Maarten Hooijberg
Geometrical Geodesy
Using Information and
Computer Technology
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Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg New York
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List of Figures
Fig. A: Sub-sea river colour coded chart from red (shallow) to blue (deep water)__________________________________3
Fig. B: Linux Tix ____________________________________________________________________________________7
Fig. C: Time - Part of the Astronomical Clock at the Cathedral of Strasbourg ____________________________________9
Fig. D: The Eastern part of the European 52° arc of parallel between Feaghmain and Warsaw ______________________10
Fig. E: Rock-cut tomb entrances near Mada-in-Salih _______________________________________________________11
Fig. F: Laplace Station with the EDM Tellurometer Mk 101 _________________________________________________11
Fig. G: Dodge Powerwaggon with the mobile Survey-tower T-1000 proceeding to next survey station________________11
Fig. H: Using hydraulics to raise the Survey-Tower T-1000 _________________________________________________12
Fig. I: C-Nav Starfire GcDGPS World receiver in the foreground on a barge lifting a Hurricane Katrina damaged platform
_________________________________________________________________________________________13
Fig. J: Time by Bulova's tuning fork ____________________________________________________________________14
Fig. K: Survey for a ship's wreck I _____________________________________________________________________14
Fig. L: Survey for a ship's wreck II _____________________________________________________________________14
Fig. M: Bathymetric chart is colour coded from red (shallow) to blue (deep water) _______________________________15
Fig. N: Laptop PC with Innomar SES 2000 Compact - parametric sub-bottom profiler ____________________________15
Fig. O: Innomar SES 2000 Compact - parametric transducer with cable ________________________________________16
Fig. P: Innomar SES 2000 – parametric sub-bottom profile with high and low frequencies _________________________16
Fig. Q: Innomar parametric sub-bottom profile of the Baltic Sea______________________________________________17
Fig. R: Innomar parametric sand ripple survey at Cuxhaven _________________________________________________17
Fig. S: Kongsberg HUGIN-1000 - mine-hunting survey ____________________________________________________18
Fig. T: HUGIN 3000 AUV using GNSS and Acoustic Doppler log____________________________________________19
Fig. U: Mapping the sea bottom in a harsh environment by HUGIN-3000 AUV. Chart depths are colour coded from red in
shallow water) to blue in very deep water ________________________________________________________20
Fig. V: Kongsberg HiPAP using an array of 241 elements assembled into one sphere _____________________________20
Fig. W: Single beam ceramic transducer_________________________________________________________________20
Fig. X: Preparing of Geoconsult's Kongsberg HUGIN-3000 AUV for deep sea operations _________________________21
Fig. Y: Launching C&C's adapted C-surveyor Kongsberg HUGIN-3000 AUV for deep sea operations _______________21
Fig. Z: Recovering HUGIN-3000 AUV from deep sea operations _____________________________________________22
Fig. AA: Kongsberg BM-636 dual beam ceramic transducer _________________________________________________22
Fig. BB: An Electronic Teleconferencing Facility Centre fed by 1024 Servers equipped with two SCSI-discs each ______22
Fig. CC: Side-scan-sonar 410 kHz image of the German U-166 submarine discovered in the Gulf of Mexico __________23
Fig. DD: Kongsberg-Simrad EA 400 operator display ______________________________________________________23
Fig. EE: Sub-bottom-electromagnetic profiling image using 900 Hz with boleholes B1 and B2 in the South-China Sea___24
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Charting an Underwater River
Fig. A: Sub-sea river colour coded chart from red (shallow) to blue (deep water)
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Hydrographic Surveys
The 20th century has witnessed the geographical exploration of the earth’s surface, and the attempts to explore
the interior of the earth. Historically, the latter was confined to the near surface, following downward those discoveries made at the surface. However a very limited portion of the sub-surface regions of the earth can be
studied by direct and restricted exploration drilling, so scientists are forced to rely extensively on geophysical
measurements.
Since World War II, improved standards of living have increased demands for water, fuel, and other materials.
A major motive is the prospect of creating a substantial economic benefit. Pure scientific curiosity was a byproduct for exploring the earths subsurface regions. In the mean time, economic profits have resulted from the
quest for scientific knowledge. Since the 1950s, scientific knowledge has been obtained through geophysical
research conducted.
In the past, especially in hydrography due to the type of work, surveying was carried out on the principles of
ordinary practice in a rough manner. Working with celestial observations and coordinating time, the intersection of three lines of positioning resulted in the location of the observer. However, the relative positions of the
main surface features were usually obtained by aid of portable instruments, such as sextants and lead lines, tide
poles, and logships. Only small areas were mapped and surveyed without a framework.
National Hydrographic Offices
Using a framework, the topographical surveys were done by the national mapping agencies (NMAs). However,
the national hydrographic offices (NHOs) of every country are responsible for ensuring the safety of navigation
by providing seafaring engineers with nautical charts, and the latest relevant marine information. Thus, an adequate national maritime policy designed to achieve the benefits are:
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safe and efficient operation of maritime control
coastal zone management
sea bottom topography, oil- and gas pipelines, communication cables
exploration and exploitation of marine resources
environmental protection and data information
In the hydrosphere - including oceans and ice - the governmental activities are used for hydrographic surveying
of ocean water depths, and for recording environmental data: winds, tidal currents and waves, salinity, and water temperatures. In addition, evaluation of numerical models of geophysical processes, eddy dynamics, global
distribution of ocean surface waves, global mean sea level changes, hot spot swells, large scale variability on
time scales from intra-seasonal to inter-annual in relation to forcing mechanisms El Niño and El Niña, mapping
of oceanic tectonic plates thermal and mechanical properties, mass-balance dynamics of ice sheets, ocean currents circulation, ocean tides description, planetary wave dynamics, time-varying geocentric and earth
rotational parameters.
Hydrography - Oil and Gas Engineering In Brief
During the 1890s, the potential for applying technology to oil field development was recognised. the basics of
petroleum engineering were established in the states California and Texas, USA. Geologists were employed to
correlate oil-producing zones and water zones from well to well. Between 1900 and the late 1930s, petroleum
engineers were busy with drilling problems, designing casing strings, and improving the mechanical operations
by using special drilling fluids, and directional drilling. Petroleum engineering focussed on complete systems
of oil-gas-water reservoirs, and in petrophysics, electric logging was used to determine fluid and rock characteristics. In the reservoirs, estimates could be made of gas-oil-water saturations.
In the 1950s, the offshore oil industry sector started with the development of navigation and positioning at sea,
a technology called hydrography. Hydrographers surveyors joined the oil & gas engineers to develop sea surveying standards for navigation, and horizontal and vertical positioning.
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Civilian Offshore Industry
The importance of navigation in the development of the offshore hydrocarbon industry cannot be overstated.
Key topics are the operational segment, and methodologies and practices in the use of positioning and navigation systems by this industry. A large quantity of marine data information, such as the coastlines, sea bottom
topography, oil- and gas pipelines, communication cables, mineral resources, have been collected and stored
for processing by the (NHOs).
Many surface and sub-surface explorations were undertaken with the aim of positioning:
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oil and gas accumulations and coal resources
concentrations of mineral resources
recoverable groundwater
geothermal reserves
archaeological features
Boreholes are usually drilled to verify the geophysical interpretation, and geophysical surveys portray a more
advanced picture than boreholes alone.
Branches of Petroleum Engineering
Optimised development and exploitation of oil and gas fields, in addition to the technical analysis and forecasting of the fields' future performance be of special concern to efforts of various engineers evolutions of
petroleum engineering, various areas of specialisation were developed. However, the role of the petroleum engineer remained unique to integrate all specialisations into a single system of oil-and-gas drilling, production,
and processing:
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drilling engineering was the first applications of technology to oil field practices. The drilling engineer is
responsible for the design of the earth-penetration techniques, the selection of casing, safety equipment,
and the whole organisation. engineering efforts concentrate on keeping drilling costs to a minimum
production engineering begins upon completion of the well. The production engineer is responsible for the
efficient operation, making arrangements for various tools, control, and equipment; and to store or transport the oil and gas
the log analyst is a petroleum engineer whose responsibilities include evaluating data gathered on wells
immediately after drilling
reservoir engineering is concerned with the physics of oil-and-gas distribution. The reservoir engineer is
responsible for the reservoir's past behaviour to forecast the future and ultimate recovery. In addition, he
determines the flow through porous rocks under the various hydrodynamic, thermodynamic, gravitational
forces involved in the rock-fluid system
the petroleum engineer provides tools and analytical techniques for determining rock and fluid characteristics to understand the reservoir rock-fluid system to determine which option may yield optimum results.
