In contrast to the teacher shortages
challenging educational policy makers in many other international contexts, teacher education
programmes in Ireland have been experiencing continuously very high levels of interest and high
numbers of entrants have, in some subjects, resulted in an oversupply of qualified teachers.
In the Irish context, a number of studies have explored backgrounds and motivations of primary (Drudy et
al., 2005; Killeavy, 1993; Greaney et al., 1987) and second-level (Clarke, 2009, Heinz, 2008) student
teachers. Second-level student teachers have been found to be homogenously Irish, predominately female,
high academic achievers the majority of whom (66%) have gained working experience before entering
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European Journal of Educational Studies 5(1), 2013
their teacher education programmes as mature students (author, under review). Increasing numbers of
student teachers have, furthermore, gained teaching experience prior to entering teacher education.
Second-level student teachers from the lower social classes and those with disabilities and/or special
needs remain underrepresented while entrants who attended private and academically-oriented secondary
schools are overrepresented in the student body (Heinz, 2008, author, 2011). In terms of student teachers‟
motivations, previous Irish studies (Drudy et al., 2005; Clarke, 2009) confirm that student teachers rate
perceived intrinsic and altruistic career values significantly higher than extrinsic motivating factors.
Research addressing student teachers‟ backgrounds, motivations and perceptions of the teaching career
and education more broadly can make an important contribution to the design of more learner-centred
teacher preparation courses that, firstly, reflect and respond to the diverse needs and expectations of
teacher candidates, and, secondly, build on and extend student teachers‟ experiences, beliefs and attitudes
which are regarded as crucial ingredients in student teacher development (Richardson & Watt, 2006;
Decker & Rimm-Kaufman, 2008; Leavy, 2005; Lortie, 1975; Devine, 2005; Pajares, 1992, Zumwalt,
1982). In practical terms, teacher educators need to carefully consider how student teachers‟ backgrounds,
experiences, motivations and attitudes may contribute to their understandings of educational contexts,
reflective practice, different teaching methodologies and, ultimately, to their own approaches to teaching
and to learning about teaching, in order to design effective teacher education programmes.
The investigation reported in this paper will complement and extend previous Irish and international
research exploring the career motivations and perceptions of student teachers. It is the first study to use
theoretically grounded and validated scales incorporating themes from the teacher education as well as
the career-choice literature more generally (FIT-Choice model - Watt and Richardson, 2007) to measure
the importance of different motivational factors in the Irish context. In addition to a number of intrinsic
and extrinsic factors analysed by Clarke (2009), it explores student teachers‟ beliefs about their ability
and suitability for teaching (teaching-ability related beliefs), their prior teaching and learning
experiences as well as the potential influence of family members and others. Second-level student
teachers‟ perceptions of the teaching career, their concerns in relation to teaching and their assessment of
second-level education are, furthermore, explored for the first time in the Irish context.
The Irish Context
General teacher education policy context
Teacher education in Ireland is provided by the Education Departments/Schools of Education of the 7
Irish universities1 or by Colleges of Education which are affiliated to some of these universities. Most
second-level teacher education programmes are provided as consecutive post-graduate courses (PGDE2).
They follow three to four years of undergraduate studies to Bachelors Honours degree level in relevant
subject areas and are, currently, of one academic year duration. The concurrent model is, however, also
offered by five institutions3 and prepares about one fifth of the annual output of second-level teachers,
mainly in the areas of Religion, Construction Studies, Metalwork/Engineering, Science, Physical
Education, Art, Home Economics (Gleeson 2004, 44). Teaching is a regulated profession and the number
of places on teacher education courses is currently limited to 1,000 places per year by the Higher
Education Authority, in collaboration with the Department of Education and Skills.
1
Dublin City University (DCU), University College Cork (UCC), University College Dublin (UCD),
NUI, Maynooth, NUI, Galway, Trinity College Dublin (TCD), University of Limerick (UL)
2
The consecutive postgraduate teacher education programmes offered at the NUI colleges have been
renamed from the Higher Diploma in Education to Postgraduate Diploma in Education in 2009 and to
Professional Diploma in Education in 2011. In this paper, I will use the title of Postgraduate Diploma in
Education (PGDE) throughout.
3
National College of Art and Design (NCAD), a recognised college of NUI; Mater Dei Institute, a
constituent college of DCU; St. Angela‟s College, Sligo, a recognised college of NUI; University of
Limerick
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European Journal of Educational Studies 5(1), 2013
Recognition of teaching awards for second-level teacher education graduates was granted by the
Secondary Teachers‟ Registration Council and the Department of Education and Science, until the Irish
Teaching Council took over that function when it was fully established on 1st March 2006. The Teaching
Council has since also taken responsibility for the:

review and accreditation of the programmes of teacher education and training provided by
institutions of higher education and training in the State;

review of standards of education and training appropriate to a person entering a programme of
teacher education and training; and

review of the standards of knowledge, skill and competence required for the practice of teaching.