Some reservoirs do not contain oil or gas, but water in the same formation.
Positioning - from Lead Line to Airborne Laser
Hydrographers are responsible for all surveying activities during the work. In the search for hydrocarbon deposits, the application of many geodetic procedures cannot be overstated. With the arrival of state-of-the-art
technologies, the hydrographer integrated various types of electronic and acoustic navigation systems into the
process plus the use of geodetical, statistical and mapping principles. Because electromagnetic radiation cannot
penetrate into the water, the hydrographer uses acoustic techniques to portray the seafloor and the sub-sea bottom. Additionally, a variety of tools is used to obtain samples from the sub-sea bottom and the seabed to build a
digital database for reporting and charting. Calibrations make the observer aware of any possible discrepancies
in performance of the survey system.
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Geophysical techniques involve measuring acoustic waves, electromagnetism, gravity, heat flow, magnetism,
radioactivity and reflectivity. Some measurements are made underground in mines, or at ocean depths, but most
activities are shipborne, airborne or spaceborne. Geophysical mapping depend on differences in physical properties
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remote-sensing techniques comprise scanner measurements made in various spectral bands of reflected energy, measured from airborne or spaceborne satellites to identify types of rock, soil, and other entities
exploring for oil and gas deposits, airborne prospecting magnetometers search for mineral concentrations.
Geophysical research vessels tow shipborne magnetometers in a gradiometer arrangement. Data are transformed into profiles, but the magnetic field is usually portrayed as contour map
gravity surveying means detecting of differences in the earth's gravitational field. Because the vessel's
speed, movements and direction affect and limit survey accuracies, marine gravimeters are usually
mounted on inertial platforms
seismic refraction methods use measurements of seismic energy travel time intervals from source to detector. Seismic wave data, detected by a geophone onshore, or by a ceramic hydrophone offshore, are usually
recorded on magnetic tape or disk for subsequent processing
the seismic reflection method is used for mapping geologic structures by changes in amplitude and waveshape
electromagnetic sounding is sub-seabed logging method to show a possibility to separate the hydrocarbon
from the non-hydrocarbon state by data and graphics. The concept is to use an active source to probe the
underground for high resistive layers to separate HC from the non-hydrocarbon state (Eidesmo, 2002;
Løseth, 2000).
In the search for hydrocarbon deposits, the demands of the industry, the use of navigation systems, in addition
to the application of many geodetic mapping principles and techniques cannot be overstated. With the arrival of
state-of-the-art technologies, the observer/navigator incorporated electronics into the navigation process. This
has led to positioning capabilities and the utilisation of electronic positioning systems (EPS) and global navigation satellite systems (GNSS)
The reconnaissance survey provides general information over a large area. After evaluation, many surveys follow. Offshore detailed surveys, other than the geophysical variety, that assist in the development of oil and gas
production are typified by the site surveys. High-resolution data provides accurate bathymetric contour maps,
as well as information on any potential hazards or problems in an area that may impede offshore operations,
especially drilling and construction.
From the very first survey, accuracy is important along with repeatability for continuity of positioning in the
various stages of development. Recoverability of data and the relocation of vessels are the key factors to efficient operations and effective productivity.
Post calibration is a simple task, in addition to repeat all checks done prior to the commencement of operations.
This check will make the observer aware of any possible discrepancy in the survey system performance. In the
late 1950s, the digital computer became the geodesist's most important tool. Indisputably, the information,
communication, and computer technology (ICT) has revolutionised the use of different digital (geodetic) instruments up to the point where the handling of data is completely automated.
High levels of expertise are required in the positional support of offshore exploration projects. Advances in
technology and sophisticated instrumentation have helped to generate the level of expertise.
Hydrographical Contractors
Surveying contractors provide electronic- and acoustic sub-sea positioning surveys in shallow, deep and ultradeep waters. Hydrographic surveyors utilise specialised equipment to complete these projects. Advanced acquisition systems for the collection of high-resolution geophysical data are provided, allowing flexibility in
choosing the right tools for the survey objectives. The platforms include autonomous underwater vehicles
(AUVs) and support vessels, using instruments, such as caesium magnetometers, high-resolution multibeam
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bathymetry systems, seismic systems, side-scan sonar, and sub-bottom profilers, and high precision survey sensors.
They routinely position drilling rigs, pipeline-lay barges and derrick barges used for placement of structures,
templates or platforms on the seabed. Marine surveyors use GPS-receivers, coupled with hydro-acoustic navigation techniques for accurate positioning and orientation of oil-field equipment such as pipeline landing-end
termination sleds, umbilical-termination assemblies, seabed-well templates, flowlines, pipelines or suction
piles.
Surveying Equipment Manufacturers
Just like many other companies, the manufacturers Innomar Technologie GmbH, Rostock, Germany, and
Kongsberg Maritime, AS Hørten, Norway, and a contractor/manufacturer C & C Technologies, Inc., Lafayette,
USA, are looking back on years of successful activities in the hydrographic field. The companies have the necessary service background for keeping up with a highly successful approach to the task of charting seafloor topography.
Some of the figures - collected by C & C Technologies, Kongsberg Maritime SA, Norsk Hydro, Geoconsult AS
in water depths of 400-4500 m in extremely difficult terrain - illustrate the software and/or quality of multibeam echo sounders and sub-bottom profilers. To tackle the increasing capabilities, it is required for processing
to know how to deal with calibrations, reduction of huge volumes of data by software, including corrections for
tide, attitude, refraction in real time and quality control.
Observation
The deep earth and the oceans remain a foremost frontier in the third millennium.
Genesis Parallel Calculating System
In 2001, the Genesis System replaced the IBM SP/2 a parallel calculating system as discussed in [14.6]. It is a
parallel calculating system, and its construction is similar to the SP/2 system. The system consists of a combination of 32 racks with 32 servers each. In fact, it is a system with 1024 separate nodes or personal computers
(PC). Every server is equipped with two SCSI hot-swappable hard disks, connected to a Cisco3548 Internet
connection with 2 Gigabit glass fibre network. Loading the system is accomplished with a special automated
disk robot with 200 I/O units within one hour [14.6].
Linux Operating System
In 1991, Linus Torvalds conceived the kernel of Linux the Operating System on the World
Wide Web. Most interesting is that Linux is an Open Source Architecture System, free of
any charge available from distributors, such as RedHat. It is mainly used as a web server.
Furthermore, the Open Source system is maintained, expanded and extended by thousands of
global Linux users, without licences or marketing departments. It is voluntary supported by
many hardware manufacturers, such as Compaq, Dell, Hewlett Packard, and IBM. Now, it
runs on much architecture. The Linux RedHat operating system is installed on the Genesis
System as is as non-propriety software, because Linux is an Open Source Architecture System, maintained, expanded, and extended by thousands of Linux users, and the Company’s
ICT Dept.
Fig. B: Linux Tix
Human ICT Resources
A multi-billion dollar company - working in the field of oil & gas or mineral resources - depends on most advanced information technology systems (ITS), and inevitably, on initiatives, which will set the pace for others
to follow. An ingenious, talented, or imaginative team - working at the forefront of technology - has the ability
to turn ideas into robust reality, and with a commitment to see long-term projects through from start to finish,
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to maintain and develop a strong market position worldwide.
Customarily, the Common Information Technology Service (CITS) is an internal technology company, and as
such has its own bottom line worldwide responsibilities. Besides the service provision to sites in Europe, CITS
is involved in numerous global office projects (GOP) worldwide, such as upgrading networks and tens of thousands personal computers (PC) in Europe alone, enabling to run state-of-the-art-tools such as desktop video,
electronic document, groupware, and internet / intranet management. Simultaneously, CITS are strengthening
various IT services for some of the world's largest SAP/R3 implementation projects. Broadly speaking, in a dynamic IT environment an organisation requires many types of workforce: system engineers, telecom engineers,
IT project leaders, and IT contract analysts.
x system engineers conceive a wide range of opportunities across a miscellaneous skill base, such as IBM
AS/400, Linux, MS Office, Netware, Novell and several graphics packages, Oracle, SAP/R3, and MS
Windows. In support of the supercomputer with 20000-40000 on-line users in a dynamic environment, key
elements for success include the opportunities in MVS/ESA, storage management and database systems
x developing advanced local and global TCP/IP networks to deliver distributed, mainframe and Internet applications worldwide, telecom engineers are also designing, managing advanced telecommunication
projects, networks, and consultancy services
x developing and delivering outstanding IT-infrastructure services - including worldwide electronic mail
service and intranet by the cross-functional teams - are supervised by IT project leaders. These engineers with essential knowledge of e.g. IBM X.400, client server messaging systems and gateways, together with
an excellent knowledge of networking and office systems - maintain and innovate the current standards,
working closely together with the customers to ascertain their requirements for service and customer focus
x the importance of wise contracting and procurement cannot be underestimated. From mouse to mainframe,
there is always scope to improve the commercial process. An IT contract analyst, with a background in
procurement finance, is instrumental in tendering, negotiating and developing contracts for goods and outsourced services, and in other procurement activities.
Electronic Teleconferencing Facilities
Since the late 1980s computer simulations and visualisation is a new field of tools that has grown expansively.
It deals with the conversion of huge amounts of data originating from instruments, databases, or generation of
synthetic environments into a visual 3D-display. An electronic teleconferencing facility (ETF) is the most efficient method of human information reception, analysis, and exchange using 3D-displays, interactive devices,
related to virtual reality (VR) (Fig. BB).
Global Database Facilities
Global operating companies have access to central databases (MHs), data warehouses, and electronic teleconferencing facilities (ETF) in different ICT friendly locations around the world. One of those companies,
operational in the hydrocarbon industry, has three master-facilities: in Europe (Amsterdam), in the USA (Houston), and in South-East Asia (Kuala Lumpur) [15.1].
Each master-facility (Hub) is connected to slave-facilities. Each Hub consist of a set of double backup locations, so-called Twin-Data-Warehouses, using a Cisco fibre-optical data transmission network system.
Querying and updating are carried out simultaneously. An individual searching for information can traverse
dissimilar computer networks to pay particular attention to hundreds of autonomous databases. Furthermore, a
copy of the desired document(s) is downloaded within seconds or minutes into any personal workstation (PW).
As all information (such as graphics, sound, text, video, and voice) carriers can be converted into a digital
form, and are controlled by increasingly complicated techniques, the scope of media, functions, and potentials
of information communication and computer systems (ICT) are irregularly expanding tremendously.
"Reality is merely an illusion, albeit a very persistent one"
(Einstein, 1905)
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Strasbourg Cathedral's Astronomical Clock (1352-1571-1838)
Fig. C: Time - Part of the Astronomical Clock at the Cathedral of Strasbourg
In this Era of the Atomic Clock, the Strasbourg clock represents a reflection on Time, together with an entertainment by the play of its Automata. In 1571, the maker’s aims were to describe Time by every means but
would also ornament the cathedral and add to the town’s prestige. It constitutes a total work of art, a masterpiece unique in the world offered by our ancestors to the enigma of Time (Lehni, 2004; Ungerer, 1922).
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Pre-Satellite Era
For many years, there has been speculation about the extent to which the actual flattening of the ellipsoid coincides with the theoretical form of a mass of fluid of the same mass and rotation rate as the Earth. In the pre-satellite era, neither the actual flattening nor the theoretical form was known with sufficient accuracy to permit a
meaningful comparison. The main problem of determining the Figure of the Earth was the lack of knowledge
about a very accurate determination of longitude. Carl F. Gauss and Wilhelm Weber devised an electric telegraph to measure differences of longitude in the period 1830-1832. In 1857, Friedrich G.W. von Struve of
Pulkova Observatory invited Germany, France, Great Britain, and the Flandern to work together in the survey
of an arc along the 52° N parallel, covering more than 68° 31' of longitude. Between 1857-1896, the project
connected the countries from the Ural to Ireland. In 1861, as part of the same project Airy was closely involved
in remeasuring longitudes between Valencia and Greenwich Observatory using the electric telegraph.
Fig. D: The Eastern part of the European 52° arc of parallel between Feaghmain and Warsaw
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Trilateration in the Arabian Peninsula
It is historically confirmed from the beginning of the
second century BC until the first century AD, that the
Nabataean kingdom of Petra in the Arabian Peninsula
acquired wealth and importance from its position at the
junction of principal trade routes. In fact, there were diverse populations in ancient Arabia, differing in languages, systems of writing, and in ways of life. Ancient
Arabian art is restricted to the design imitation building
facades carved on cliff faces surround the rock-cut tomb
entrances. The beauty of their natural setting and the
chromatic weirdness of the stone from which they were
hewn are possessions that have enhanced their reputa- Fig. E: Rock-cut tomb entrances near Mada-in-Salih
tion. Active populations of merchants, breeders of sheep,
goats and camels were settled in towns and oases. In contrast with them were the caravaneers, living under
tents. Moving with their herds over great distances toward seasonal pastures, they were capable to navigate at
sea, and to cross the deserts of the Arabian Peninsula by using the sun and the stars. However, their earliest
maps were based on inaccurate astronomical determinations. The nature of practical nautical surveying provided charts of the coastlines of those countries they visited, such as India.
The Nabataeans were originally a nomadic tribe from the
land of Median in the northern Hejaz. Their mountain
bastion, Petra was ruled by Nabataean kings, and it was
situated north of the Gulf of Aqaba, but their settlements
lay in the borderlands between region south of Damascus
and the Red Sea, such as Al Bad'a near the Gulf of
Aqaba, and Mada-in-Salih in the Hejaz. Merchants from
the oases of the Hejaz were in control of that trade. Their
monopoly on the rich caravan trade, and maritime trade
Fig. F: Laplace Station with the EDM Tellurometer Mk 101
in spice, incense, and other Far-Eastern commodities was
the chief source of their prosperity. Goods ware carried inland north-westwards on the caravan route from the
coast through Yemen to the Arabian interior, running through the oases of the Hejaz (on the Red Sea coast) toward Egypt and Syria, and on the caravan route to central Arabia toward the Persian Gulf and Mesopotamia.
Establishing a Geodetical Framework
In the 1960s, an international consortium of survey companies carried out the largest geodetic survey for geophysical and geological mapping of the Arabian Peninsula area, arranging an adequate pattern of horizontal and
vertical geodetic control points. The survey encompasses an area large enough for the Earth's curvature to be a
factor. An imaginary representation of the Earth must be employed as a horizontal reference 2D-Datum. This
Fig. G: Dodge Powerwaggon with the mobile Survey-tower T-1000 proceeding to next survey station
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Datum, Clarke 1880, using an oblate ellipsoid, was computed by Alexander R. Clarke in 1880.
The directions of gravity converge toward the geoid, so the distances, measured on the Earth's surface measured must be reduced to that of the geoid, in fact to its sea-level equivalent. Benchmarks on the Earth's surface,
connected by precise levelling, constitute the vertical control of surveying. The elevations of benchmarks are
given in terms of their heights above a vertical reference 1D-Datum. In large-level surveys, the usual datum is
the Geoid. The directions of gravity converge toward the geoid, so the distances, measured on the Earth's surface measured must be reduced to that of the geoid, in fact to its sea-level equivalent.
Classical Triangulation Network
Topographical surveys are classified into four orders, related to its accuracy. Having the smallest permissible
error, a first-order survey with primary triangulation is performed under rigid specifications to assure first-order
accuracy. These surveys involve such extensive areas that allowance must be made for the Earth's curvature.
Baseline measurements for classical triangulation are reduced to mean sea level length to start computations,
and corrections are made for spherical excess in the angular determinations. However, in the late 1950s, the
conventional triangulation was rapidly going out of date. Therefore, it was replaced by a trilateration network:
the form of horizontal control is a first-order survey traverse.