As Coolahan (2003, vi) suggests, the establishment of the Teaching Council is a landmark development
for the teaching profession in Ireland, which gives „wide-ranging responsibilities on entry standards,
training courses, in-service education, research, and professional conduct‟ (Ibid.) to this body which far
outstretch the responsibilities of its forerunner, the Registration Council. Some of the recent policy
initiatives led by the Irish Teaching Council include the extension of consecutive teacher education
programmes from one to two years (starting in 2014) and the introduction of a new National Induction
Programme for Teachers.
Entry requirements and selection criteria for post-primary teacher education programmes
Entry requirements for post-primary teacher education vary in relation to whether it is a consecutive or
concurrent programme, and also in relation to the nature of the teacher qualification to be undertaken. For
the purpose of admission to the consecutive PGDE course, candidates need to have their degree
qualifications recognised by the Irish Teaching Council as being appropriate to teaching in a recognised
post-primary school. Applications to the four constituent colleges of the National University of Ireland
(NUI) (UCC, UCD, NUI, Galway and NUI, Maynooth), preparing about 70 % of the total cohort of postprimary teacher in the Republic of Ireland, have, since 1999, been administered and processed centrally
by the Postgraduate Diploma in Education (NUI) Application Centre (PDEAC). Candidates with eligible
primary degrees are selected on the basis of a points system whereby points are allocated for (a) their
academic performance in their primary degree (up to 56 points for 100%, 4.000GPA), (b) additional
relevant academic qualifications (up to 10 points for a PhD degree), and (c) (until 2011 entry) previous
teaching experience4 (up to 8 points for more than 1000 hours teaching experience from 2005 intake). 5
A previous analysis of PDEAC admission data (Heinz, 2008) showed that demand for places on Irish
second- level teacher education programmes has, for many years, considerably outstripped supply with
37.9 per cent (N=7,790) of all applicants (N=20,569) entering second-level teacher education courses at
NUI between 1999-2006 (Heinz, 2008). While the student body has diversified significantly as regards
the student teachers‟ ages between 1999 and 2006 with growing numbers of mature students entering
PGDE programmes, it has remained homogeneous in relation to their nationality, with the great majority
of student teachers being Irish. Three quarters of second-level teacher education applicants and entrants
are female. Students who enter teacher education programmes in Ireland are of high academic calibre
with more than 70 per cent of entrants holding honours level degrees. Over the eight-year period analysed
(1999-2006 entrants), prior teaching experience became a crucial factor for acceptance, with over half of
all successful applicants gaining points in the selection process for teaching experience. Another surveybased study (under review) showed that student teachers with disabilities remain underrepresented in the
student teacher body as are students from the lower social classes.
4
From 1998 to 2010, applicants received further points for relevant teaching experience. This last
selection criteria, which will be discussed in more detail at a later stage, was recently abolished by the
Teaching Council and will cease to gain applicants points from the academic year of 2011/12.
5
Following a decision by the Teaching Council in 2009, Teaching Experience has ceased to be included
for points purposes after the 2010 intake. For more information about the PGDE selection system,
detailed description of the point system and changes to the same between 1999 and 2011 please refer to
Heinz (2011).
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European Journal of Educational Studies 5(1), 2013
PGDE course structure and student assessment
The Postgraduate Diploma in Education (PGDE) aims to provide students with the professional
knowledge, understanding and pedagogical skills required to become a teacher at post-primary level. It
generally includes three main components: Educational Sciences, Professional Studies of Education and
Professional Practice6. The first includes modules in Psychology, Philosophy, Sociology and History of
Education, Inclusive Education (Diversity, Special Educational Needs) and School Organisation.
Professional Practice modules offered by different universities include Curriculum and Assessment, ICT
in Education, and Teaching Studies (Theories and Practices of Teaching and Learning). While these
taught components introduce students to conceptual frameworks and relevant issues within different
disciplines of education, student teachers‟ practical teaching placements provide them with an
experiential base for their development as teachers. The Teaching Practice component currently involves
a minimum of 100 (clock) hours of teaching practice in a recognised post-primary school in the relevant
school subjects. Students organize their own teaching placements and remain in their chosen school for
the duration of their teaching practice. In their teaching practice schools, students are usually assigned to
one or two “co-operating teachers”. In most cases, those teachers are the main teachers of the classes the
student teachers teach during their placement. In addition, before starting their school-based teaching
experience, student teachers complete a period of observation in schools and some universities offer
microteaching sessions. The development of student teachers‟ professional practice is supported through
supervision of their teaching practice as well as, more recently, tutorials focusing on reflective practice
and other relevant issues. Most programmes now require students to document their professional
development in a Portfolio.