First Order Geodetical Trilateration Network
The surveying framework consists of a series of marked stations, connected by electronic distances (EDM) of
the traverse sides, and optically observed by measuring horizontal- and vertical angles between the traverse
points. In flat areas, the use of mobile survey towers is essential to have enough clearance with the ground. The
lightweight tower consists of outer triangular observer’s tower and inner triangular instrument tower. The tower
is raised to the vertical position by means of hydraulic tools and stabilised by water tanks fitted to the innertower bottom. During the observations - using Wild T-3 theodolites, helios, signalling lamps, and EDM Tellurometers Mk-101 - is trigonometric levelling
essential in addition to the first-order levelling survey. Every fourth station was observed as an optical astro-Laplace-station
using Wild T-3 theodolites, signalling lamps,
short-wave-equipment to receive radio time
signals, interfaced to the Chronochord for
time registration. All traverses were connected by quadrangles (with four sides and
two diagonals) into a network, and all (small)
errors of measurement were adjusted for
mathematical consistency. The final reports
consist of geodetic information, such as descriptions of station-points for which positions in terms of latitude and longitude and
elevations above mean sea level have been
determined.
In the third millennium, the efforts are to extend and tie together existing continental networks by satellite surveying to facilitate the
adjustment of all major geodetic surveys into
one single 3D-worldwide Datum, to determine the size and shape of the Earth ellipsoid
with greater accuracy than heretofore obtained, considering the IERS 1996 conventions and the specifications of the
International Association of Geodesy (IAG)
16 of the 1983 Resolutions.
Fig. H: Using hydraulics to raise the Survey-Tower T-1000
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The Third Millennium
US National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) is reportedly implementing a new global differential GPS (GDGPS) developed by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) that provides seamless global real-time
positioning at 0.2 m vertical accuracy and 0.1 m horizontal accuracy for dual frequency GPS-receivers. Eight
GPS Analysis Centres compute the Earth's rotation parameters independently (NASA, 2006).
Using GDGPS, C&C Technologies Inc. began establishing the C-Nav Technologies' RTG Network programme
to provide worldwide positioning services for the hydrographic, offshore oil & gas field exploration, salvageand construction industries. GcDGPS NavCom's SF-2000R receivers position fixing accuracy - with exceptional accuracy and reliability - is no longer a function of the distance from any reference station.
Because the differential GPS corrections are broadcast via Inmarsat geostationary satellites, the users need no
local reference stations. The C-Nav RTG data links from the reference stations, using Internet as primary data
link. They are backed up by private communications lines, using duplicate receivers, processors, and switching
communication-interfaces for reference stations. Due to the worldwide coverage of the geostationary satellites,
the same high accuracy is available anywhere between 72°N to 72°S latitude (Fortenberry, 2006; JPL, 2006).
Fig. I: C-Nav Starfire GcDGPS World receiver in the foreground on a barge lifting a Hurricane Katrina damaged platform
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Fig. J: Time by Bulova's tuning fork
Fig. L: Survey for a ship's wreck II
Fig. K: Survey for a ship's wreck I
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Fig. M: Bathymetric chart is colour coded from red (shallow) to blue (deep water)
Fig. N: Laptop PC with Innomar SES 2000 Compact - parametric sub-bottom profiler
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Fig. O: Innomar SES 2000 Compact - parametric transducer with cable
Fig. P: Innomar SES 2000 – parametric sub-bottom profile with high and low frequencies
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Fig. Q: Innomar parametric sub-bottom profile of the Baltic Sea
Fig. R: Innomar parametric sand ripple survey at Cuxhaven
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Fig. S: Kongsberg HUGIN-1000 - mine-hunting survey
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Fig. T: HUGIN 3000 AUV using GNSS and Acoustic Doppler log
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Fig. U: Mapping the sea bottom in a harsh environment by HUGIN-3000 AUV. Chart depths are colour coded from red in shallow
water) to blue in very deep water
Fig. V: Kongsberg HiPAP using an array of 241 elements assembled into one sphere
Fig. W: Single beam ceramic transducer
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Fig. X: Preparing of Geoconsult's Kongsberg HUGIN-3000 AUV for deep sea operations
Fig. Y: Launching C&C's adapted C-surveyor Kongsberg HUGIN-3000 AUV for deep sea operations
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Fig. AA: Kongsberg BM-636 dual beam ceramic transducer
Fig. Z: Recovering HUGIN-3000 AUV from deep sea operations
Fig. BB: An Electronic Teleconferencing Facility Centre fed by 1024 Servers equipped with two SCSI-discs each
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Fig. CC: Side-scan-sonar 410 kHz image of the German U-166 submarine discovered in the Gulf of Mexico
Fig. DD: Kongsberg-Simrad EA 400 operator display
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Underwater Electromagnetic Signals
Electromagnetic propagation through water is very different from propagation through air because of water's
relative permittivity of 80 and electrical conductivity. It has a significant impact on the angle of refraction at the
air/water interface. Even with frozen surface water is collection of data possible, for the reason that electromagnetic signals pass through ice with a low attenuation.
Underwater electromagnetic signals have a range of practical applications in navigation, sensing and communications. Allowing the transmission of a few characters per minute across the globe, the extremely low frequency
(ELF) submarine communications system - operated at 76Hz for the US system and 82Hz in the Russian system
- is believed to be the only successfully deployed sub-sea electromagnetic application (Rhodes, 2006).
The hydrocarbon industry and military operations have changing requirements. Benefits of short-range, highbandwidth communications systems, such as Bluetooth coupled with digital- and signal-compression technology,
have many advantages for connector-less electromagnetic signalling links, suitable for underwater applications.
These links are particularly suited for shallow-water applications where difficult conditions apply or where nonobtrusive solutions are required, such as in rivers, estuaries, and in harbours or around offshore facilities.
Fig. EE: Sub-bottom-electromagnetic profiling image using 900 Hz with boleholes B1 and B2 in the South-China Sea
Electromagnetic Sounding Technology
After a seismic survey, the electromagnetic sub-seabed logging (SBL) is an additional operation to show a possibility to separate the hydrocarbon (HC) from the non-hydrocarbon state by data or graphics, prior to drilling a
borehole. SBL techniques identify the nature of the reservoir below the seafloor in deep water. Accordingly, it
determines whether the reservoir-liquids imaged in the seismic are just water (borehole B1 = non-hydrocarbon
state), or gas/oil (borehole B2 = hydrocarbon state) (Fig. EE) (Eidesmo, 2002; Løseth, 2000).
Related Topics
Dates of Birth and Death of Principal Scientists
Abbe, Ernst ...................................................... 1840-1905
Abel, Niels Henrik ........................................... 1802-1829
Adams, Oscar Sherman ................................... 1874-1962
Aiken, Howard Hathaway ................................ 1900-1973
Airy, George Biddell ....................................... 1801-1892
Aitoff, David A. ............................................... 1854-1933
Albers, Heinrich Christian ............................... 1773-1833
Albrecht, C.Th. ................................................ 1843-1915
Aleksandrov, Aleksandr Danilovich ................ 1912-1999
Alembert, Jean le Rond d' ................................ 1717-1783
Alfvén, Hannes ................................................ 1908-1995
Allègre, Claude ................................................1937Amici, Giovanni Battiste ................................. 1786-1863
Anasoff, John Vincent ..................................... 1903-1995
Anderson, Philip ..............................................1923Apian, Peter ..................................................... 1495-1552
Apollonius of Perge .......................................262-190 BC
Appleton, Edward Victor ................................. 1892-1965
Arago, François ............................................... 1786-1853
Archimedes of Syracuse ................................287-212 BC
Argand, Emile .................................................. 1879-1940
Argand, Jean Robert ........................................ 1768-1822
Aristotle .........................................................384-322 BC
Aubouin, Jean ..................................................1928Baarda, Willem ................................................ 1917-2005
Babbage, Charles ............................................. 1791-1871
Baeyer, Johann Jacob ....................................... 1794-1885
Baire, René Louis ............................................ 1874-1932
Bardeen, John .................................................. 1908-1991
Basov, Nikolay Gennadiyevich ....................... 1922-2001
Bayes, Thomas ................................................. 1702-1761
Beccaria, Giovanni Battista ............................. 1716-1781
Becker, Georg Ferdinand ................................. 1847-1919
Behaim, Martin ................................................ 1459-1507
Belousov, Vladimir Vladimirovich .................. 1907-1990
Beltrami, Eugenio ............................................ 1835-1900
Berchtold, Edwin .............................................. 1892-1977
Bergstrand, Erik................................................ 1904-1987
Bernoulli, Daniel ............................................. 1700-1782
Bernoulli, Jacob ............................................... 1654-1705
Bernoulli, Johann ............................................. 1667-1748
Berthoud, Ferdinand ........................................ 1727-1807
Bessel, Friedrich Wilhelm ............................... 1784-1846
Biot, Jean Baptiste ........................................... 1774-1862
Blaeu, Willem Janszoon .................................. 1571-1638
Bohnenberger, Johann Gottlieb Fr. von ........... 1765-1831
Bohr, Aage Niels .............................................1922Bohr, Niels ....................................................... 1885-1962
Bolyai, János .................................................... 1802-1864
Bolza, Oskar .................................................... 1857-1942
Bonne, Charles Rigobert Marie ....................... 1771-1839
Bonne, Rigobert ............................................... 1727-1795
Bonnet, Pierre Ossian ...................................... 1819-1892
Boole, George .................................................. 1815-1864
Borda, Jean Charles de .................................... 1733-1799
Boscovich, Ruggero Giuseppe ......................... 1711-1787
Bosshardt, R. ................................................... 1884-1967
Bouguer, Pierre ................................................ 1698-1758
Bowditch, Nathaniel ........................................ 1773-1838
Bowie, William ................................................ 1872-1940
Bradley, James ................................................. 1693-1762
Brahe, Tycho (Tyge) ........................................ 1546-1601
Brattain, Walter Houser ................................... 1902-1987
Braun, Wernher Magnus Maximillian Fr. von . 1912-1977
Brazier, Harry H. ............................................. 1912-1998
Brianchon, Charles .......................................... 1785-1864
Briggs, Henry ................................................... 1561-1630
Broglie, Louis Victor (Pierre Raymond) de ..... 1892-1987
Brouwer, Dirk .................................................. 1902-1966
Brouwer, Luitzen Egbertus Jan ........................ 1881-1966
Bullard, Edward ............................................... 1907-1980
Burroughs, William Seward ............................. 1855-1898
Cartan, Élie Joseph ........................................... 1869-1951
Cassini-I, Jean Dominique ............................... 1625-1712
Cassini-II, Jacques ........................................... 1677-1756
Cassini-III, de Thury, César François ............... 1714-1784
Cassini-IV, de Thury, Jacques Dominique ....... 1748-1845
Cauchy, Augustin Louis, Baron ....................... 1789-1857
Cavalieri, Francesco Bonaventura ................... 1598-1647
Cavendish, Henry ............................................ 1731-1810
Cayley, Arthur ................................................. 1821-1895
Celcius, Anders ................................................ 1701-1744
Chebychev, Pafnuty Lvovich ........................... 1821-1894
Christoffel, Elwin Bruno .................................. 1829-1900
Clairaut, Alexis Claude .................................... 1713-1765
Clarke, Alexander Ross ................................... 1828-1914
Clifford, William Kingdon .............................. 1845-1879
Cloos, Hans ...................................................... 1885-1951
Congreve, William ........................................... 1772-1828
Conrad, Victor ................................................. 1876-1962
Cook, James ..................................................... 1728-1779
Copernicus, Nicolaus ....................................... 1473-1543
Coriolis, Gustav Gaspard ................................. 1792-1843
Coulomb, Charles Augustin de ........................ 1736-1806
Courant, Richard .............................................. 1888-1972
Cousin, J.A.J..................................................... 1739-1800
Cramer, Gabriel ............................................... 1704-1752
Cray, Seymour R. ............................................ 1925-1996
Cremer (Mercator), Gerard .............................. 1512-1594
Cremer, Rumold .............................................. 1547-1614
D' Alembert, Jean le Rond ................................ 1717-1783
Da Vinci, Leonardo ......................................... 1452-1529
Darwin, George Howard .................................. 1845-1912
Dedekind, Julius Wilhelm Richard .................. 1831-1916
Deetz, Charles Henri ........................................ 1864-1946
Delambre, Jean Baptiste Joseph ....................... 1749-1822
Delisle, Guillaume ........................................... 1675-1726
Desargues, Girard ............................................ 1592-1662
Descartes, René ............................................... 1596-1650
Deumlich, Fritz ................................................ 1923-2005
Deville, Douard Gaston Daniel ........................ 1849-1924
Dietz, Robert Sinclair ...................................... 1914-1995
Dirac, Paul Adrien Maurice ............................. 1902-1984
Dirichlet, Peter Gustav Lejeune ....................... 1805-1859
25
26
Related Topics
Doppler, Christian ........................................... 1803-1853
Dornberger, Walter Robert .............................. 1895-1980
Dracup, Joseph F. ............................................ 1920-2000
Dryden Hugh Latimer ...................................... 1898-1965
Dutton, Clarence Edward ................................ 1841-1912
Eckert, John Presper, Jr ................................... 1919-1995
Eckert-Greifendorf, Max ................................. 1868-1938
Eckhardt, Christian Leonhard Philipp ............. 1784-1866
Einstein, Albert ................................................ 1879-1955
Encke, Johann Franz......................................... 1791-1865
Eötvös, Loránd (Roland) von .......................... 1848-1919
Epaille, François Anatoile ............................... 1769-1856
Erathosthenes ................................................. 276-195 BC
Essen, Louis .................................................... 1908-1997
Euclid (Eucleides) of Alexandria ................... 365-300 BC
Eudoxus of Cnidus ......................................... 400-350 BC
Euler, Leonhard ............................................... 1707-1783
Everest, George ............................................... 1790-1866
Everett, J.D. ..................................................... 1831-1904
Ewing, William Maurice ................................. 1906-1974
Eyriès, Marc ..................................................... 1919-2005
Fabry, Charles ................................................. 1867-1945
Felt, Dorr Eugene ............................................ 1862-1930
Fermat, Pierre de ............................................. 1601-1665
Fernel, Jean ...................................................... 1497-1558