Assessment of teaching practice takes place by on-site teaching placement supervision. Each student
works with a university tutor who visits and observes students teaching in their schools on a number of
occasions (usually between 3 and 5 times throughout the year) and assesses students‟ overall performance
at the end of the course. Teaching practice supervision is conducted by full-time and part-time lecturers
and tutors. The cohort of part-time tutors was, until recently, mainly composed of retired teachers and
principals with extensive classroom experience.
A variety of different methods are being used to assess University based (Educational Sciences,
Professional Studies and Professional Practice) course components ranging from written examinations
and continuous assessment assignments, like essays and project work, to reflective portfolios.
METHODOLOGY
Results presented in this paper were gained from a multi-institutional cross-sectional online questionnaire
sent (via email) to all successful applicants to the Postgraduate Diploma in Education (PGDE)
(2006/2007) at the four National University of Ireland (NUI) education departments (Cork, Dublin,
Galway and Maynooth) (preparing about 70% of all post-primary teachers in the Republic of Ireland)
before they started their teacher education programme. Besides student teachers‟ motivations and
perceptions, which are described in this paper, this survey also explored their demographic, socioeconomic, professional and educational backgrounds (author, under review).1
Survey development was informed by a qualitative pilot study as well as by a systematic review of
relevant literature in teacher education and teaching generally. Following the pre-testing strategy
developed by Dillman (2000), the survey was piloted in four stages. In terms of percentages of the total
2006/2007 student cohort, 44% of the 781 NUI PGDE entrants participated in the survey. In order to
address the issue of survey non-response bias, a wave analysis where „the researcher examines returns on
selected items week by week to determine if average responses change‟ was undertaken (Leslie, 1972)
6
Overarching categories used by NUI Galway
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European Journal of Educational Studies 5(1), 2013
and demographic characteristics of the survey sample were compared with those of the total population
(details deleted to ensure anonymity of author).
For the purpose of measuring respondents‟ motivations, the empirically validated „FIT-Choice‟ (Factors
Influencing Teachers Choice) Framework was used (Watt and Richardson, 2007, 171). All factors (shown
in Figure 1) are measured by multiple-item indicators with response options ranging from 1 (“not at all
important) through to 7 (“extremely important“). The framework was complemented by a number of
quantitative and qualitative items which were designed as a result of a qualitative pilot study and which
aim to facilitate the appreciation of the particular Irish context and to enrich the quantitative data. Using
qualitative items, the survey explored, among other issues, entrants’ reasons for choosing teaching as a
career, their concerns in relation to a teaching career and their assessment of second-level education in
Ireland.
Multi-item summated rating scales were used to measure the overall importance of different FIT-Choice
constructs. To test factors for internal consistency, Cronbach alpha reliability tests were performed for all
factors (see figure 1).
The data was analysed using the Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) for Windows (Version
14.0). Motivations for choosing teaching as a career, perceptions about the teaching profession, and
career choice satisfaction were summarised by mean scores for all quantitative items and/or factors.
Responses to open-ended, qualitative questions were analysed thematically using NVIVO‟s „fee node‟
and „tree node‟ functions.
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European Journal of Educational Studies 5(1), 2013
Figure 1: Fit-choice model
Task demand
(Alpha: 0.71)
Expertise
Difficulty
Task return
(Alpha: 0.88)
Social Status
Salary
C
h
o
i
c
Socialization
influences
Social dissuation (Alpha:
0.74)
Prior teaching and learning
experience (as pupil)
(Alpha: 0.87)
Social influences (Alpha:
0.85)
Self perception
(Alpha: 0.83)
Perceived
teaching
abilities
e
o
f
Intrinsic value
(Alpha: 0.61)
Personal utility value
(Alpha: 0.88)
Job security
Time for family
Job transferability
T
e
a
c
Social utility value
(Alpha: 0.93)
Shape future of
children/adolescents
Enhance social equity
Make social contribution
Work with children/adolescents
h
i
n
g
C
Fallback career
(Alpha: 0.58)
a
r
Reproduced from Watt and Richardson, 2007, 176 with Cronbach alpha scores from this Irish study
added.
e
e
t
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European Journal of Educational Studies 5(1), 2013
Presentation and Discussion of Results
Motivations for teaching (figure 2)
Entrants surveyed perceived intrinsic factors as those that most influenced their choice of teaching as a
career. Enjoyment of teaching also featured in as many as 38.2% of qualitative responses some of which
are shown below:
I honestly enjoy imparting knowledge. The buzz or sense of satisfaction from
doing a good lesson is hard to beat and as long as I feel that buzz I will love
teaching.
I enjoy the thrill of teaching in front of a class.