Ferrel, Wiliam ................................................. 1817-1891
Feuerbach, Karl Wilhelm ................................ 1800-1834
Fibonacci, Leonardo ........................................ 1175-1240
Fisher, Irving ................................................... 1867-1947
Fizeau, Armand Hypolyte Louis ...................... 1819-1896
Flamsteed, John ............................................... 1646-1719
Forrester, Jay Wright ....................................... 1918Foucault, Jean Bernard Léon ........................... 1819-1868
Fourrier, Joseph ............................................... 1768-1830
Frenet, Jean Frédéric ....................................... 1816-1900
Frisi, Paolo ...................................................... 1728-1784
Frisius, Reinert Gemma ................................... 1508-1555
Galilei, Galileo ................................................ 1564-1642
Galois, Évariste ............................................... 1811-1832
Gamow, Georgy Antonovich ........................... 1904-1968
Ganswindt, Hermann ....................................... 1856-1934
Gates, William Henri ....................................... 1955Gauss, Carl Friedrich ....................................... 1777-1855
Glouchko, Valentine Petrovich......................... 1908-1989
Goddard, Robert Hutchings ............................. 1882-1945
Goode, John Paul ............................................. 1862-1932
Gousat, Édouard Jean Baptiste ........................ 1858-1936
Gouzhva, Yuri G. ............................................. 1936-1997
Grafarend, Erik W. .......................................... 1939Grave, Dimitriy Aleksandrovich ..................... 1863-1939
Gregory, James ................................................ 1638-1675
Gretschel, Heinrich Friedrich .......................... 1830-1892
Grossmann, Walter .......................................... 1897-1980
Gunter, Edmund .............................................. 1581-1626
Gutenberg, Beno .............................................. 1889-1960
Halley, Edmund ............................................... 1656-1742
Hamilton, William Rowan ............................... 1805-1865
Hammer, Ernst ................................................. 1858-1925
Harrison, John ................................................. 1693-1776
Hassler, Ferdinand Rudolph ............................ 1770-1843
Hayford, John Fillmore .................................... 1868-1925
Heaviside, Oliver ............................................. 1850-1925
Heisenberg, Werner ......................................... 1901-1976
Heiskanen, Weikko Aleksanteri ...................... 1895-1971
Helmert, Friedrich Robert ................................ 1843-1917
Henlein, Peter .................................................. 1480-1542
Hermite, Ch. .................................................... 1822-1901
Herschel, John F.W. ........................................ 1792-1871
Hertz, Heinrich Rudolf .................................... 1857-1894
Herzstark, Curt ................................................ 1902-1988
Hess, Harry Hammond .................................... 1906-1969
Heuvelink, Hendrik Jan ................................... 1861-1949
Hilbert, David .................................................. 1862-1943
Hipparchus of Nicæa ..................................... 161-127 BC
Hollerith, Hermann .......................................... 1860-1929
Hondius, Jodocus ............................................. 1563-1612
Hooke, Robert ................................................. 1635-1703
Hotine, Martin ................................................. 1898-1968
Huygens, Christiaan ........................................ 1629-1695
Ivory, James ..................................................... 1765-1842
Jacobi, Karl Gustav Jacob ............................... 1804-1851
James, Henri .................................................... 1803-1877
Jeffreys, Harold ............................................... 1891-1989
Jordan, Camille ................................................ 1838-1922
Jordan, Pascual ................................................ 1902-1980
Kalman, Rudolf Emile...................................... 1930Kármán, Theodore von .................................... 1881-1963
Kepler, Johannes .............................................. 1571-1630
Kibaltchich, Nikolai Ivanovich ........................ 1854-1881
Killian, James Rhyne Jr ................................... 1904-1988
Killing, Wilhelm Karl Joseph .......................... 1847-1923
Kirchhoff, Gustav Robert ................................ 1824-1887
Kleene, Stephen Cole ...................................... 1909-1994
Klein, Christian Felix ...................................... 1849-1925
Kolmogorov, Andrey Nikolayevich ................ 1903-1987
Korolev, Sergey Pavlovich .............................. 1907-1966
Krassovski, Fedodosiy Nikolayevich .............. 1878-1948
Krayenhoff, Cornelius Rudolf Theodor van . ... 1758-1840
Kronecker, Leopold ......................................... 1823-1891
Krüger, Johannes Heinrich Louis .................... 1857-1923
L' Hospital, Guillaume François Antoine de .... 1661-1704
L' Isle, Guillaume de......................................... 1675-1726
L' Isle, Joseph Nicolas de ................................ 1688-1768
La Caille, Nicolas Louis de ............................. 1713-1762
La Condamine, Charles Marie de .................... 1701-1774
La Hire, Philippe de ......................................... 1640-1718
Lacroix, Sylvestre François ............................. 1765-1843
Lagrange, Joseph Louis ................................... 1736-1813
Laguerre, Edmund ........................................... 1834-1886
Lalande, Joseph Jerôme Lefrancois de ............ 1732-1807
Lamb, Willis Eugene ....................................... 1913Lambert, Johann Heinrich ............................... 1728-1777
Lambton, William ............................................ 1756-1823
Langevin, Paul ................................................. 1872-1946
Laplace, Pierre Simon ...................................... 1749-1827
Laussedat, Aimé ............................................... 1819-1907
Le Monnier, Pierre Charles .............................. 1715-1799
Le Pichon, Xavier ............................................ 1937Le Roy, Pierre................................................... 1717-1785
Lebesgue, Henri Léon ...................................... 1875-1941
Related Topics
Lee, Laurence Patrick ...................................... 1913-1985
Legendre, Adrien Marie ................................... 1752-1833
Legrange, Joseph Louis ................................... 1736-1813
Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm von ....................... 1646-1716
Leo, Esaki ........................................................1925Levallois, Jean-Jacques .................................... 1911-2001
Levi Ben Gerzon .............................................. 1288-1344
Levi-Civita, Tullio ........................................... 1873-1941
Lie, Marius Sophus .......................................... 1842-1899
Lindemann, Carl Louis Ferdinand von ............. 1852-1939
Liouville, Joseph .............................................. 1809-1882
Lobachevsky, Nikolay Ivanovich .................... 1792-1856
Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon ................................. 1853-1928
Love, Augustus Edward Hough ....................... 1863-1940
Lovelace, Ada .................................................. 1815-1852
MacCullagh, James .......................................... 1809-1847
MacLaurin, Colin ............................................. 1698-1746
Mairan, Jean Jacques d’Ortous ........................ 1678-1771
Marconi, Guglielmo ......................................... 1874-1937
Markov, Andrey Adreyevich ........................... 1856-1922
Maskelyne, Neville .......................................... 1732-1811
Matthews, Drummond Hoyle ........................... 1931-1997
Mauchly, John William ................................... 1907-1980
Maupertuis, Pierre Louis Moreau de ................ 1698-1759
Maurer, Hans ................................................... 1868-1945
Maxwell, James Clerk ..................................... 1831-1879
McCaw, George Tyrrell ................................... 1870-1942
Méchain, Pierre François André ...................... 1744-1809
Mendeleev, Dimitri .......................................... 1834-1907
Messier, Charles .............................................. 1730-1817
Michelson, Albert Abraham ............................ 1852-1931
Miller, Osborn Maitland .................................. 1897-1979
Milne, Edward Arthur ...................................... 1896-1950
Minkowski, Hermann ...................................... 1864-1909
Möbius, August Ferdinand .............................. 1790-1868
Mohorovicic, Andrija ...................................... 1857-1936
Mollweide, Karl Brandan ................................ 1774-1825
Molodensky, Mikhail Sergeevich .................... 1909-1991
Moreno, Roland ............................................... 1945Morgan, Augustus de ....................................... 1806-1871
Morge, Caspard ............................................... 1746-1818
Mössbauer, Rudolf Ludwig .............................1929Müffling, Friedrich Carl Ferdinand Fr. von ..... 1775-1851
Müller (Regiomontanus), Johann ..................... 1436-1476
Mydorge, Claude ............................................. 1585-1647
Napier (Neper), John ....................................... 1550-1617
Neumann, Johann von (John) .......................... 1903-1957
Newcomb, Simon ............................................ 1835-1909
Newton, Isaac .................................................. 1643-1727
Noyce, Robert Norton ...................................... 1927-1990
Nunes, Pedro .................................................... 1492-1759
Oberth, Hermann Julius ................................... 1894-1989
Oldham, Richard Dixon ................................... 1858-1936
Ortelius, Abraham ........................................... 1527-1598
Oudemans, J.A.C. ............................................ 1827-1906
Oughtred, William ........................................... 1574-1660
Pascal, Blaise ................................................... 1621-1662
Paschen, Friedrich ............................................ 1804-1873
Peirce, Benjamin .............................................. 1809-1880
Peirce, Charles Sanders .................................... 1839-1914
Pérot, Alfred .................................................... 1863-1925
Picard, Jean ...................................................... 1620-1682
Pickering, William Hayward ........................... 1910-2004
Plana, G.A. ....................................................... 1781-1864
Playfair, John ................................................... 1748-1819
Poincaré, Henri ................................................ 1854-1912
Poisson, Siméon Denis .................................... 1781-1840
Poncelet, Jean Victor ....................................... 1788-1867
Porris (Rheticus), Georg Joachim de ............... 1514-1576
Potoþnik (Noordung), Hermann........................ 1892-1929
Pratt, John Henry ............................................. 1809-1871
Prokhorov, Aleksandr Mikhaylovich ............... 1916-2002
Ptolemaios ...................................................... 85-165 AD
Pulrich, George ................................................ 1858-1927
Pürbach, Georg von ......................................... 1423-1461
Pythagoras .....................................................580-500 BC
Rabi, Isodor Isaac ............................................ 1898-1988
Raisz, Erwin Josephus ..................................... 1893-1968
Ramsden, Jesse ................................................ 1735-1800
Reichenbach, George von ................................ 1771-1826
Ricci-Curbastro, Gregorio ............................... 1853-1925
Richer, Jean ..................................................... 1630-1696
Riemann, Georg Friedrich Bernhard ................ 1826-1866
Rømer, Olaus ................................................... 1644-1710
Runcom, Stanley Keith .................................... 1922-1995
Rutherfurd, Lewis Morris ................................ 1816-1992
Sabine, Edward ................................................ 1788-1883
Sande Bakhuysen, H.G. van de ........................ 1838-1923
Schawlov, Artur Leonard ................................. 1921-1999
Schickard, Wilhelm ......................................... 1592-1635
Schilling, Pavel Lvovitch ................................. 1786-1837
Schleusener, Alfred .......................................... 1897-1978
Schmidt, Bernhard Voldemar ........................... 1879-1935
Schmidt, Erwin ................................................ 1793-1841
Schmidt, Georg Gottlieb .................................. 1768-1837
Schmidt, Maarten..............................................1929Schöldström, Ragnar......................................... 1913-1987
Schols, Charles Mattheu .................................. 1847-1897
Schreiber, Oscar ............................................... 1829-1905
Schrödinger, Erwin .......................................... 1887-1961
Schwarz, Hermann Amanders ......................... 1843-1921
Shockley, William Bradford ............................ 1910-1989
Simpson, Thomas ............................................ 1710-1761
Snell (Snellius) van Royen, Willebrord ........... 1580-1626
Snyder, John Parr ............................................. 1926-1997
Soldner, Johann Georg von .............................. 1773-1833
Sperry, Elmer Ambrose ................................... 1860-1930
Staudt, Karl Georg Christian ............................ 1798-1867
Stevin, Simon ................................................... 1548-1620
Stibitz, George Robert ..................................... 1905-1995
Stokes, George Gabriel .................................... 1819-1903
Strasser, Georg...................................................1910-@@
Strutt, John William (Rayleigh)........................ 1842-1919
Struve I, Otto von ............................................. 1819-1905
Struve II, Otto von ............................................ 1897-1963
Struve, Friedrich Georg Wilhelm von (or)........ 1793-1864
Struve, Vasily Yakovlevich)............................. 1793-1864
Sylvester, James Joseph ................................... 1814-1897
Tardi, Pierre ..................................................... 1897-1972
Taylor, Joseph Hooton. ....................................1941-
27
28
Related Topics
Tenner, Carl F. ................................................. 1783-1859
Thomson, (Lord Kelvin) William .................... 1824-1907
Tissot, Nicolas Auguste ................................... 1824-1897
Torricelli, Évangelista ..................................... 1608-1647
Townes, Charles Hard ..................................... 1915Tranchot, Jean Joseph ...................................... 1752-1815
Tsiolkovsky, Konstantin Edouardovich ........... 1857-1935
Turing, Alan Mathison .................................... 1912-1954
Väisälä, Yrjö .................................................... 1889-1971
Vandermonde, Alexandre Théophile ............... 1735-1796
Vega, Juri ........................................................ 1754-1802
Vening Meinesz, Felix Andries ....................... 1887-1966
Viète, François ................................................. 1540-1603
Vincenty, Thaddeus.......................................... 1920-2002
Viviani, Vincenzo ............................................ 1622-1703
Wachter, Friedrich Ludwig .............................. 1792-1817
Wallis, John ..................................................... 1616-1703
Watt, James ..................................................... 1736-1819
Weber, Wilhelm Eduard .................................. 1804-1891
Wegener, Alfred Lothar ................................... 1880-1930
Weierstrass, Karl Wilhelm .............................. 1815-1897
Wiechert, E. ..................................................... 1861-1928
Wiener, Norbert ............................................... 1894-1964
Wild, Heinrich ................................................. 1877-1951
Wilson, John Tuzo ........................................... 1908-1993
Wittstein, Theodor............................................ 1816-1894
Wright, Edward ............................................... 1561-1615
Zach, Franz Xaver von ..................................... 1754-1832
Zeeman, Pieter ................................................. 1865-1943
Zeiss, Carl ........................................................ 1816-1888
Zuse, Konrad ................................................... 1910-1995
(Britannica, 2000; Brockhaus, 2000; LaRousse, 2000; Todhunter, 1873).
Related Topics
29
List of Acronyms and Abbreviations
More than a hundred twenty years ago, James Clark Maxwell said:
" } for the sake of persons of different types of mind, scientific truth should be presented in
different forms and should be regarded as equally scientific whether it appears in the robust
form and vivid colouring of a physical illustration or in the tenuity and paleness of a symbolic
expression } ".
[3]
Hohmann (1925)
(Simonsen, 1949)
(Figure 15)
(Table 89)
Quotation
Book title
GRS80
Clarke1866
f –1
Russia
NGA
see _________________________________________________________ Chapter 3
author is mentioned in_____________________________________ Index of Authors
author and book title is mentioned in ___________ Bibliography and Index of Authors
See Figure 15
See Table 89
"text in italic"
book title
Geodetic Reference System of 1980 _____________ world-wide or continental system
Clarke of 1866 ____________________________ country or (US) state-wide system
1 / f _______________________________________________ reciprocal flattening
Russian Federation (RF), or CIS system, or the former Warsaw Pact States, incl.USSR
formerly NIMA, DMA, and AMS
Abbreviations
From Geometrical Geodesy using ICT, IERS Yearbook, Bollettino
di Geodesia e Scienze Affini, (Leick, 1990), and other sources:
1PPS
4D-SAT
4GL
AAG
AAM
ABC
ABFS
ACA
ACIC
ACM
ACS
ACSM
ADC
ADCP
ADOS
AER
AFB
AFCRC
AFN
AFREF
AFSCN
AG
AGC
AGD
AGI
AGI
one pulse per second signal
4D-space-and-time
fourth-generation language
Association of American Geographers
Atmospheric Angular Momentum
Atanasoff-Berry-Computer
Atomic Beam Frequency Standard
American Cartographic Association
DoD Aeronautical Chart and Information
Centre
Association for Computing Machinery
Active Control System
American Congress on Surveying and
Mapping
analogue-to-digital-converter
acoustic Doppler current profilers
African Doppler Survey
Atmospheric and Environmental Research Ins.
Air Force Base
DoD/Air Force Cambridge Research
Laboratories
Australian Fiducial Network
Continental Reference System for Africa
Air force Satellite Control network
l'Association de Géodésique
Automatic Gain Control
Australian Geodetic Datum
Année Géophysique Internationale
Association for Geographic Information
AGN
AGPS
AGRS
AGU
AHD
AHHWG
AIG
AIGA
AIGREN
AIMPA
AIR
AIS
AISH
AISPIT
AISPO
AIUB
AIVCIT
ALB
AM
AM/FM
AMF
AMG
AML
AMPS
Astronomisch Geodätisches Netz
Assisted GPS telephone network