To be honest, teaching doesn‟t feel like work. I thoroughly enjoy it and can't
understand why everyone doesn‟t want to be a teacher.
Additional items describing intrinsic motivations achieving high scores were: i) „I love my subject‟ (mean
value of 6.23), ii) „I want to be creative in my job‟ (mean value of 5.86); and iii) „Teaching is a very
fulfilling job‟ (mean value of 5.89).
The second highest rated reason for choosing a teaching career was respondents‟ perceived teaching
ability (mean value of 5.6). The „ability‟ factor comprises student teachers‟ perceptions of their teaching
skills and qualities, as well as their perceived suitability for the teaching career. Its great importance in
entrants‟ decisions to choose a teaching career concurs with the results of Watt and Richardson‟s
Australian study (Richardson and Watt, 2006, Watt and Richardson, 2007).
As much as 27.6% of qualitative responses to the question asking participants to „state their main reasons
for choosing a teaching career‟ included confident statements as regards their ability to teach (N=40,
18.4%) or personal qualities that made them suitable for a teaching career (N=20, 9.2%). Within the latter
category, reference to interpersonal capacities and dispositions predominated, confirming Lortie‟s earlier
findings (1975, 27f, 39f). The examples below serve to illustrate the „perceived ability‟ factor as a
motivator for respondents‟ career choice:
I know that becoming a great teacher is a profession that you are continuously
growing to achieve and improve but I feel I have innate skills that will help me
starting out in the profession that not everyone possesses.
I am a very caring and honest person and I get on very well with young people and
I can communicate very well with them.
I have a great way with teenagers
Another motivating factor achieving mean ratings well above the midpoint (mean=5.5) was respondents‟
prior teaching and learning experience, a finding which is, again, consistent with results from the
aforementioned Australian study (Richardson and Watt, 2006, Watt and Richardson, 2007). The positive
influence of prior teaching and learning experiences has, indeed, been emphasised by a number of
researchers in the area of teacher education (Book, Freeman and Brousseau, 1985; Fox, 1961; Jantzen,
1981; Lortie, 1975; Roberson et al., 1983). In this study, as much as 78% of all respondents (N=184)
confirmed that they had had inspirational teachers and 80% indicated that their learning experiences had
been positive.
Respondents also placed high value on the opportunity to engage in a socially useful task. The social
utility value construct Make a social contribution achieved the highest mean score of 5.4, followed by
Shape the future of children/adolescent (mean=5.2), Work with children/adolescents (mean=5.1), and
Enhance Social Equity (mean=4.8).
Extrinsic reasons for joining the teaching profession, which have traditionally been ranked much lower
than intrinsic and/or altruistic reasons (author XXXX; OECD, 2005), received much lower mean scores in
this study also (overall mean score of 3.40 for personal utility value). Significant differences could,
however, be observed in the scores of the different component factors, with job security attaining a mean
score of 4.3, job transferability scoring 3.6, and time for family achieving the lowest score of 2.4.
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European Journal of Educational Studies 5(1), 2013
Interestingly, these scores are significantly lower than those reported for the same factors in Watt and
Richardson‟s Australian study (2007).2
It seems that Irish second-level teacher education entrants have not received much encouragement from
friends, family and/or former work colleagues to join the teaching profession, with only 3 respondents
(1.4%) mentioning the positive influence that family members who are teachers had had on their decision
to choose a teaching career in their qualitative responses. The only time friends were mentioned, their
intention seemed to have been rather to discourage the respondent in question from a teaching career:
Friends often comment that I must be mad wanting to work with teenagers and
they don't understand why I would want to put myself in the "firing line" where I
could be verbally abused or have things thrown at me. They find the idea of 25
teenagers very daunting …
The mean score achieved in this study for the social dissuasion factor, which explored the extent to which
others have dissuaded individuals from a teaching career, is 3.52, which is significantly higher than that
describing the extent to which others have influenced respondents‟ decision in a positive way (mean score
of 2.6).
As regards the influence others have had on student teachers‟ decisions to train to become teachers, the
results of this study are in dissonance with previous research reporting that family members had been
frequently nominated as influence on the choice of teaching as a career (Book and Freeman, 1986; Fox.
1961; Lortie, 1975; Roberson, Keith and Page, 1983, Drudy et al., 2005; Killeavy, 1998).
In contrast to much earlier findings (Lortie, 1975; O‟Connell 1993; OECD, 2005) respondents of the
PGDE survey did not consider teaching as a fallback career or „backup‟ option.
Figure 2: Mean scores for fit-choice motivating factors for all respondents (bar chart)
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European Journal of Educational Studies 5(1), 2013
Perceptions about the teaching career.
In accordance with Watt and Richardson‟s Australian study (2007), respondents in the Irish sample
generally felt that teaching was a career that is higher in task demand (mean score of 5.49) than in task
return (mean score of 4.30). As regards the former construct, participants rated the teaching career as
requiring above average levels of expertise (mean score of 5.02) and as being a highly demanding job
(mean score for difficulty 5.95). The great majority of respondents thought that „teaching was hard work‟
(95% rated this item at point 5, 6 or 7, mean score of 6.11) and „emotionally demanding‟ (mean score of
6.21).
Entrants‟ perceptions of the returns a teaching career offers in relation to social status and salary resulted
in significantly lower ratings. Nevertheless, mean ratings for both factors lay around the scale midpoint
(social status: 4.30; salary: 3.94), indicating that, albeit perceiving an imbalance between the demands
and returns that characterise a teaching career, participants were not particularly dissatisfied with the
latter. Interestingly, participants in this Irish sample showed significantly greater satisfaction with the
teaching salary than did Australian student teachers (Watt and Richardson, 2007: 192)3 even though
teachers‟ salaries (ratios of salaries after 15 years experience to GDP per capita) are very comparable in
both countries (1.17 in Ireland and 1.19 in Australia) (OECD, 2009).
Figure 3: Mean scores for fit-choice beliefs and decisions factors
for all respondents (bar chart)
In addition to the FIT-Choice items, participants also rated their agreement with a number of propositions
about aspects of the teaching career that might be reasons for concern to them including „stress‟, „status‟,
„long hours‟, „pay‟, „relationships with parents‟, „relationships with colleagues‟, and „discipline‟.
Student behaviour proved to be the highest rated concern among entrants achieving a mean score of 5.58.
The importance of this concern is not surprising considering that student misbehaviour has received a
great deal of media coverage in Ireland and other European countries for a number of years now. Irish
research indicates that, according to the perceptions of principals and teachers, the incidence of disruptive
behaviour in Irish second-level schools has increased since 2000 (DES, 2006, 65) and The Report of the
Task Force on Student Behaviour in Second Level Schools (Ibid.) describes the serious impact of a long
list of widespread „low-level disruptions‟ in Irish schools on teachers‟ motivations, enjoyment of
teaching, and mental and physical health.
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European Journal of Educational Studies 5(1), 2013
The next highly rated concern among respondents was the perceived level of „stress‟ the career could
potentially cause to them (mean score of 4.87). Respondents were least concerned about the „status of the
teaching profession‟ (mean score of 2.42).
The analysis of qualitative responses (see table 1) confirmed the high level of anxiety among entrants in
relation to discipline issues, which were addressed by 50.6% of participants. The majority of responses
coded at this theme referred generally to student teachers‟ worries in relation to discipline, classroom
management and/or controlling a class (N=93). Others mentioned specific problems like „aggressive
pupils‟, „pupils‟ attitudes‟, „bullying‟, „lack of respect among pupils‟, or „uncooperative students‟.
More than one quarter of all respondents (27.5%) indicated that they were worried about securing a
teaching position after qualifying. Two respondents explain:
In relation to a teaching career, I worry about:
… finding a job after my studies as it is a tough task at the moment to find steady
employment in teaching. I know many qualified teachers who have opted for
different careers as the uncertainty of the subbing hours each week and of course
definite pay also each week proved too hard.
… finding a job!! I have been well-warned by teachers that finding a full-time
position is a difficult task, and that I should expect to be covering short-term
periods of leave in various schools all over the country for quite a while. And even
if I am in one school for a longer period of time, I could be on 1 year contracts for
anything up to 8 or 9 years with no guarantees! It is a very scary thought to not
have any job security for that length of time.
The widespread concerns among second-level student teachers in relation to their job prospects are well
founded. According to the Higher Education Authority, only four per cent of the 2005 graduates of the
Higher Diploma in Education (predecessor of PGDE) had gained permanent teaching posts nine months
after graduation, while 57% of them were in part-time, temporary or substitute teaching positions (HEA,
2007).
One in five respondents worry about „being a good/competent/effective/successful teacher‟ (20.5%).
While some entrants kept their statements general, saying that they worried about „being good enough‟,
„being a good teacher‟ or „turning into the teacher I would have disliked‟, others addressed specific
teacher qualities and/or tasks including „communicating successfully‟, „being knowledgeable enough‟,
„pitching the right level‟, „rapport with students‟, or „dealing with disadvantaged students‟.
Table 1: Student teachers‟ concerns in relation to a teaching career. Qualitative themes
In relation to a teaching career I worry about …
Recurrent themes
Number and % of entrants with different amounts of
prior teaching experience (in hours)
Number and % of
all responses
None (N=65)
50-449 (N=93)
450+ (N=71)
Total (N=229)
… discipline
N=44 (67.7%)
N=41 (44.1%)
N=31 (43.7%)
N=116 (50.6%)
… job prospects
N=16 (24.6%)
N=21 (22.6%)
N=26 (36.6%)
N=63
(27.5%)
…being a good/competent/
effective/successful teacher
N=12 (18.5%)
N=23 (24.7%)
N=12 (16.9%)
N=47
(20.5%)
… stress
N=6 (9.2%)
N=6 (6.4%)
N=5 (7.0%)
N=17
(7.4%)
… becoming burnt out/will I
enjoy it?
N=1 (1.5%)
N=2 (2.1%)
N=6 (8.4%)
N=9
(3.9%)
… covering material/results
N=2 (3.1%)
N=2 (2.1%)
N=2 (2.8%)
N=6
(2.6%)
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European Journal of Educational Studies 5(1), 2013
Student teachers ‘assessments of second-level education in Ireland (table 2).
Respondents‟ general estimations of the adequacy of post-primary education in Ireland indicate that little
over one third of the sample (38.1%) considered the provision of the same to be satisfactory. Responses
included in this category ranged from statements like “good but can be improved” over “satisfactory” to
“excellent/of a high standard/one of the best in Europe”. Just over half as many responses (22.9% of
sample) were categorised as generally negative evaluations of the Irish second-level educational system.
Where statements indicating that the system was “in need of improvement” stood alone or without
accompanying positive evaluations, they were included in the category “unsatisfactory”.
The remaining 39.0% of responses were categorised as neutral/balanced. They included descriptions
which lacked a clear value judgment, like for instance “Second-level education in Ireland is” “hit and
miss”, “improving”, “changing”, “important”, “challenging”, or those where negative/critical and positive
comments seemed balanced.
Table 2: Student teachers‟ assessment of second-level education in Ireland. Qualitative themes
Second-level education in Ireland is …
Respondents’ overall assessment of Irish second-level education – themes
Number and % of all
responses (N=236)
Satisfactory, good, excellent, or other generally positive statements
N=90
(38.1%)
Neutral or balanced statements
N=92
(39.0%)
Unsatisfactory or other overall negative/critical statements
N=54
(22.9%)
Recurrent themes
Number and % of all
responses (N=236)
… Leaving certificate points driven, pressure, competitive, stressful
N=37
(15.7%)
… changing, improving, being updated, at a turning point/crossroads
N=29
(12.3%)
… one of the best in Europe or the world
N=18
(7.6%)
... in need for improvement
N=17
(7.2%)
... difficult, demanding, challenging
N=14
(5.9%)
… vital time, stepping stone to adult life, personal development
N=12
(5.1%)
… critical of teaching approach
N=11
(4.7%)
… in need of additional resources
N=10
(4.2%)
…preparation for third level/career choice
N=8
(3.4%)
…elitist, unfair, leaving disadvantaged students behind
N=7
(3.0%)
As regards recurring themes in respondents‟ qualitative statements, every sixth entrant participating in
this study (15.7%) criticized the product-oriented school culture which exposed pupils to high levels of
stress and pressure to succeed in the terminal Leaving Certificate Examination and some respondents
suggested that the introduction of different forms of continuous assessment could improve education at
second level. Typical responses in this category were:
Second-level education in Ireland is:
… too focused on exam results. The Leaving Cert Syllabus is shoved down
students' necks and they get too stressed out and caught up in the points race...
[…] However there would seem to be terrible focus on the Leaving Cert and less
and less on the shaping of the more rounded socially conscious individual.
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European Journal of Educational Studies 5(1), 2013
[…] However I do believe that the Leaving cert. puts more pressure on a 17/18
year old than necessary and perhaps more continuous assessment is needed which
would relieve pressure for our young people which is evident by the rising rates of
suicide around exam times or exam age, particularly of young men.
A slightly smaller number of comments (N=29, 12.3%) described the education system as one that is
currently undergoing change. Many of those who developed this theme further referred to improvements
in teaching methods and seem to portray a positive outlook into the future sometimes imagining
themselves actively contributing to the envisaged transformation.
Relatively small proportions of entrants voiced criticism in relation to currently applied „teaching
approaches‟ (4.7%), the „lack of adequate funding available to schools‟ (4.2%), and the „elitist‟ or „unfair‟
nature of a system that „leaves disadvantaged students behind‟ (3.0%).
Significant relationships between background variables, motivations and perceptions
The relationship between entrants’ gender and their wish to ‘work with children/adolescents’ proved to
be the most significant**4 of all gender differences, with female student teachers attaching much greater
importance to this factor as a motivating factor than males (mean scores of 4.43 and 5.45). While this
particular „social utility‟ or „altruistic‟ factor received the fourth highest mean rating from female
respondents, it only achieved eighth position on the ranking list for factors motivating male participants.
This study thus echoes earlier findings showing that female candidates report more child-centred
motivations to teach than their male counterparts (Brookhart and Freeman, 1992; Drudy et al., 2005;
Clarke, 2009). It lends further support to the key recommendation forwarded by Drudy and colleagues
who argue that „if an increase of the proportion of men entering teaching is considered desirable […]
policy makers, legislators, administrators and educators should adopt and emphasise caring as a core
human value, one which is as central for boys and men as it is for girls and women (155).
The importance of prior teaching and learning experiences was another motivating factor rated
significantly** higher by females (mean=5.72) than males (mean=4.92).
The variable age most significantly impacted respondents’ estimations of the teaching career’s returns in
terms of social status** and salary*. Overall, entrants falling into the youngest age group (21-24)
allocated significantly higher ratings to both factors (means=4.60 and 4.16) than did older participant
(means=3.90 and 3.75 for 25-30 year olds and 4.25 and 3.70 for students aged 31+). Interestingly, the
social status teachers enjoyed in society was perceived lowest by entrants aged between 25 and 30 years.
The same age group also indicated significantly higher experiences of social dissuasion (mean=3.80) than
did their younger (mean=3.51) and older (mean=3.06) fellow students.
Despite the significant gender and age differences as regards the strength of entrants‟ orientations toward
different motivating factors, the ranking of the different influences was very similar for all groups.
All the examined background variables appeared to influence the extent to which students were
concerned about the relationships with parents with males rating their concerns in relation to this aspect
of the teaching career significantly* lower than females (mean for males=3.30, females=4.01) and
younger students worrying more about this aspect of teaching than mature entrants (21-24 year olds‟
mean score=4.14; 25-30 year olds‟ mean score = 3.56; 31+ year olds‟ mean score=3.30). Besides
entrants‟ age, prior teaching experience seemed to improve their confidence in dealing with parents (0-49
hours mean score=4.20; 50+ hours mean score=3.6).*
With regard to respondents’ motivations to choose a teaching career, the thematic analysis of qualitative
responses revealed the existence of two themes virtually exclusive to the responses of ‘experienced’
entrants: the „job satisfaction‟ teaching offered, on the one hand, and their enjoyment of their „previous
teaching experience‟, on the other. „Job satisfaction‟ was given as a reason for choosing a teaching career
by only 3.2% (N=2) of „inexperienced‟ entrants compared to 15.5% (N=13) of respondents with up to 449
hours teaching experience and 22.9% (N=16) of those who had taught for more than 450 hours before
entering the PGDE. „Prior teaching experience‟ was mentioned as a reason for choosing a teaching career
by every 5th „experienced‟ entrant (20.8%, N=32). Some respondents described how they had „fallen into
teaching‟ by chance:
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European Journal of Educational Studies 5(1), 2013
I never knew that I wanted to become a teacher until I started doing tutorials at 3rd
level and then I realised that teaching was for me because of the great satisfaction
that I achieved from it.
The principal of my old school asked me to step in for a Music teacher who was
leaving at short notice. I had no previous teaching experience but the principal
knew me and knew I had been teaching music and had been thinking about a career
in teaching. After a few weeks in this new job I just knew that teaching is what I
want to do.
While most studies exploring student teacher motivations appear to assume that the influential factors on
students‟ career decisions remain largely within their sole control, these responses highlight the
importance that „opportunity structures‟ (Roberts, 1968) or „happenstance‟ (Miller, 1983) as well as
cultural traditions and social networks (Hodkinson & Sparkes, 1997) may play in individual‟s career
decision. Sometimes if might be an unexpected opportunity to “try out teaching” in a school where an
individual is known that triggers a desire to pursue a certain career.
With reference to entrants’ worries in relation to a teaching career, the analysis of the qualitative item
exploring this topic showed that a considerably smaller proportion of ‘experienced’ than ‘inexperienced’
entrants mentioned discipline issues in their comments. This finding shows that, while entrants‟ ratings of
this concern on the quantitative rating scale had not been significantly different, worries relating to
student behaviour appear to be much more on the forefront of „inexperienced‟ than „experienced‟
entrants‟ minds.
Final Conclusion
This profile of motivations and perceptions shows that many who enter second-level teacher education in
Ireland do so with high expectations, high levels of confidence and commitment intrinsic motivations and
altruistic intentions which are, to a certain extent, balanced by a number of realistic concerns and critical
perspectives on Irish second-level education. It suggests that, at the teacher recruitment stage, it is
essential to target a range of values and factors that together impact the decision to enter teaching as a
career. Once these trainees have entered the teacher pipeline, teacher education programmes, schools and
educational policy makers need to address the issues of how they can, firstly, retain those future teachers‟
enthusiasm and, secondly, allow them to sufficiently realize their motivating aspirations and ideals in the
face of difficulties they will experience when they enter schools as trainee and later as qualified teachers.
The realization of motivating aspirations needs to be considered a particularly important goal for policymakers and educators since it has been linked to teachers‟ long-term commitment to the profession as
well as to their health (Beng Huat, 2004; Kieschke and Schaarschmidt, 2008; Johnson and Birkeland,
2003; OECD, 2005; Zumwalt and Craig, 2008). The results of this thesis show that Irish government
policies need to enhance teachers‟ opportunities to intellectually and creatively engage with their expert
subjects and to perform socially relevant tasks. They furthermore need to address entering teachers‟
pragmatic concerns as regards the availability of long-term and/or secure teaching posts and take
measures to improve public opinion and reputation of second-level teaching as a career in order to avoid
that individuals who have the potential to become effective teachers are discouraged from joining the
profession.
Teacher education programmes as well as educational policy makers must consider it more than desirable
to sustain student teachers‟ intrinsic motivations and expectations, many of which are, in fact, closely
linked to a range of teachers‟ roles, responsibilities and relationships described in the Irish Codes of
Professional Conduct for Teachers (The Teaching Council, 2007). Programmes need to be structured and
designed carefully to help trainee teachers to achieve satisfying levels of individual success and personal
fulfillment on their journey to becoming competent and proficient teachers. This might mean that
instructional demands and expectations placed on student teachers during their initial training need to be
more carefully graduated and possibly tailored to individual circumstances. It certainly requires high
levels of supervisory support and close collaboration between university and school personnel.
Furthermore, it requires all involved in teacher education to address more explicitly and productively the
tensions between student teachers‟ aspirations and the realities they face in their day-to-day teaching in
order to support student teachers to develop a healthy balance between their intrinsic and altruistic
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European Journal of Educational Studies 5(1), 2013
motivations and the pragmatic demands of the teaching profession. As advised by Kieschke and
Schaarschmidt (2008), „it might be essential to directly convey effective coping skills for everyday
occupational problems during teacher education; especially the capability for effective self-management
in stressful situations‟ (436).
The results of this thesis have implications for the design of teacher education course components aiming
to develop teacher candidates‟ critical and reflective as well as practical teaching skills. Accordingly,
teacher educators can build on a widespread critical perspective among entrants towards some of the
curricular and instructional aspects of Irish second-level education, especially as regards the productoriented examination system, which would appear to encourage them to, firstly, investigate and discuss
possibilities for reform in these areas and, secondly, explore a variety of teaching approaches and
methods in theory and practice. Nevertheless, teacher education programmes need to assess what
instructional strategies might be most effective to extend the focus of entrants‟ critical assessments and
reflections to include an appreciation of a range of sociological perspectives on schooling including
concepts of disadvantage and inclusive education and, ultimately, a sense of responsibility, readiness and
capacity to meet the needs of and provide equitable learning opportunities for all children in their
classrooms.
This study has shown that the proportion of students who considered social justice and/or diversity issues
before entering initial teacher education is very small (less than 5%). Furthermore, as long as the student
teacher body remains largely homogenous as regards teacher candidates‟ cultural, ethnic and educational
backgrounds (author, under review), and since research has shown that teacher candidates‟ exposure to
diversity remains limited in the Irish context (Leavy, 2005), teacher educators should consider in how far
and in what way the experiences of individuals from different backgrounds, who might not be teacher
candidates, could be incorporated into teacher education programmes. The role and possibilities for
increasing community based and/or service-learning opportunities, which can provide a platform for
student teachers‟ meaningful engagement with marginalized individuals and groups, in teacher education
deserve further research and discussion among teacher educators in this respect. As argued by Boland and
Keane (2011), service learning/community-based-learning (S/CBL) „can enhance student teachers‟
confidence and competence in catering for diversity within their classrooms as well as their sense of
agency for change in their classrooms and schools.‟ Another potentially transformative outcome of
S/CBL suggested by Boland and Keane (Ibid.) is the enhancement of the engagement and achievement of
minority and marginalized pupils who work with student teachers and who might, as a result, even feel
encouraged to consider entering the teaching profession.
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1
The full survey and an overview of all results is available as part of author‟s thesis (2011).
2
The scores for the same factors for two Australian universities were: Job security – 4.63 and 5.21; Time
for family – 3.70 and 4.05; Job transferability – 4.08 and 4.17. (Watt and Richardson, 2007, 192)
3
The scores for the same factor for two Australian universities were 2.94 and 3.45. (Watt and Richardson,
2007, 192)
4
Note: „t‟ test and ANOVA significance between means is indicated as follows: *p<.01 – p<.05;
**p<.000 – p<.001
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