Active GPS Reference System
American Geophysical Union
Australian Height Datum
Ad Hoc Hydrographic Working Group
Association Internationale de Géodésique
Association Internationale de Géomagnétisme
et d'Aéronomie
Association Internationale de Géodésique
Réduite entre États Neutres
Association Internationale de Météorologie et
de Physique Atmosphérique
Associazione Italiana Razzi
autonomous identification system
Association Internationale des Sciences
Hydrologiques
Association Internationale de Sismologie et de
Physique de l'Intérieur de la Terre
Association Internationale de Sciences
Physiques de l'Océan
Astronomical Institute, University of Berne
Association Internationale de Volcanologie et
de Chimie de l'Intérieur de la Terre
Airborne LIDAR Bathymetry
Automated Mapping
Automated Mapping/Facilities Management
allied military forces
Australian map grid
additional military layer
advanced mobile phone system
30
Related Topics
AMS
AMS
ANN
ANS
ANSI
AOC
APC
API
APL
ARAN
ARGN
AROF
ARP
AS
ASA
ASCE
ASCII
ASPRS
AST
ATGIC
ATS
AUV
AVHRR
AVIRIS
AVLN
BASIC
BCD
BDG
BE
BEK
BER
BGC
BIH
BIOS
BIP
BIPM
BIT
BKG
B-N
BPE
BPI
BPS
BRS
BSH
BSI
BTS
BVR
C
C&GS
C/A
C/N
CAD
CAE
CAM
American Mathematical Society
Army Map Service
Australian National Network
Australian National Spheroid
American National Standards Institute
auxiliary output chip
antenna phase centre
application-program-interface
Applied Physics Laboratory of John Hopkins
University
Automatic Road Analyser
Australian Regional GPS Network
Ambiguity Resolution On the Fly
antenna reference point
AntiSpoofing
American Standards Association
American Society of Civil Engineers
American Standard Code for Information Inter
change/American Standards Committee II
American Society for Photogrammetry and
Remote Sensing
apparent sidereal time
Accurate Time for GPS Integrity Channel
average terrestrial system
autonomous underwater vehicle
Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer
Airborne Visible Infrared Image Spectrometer
Automatic Vehicle Location and Navigation
Beginner's All-purpose Symbolic Instruction
Code
binary-coded decimal
Bearing and Distances to Geographicals
Broadcast Ephemeris
Bayerische Kommission für die Internationale Erdmessung
Bit Error Rate
Baltic Geodetic Commission
Bureau International de l'Heure
Basic Input-Output System
Band Interleaved by Pixel
Bureau International des Poids et Mésures
Binary digit
Bundesamt für Kartographie und Geodäsie
Baker-Nunn camera
Bernese Processing Engine
Bits Per Inch
Bits Per Second
Barycentric Reference System
Bundesamt für Seeschifffahrt and Hydrographie
British Standards Institute
BIH Terrestrial System
Beyond Visual Range
Clairaut's Constant
US Coast and Geodetic Survey
coarse / acquisition code
carrier-to-noise (ratio)
computer aided design
computer aided engineering
computer aided mapping
CB
CBIS
CC
CCD
CCDS
Central Büreau
Central Bureau Information System (of IGS)
correlation coefficient
Charge Coupled Device
Comité Consultatif pour la Définition de la
Seconde
CCIR
Consultative Committee on International
Radio communications
CCITT
Consultative Committee on International
Telephone and Telegraph
CDDIS
NASA Crustal Dynamics Data Information
System
CDE
common-desktop-environment
CDMA
Code Division Multiple Access
CDNU
Control Display Navigation Unit
CDP
NASA Crustal Dynamics Project
CDU
Control and Display Unit
CE
US Corps of Engineers
CE-GPS
European Complement to GPS
CEN
Comite Europeen de Normalisation
CEP
Celestial Ephemeris Pole
CERCO
Comité Européen des Responsables de la
Cartographie Officielle
CERGA
Centre d'Etudes et de Recherches
Géodynamiques et Astronomiques
CETEX
Committee on Contamination by Extra
Terrestrial Exploration
CFA
Harvard-Smithsonian Centre For Astrophysics
CFAR
Constant False Alarm Rate
CGI
Commissione Geodetica Italiana
CGPM
Conférence Générale des Poids et Mésures
CGSIC
Civil GPS Service Interface Committee
CHAMP Challenging Mini-Satellite Payload
CHAYKA Loran-C (of Russia)
CIB
International Council for Building Research
Studies and Documentation
CIE
Commission International de l'Eclairage
CIGNET Cooperative International GPS Network
CIM
Carte du Monde au Millionième
CINA
Commission Internationale de Navigation
Aérienne
CIO
Conventional International Origin
CIPM
Comité International des Poids et Mésures
CIS
Commonwealth of Independent States
CIS
Conventional Inertial Systems
CISC
Complex Instruction Set Computer
CIT
California Institute of Technology
CIUS
Conseil International des Unions Scientifiques
CK
CIS' Geodetic Control Network 1942
CLB
contour line bathymetry
CLCS
Commission on the Limits of the Continental
Shelf
CM
Central Meridian
CMOS
complementary metal-oxide semiconductor
CNES
Centre National d'Études Spatiales
CNIIGAiK Federal Service of Geodesy and Cartography of
Russia
C-O
calculated minus observed
CODE
Center for Orbit Determination in Europe
CoE
US Corps of Engineers
Related Topics
COGO
ConUS
CORDIC
COS
COSPAR
COST
Coordinate Geometry
Contiguous United States
coordinate rotational digital computer
Cray operating system
Committee on Space Research
European Cooperation in the field of Science
and Technology
CP
central parallel
CP
central point
CPS
characters per second
CPU
central processing unit
CRF
celestial reference frames
CRL
Communication Research Laboratory
CRS
celestial reference system
CRT
Cathode Ray Tube
CSAGI
Comité Spécial de l'Année Géophysique
Internationale
CSOC
Consolidated Space Operations Center
CSR
Centre for Space Research, University of Texas
CSV
Comma Separated Variables
CTP
Conventional Terrestrial Pole
CTRF
Conventional Terrestrial Reference Frame
CTRS
Conventional Terrestrial Reference System
CTS
Conventional Terrestrial System
CW
continuous-wave
CWI
Carrier Wave Interference
D/A
Digital to Analogue converter
DA
Department of the Army
DARPA
Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency
DB
Database
dB
decibel
DBMS
Data Base Management System
DCO
Digitally Controlled Oscillator
DDE
Double Difference Equation
DDL
Data Definition Language
DDPRC
Double Differencing Pseudo Range Carrier
technique
DDSMS
UN Department for Development Support and
Management Services
DEG
Degree
DEM
Digital Elevation Matrix/Model
DGFII
Deutsches Geodätisches Forschungsinstitut,
Abt. 1
DGIWG
Digital Geographic Information Working
Group, NATO
DGPS
Differential Global Positioning System
DHDN
Das Deutsche Hauptdreiecksnetz
DIGEST Digital Geographic information Exchange
Standard
DILAG
differential laser gyro
DIN
Deutsche Industrial Norms
DLL
Delay Locked Loop
DLRP
Data Link Reference Point
DMA
Defense Mapping Agency, now NGA
DMAAC Defense Mapping Agency Aerospace Centre
DMAHTC Defense Mapping Agency Hydrographic
Topographic Centre
DME
Distance Measuring Equipment
DMRS
Data Management Retrieval System
DMVS
Digital Multispectral Videography Scanner
DNC
DoD
DoE
DOEDOC
DOP
DORIS
DORIS
DOS
DOSE
DoT
DPI
DPMS
DPS
DR
DRA
DREF
DSDP
DSG
DSIF
DSN
DSP
DSP
DTM
DUT
DVL
DXF
EBCDIC
ECS
EC
ECDIS
ECEF
ECI
ECM
ECMWF
ECOSOC
ED
ED50
EDM
EDOREF
E-ESDI
EEZ
EG
EGIS
EGM
EGNOS
EHD
EIRP
EIS
ELF
ELN
EM
31
Digital Nautical Chart
Department of Defense of the US
Department of Energy
German and Austrian Doppler campaign
Dilution Of Precision
Détermination d'Orbite et Radiopositionnement
Intégrés par Satellite
Doppler Orbitography and Radiolocation
Integrated by Satellite
disk operating system
NASA Dynamics Of Solid Earth
Department of Transportation
dots per inch
Dahlgren Polar monitoring service
dynamic positioning system
dead reckoning
Defense Research Agency
FRG Reference Network
deep sea drilling project
dynamic satellite geodesy
Deep Space Instrumentation Facility, JPL
(now DSN)
JPL-Deep Space Network
deep-space-probes
digital signal processing
digital terrain model
Delft University of Technology
Doppler velocity log
Data exchange Format
Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange
Code
Electronic Chart System
European Commission
Electronic Chart Display and Information
System
Earth-Centred, Earth-Fixed
Earth-Centred-Inertial
Earth's Centre of Mass
European Centre for Medium-range Weather
Forecasting
Economic and Social Council of the United
Nations
European Datum
European Datum of 1950
Electronic Distance Measuring
French Doppler campaign
Environmental European Spatial Data Infra
structure Initiative
exclusive economic zones
Europäische Gradmessung
European GIS Foundation
Earth Gravitational Model
European Geostationary Navigation Overlay
Service
European Habitats Directive
Equivalent Isotropic Radiated Power
electronic information systems
extremely low frequency
European Longitude Network
ElectroMagnetic
32
EMR
Related Topics
Energy, Mines and Resources Canada
See NRCan
ENC
Electronic Navigational Chart
ENIAC
electronic numerical integrator and calculator
ENSG
École Nationale des Sciences
Géographiques
EOEPR
European Organisation for Experimental
Photogrammetric Research
EOP
BIH Earth Orientation Parameter
EOSAT
Earth Observation Satellite company
EOSS
European Sea Level Observing System
EPA
Environmental Protection Agency
EPM
Einpunktmatrixdateien
EPN
EUREF Permanent Network
EPS
Eumetsat Polar System
Eq.E
Equation of Equinox
ERDAS
Earth Resources Data Analysis System
ERP
Earth Rotation Parameters
ERS
Earth Remote Sensing
ERTS
Earth Resources Technology Satellite
ESA
European Space Agency
ESB
environment seabed and beach
ESEAS
European Sea Level Service
ESGT
École Supérieure des Géomètres et
Topographes
ESO
European Space Operations Center
ESOC
European Space Agency Operational Centre
ESRI
Environmental Systems Research Institute
ESSP
European Satellite Services Provider
ESTB
EGNOS System Test Bed
ET
ephemeris time
ETF
electronic teleconferencing facility
ETL
DoD/Engineer Topographic Laboratories
ETM
Enhanced Thematic Mapper
ETRF
European Terrestrial Reference Frame
ETS
electronic total stations
ETWG
EUREF Technical Working Group
EU
European Union
EUREF
European Terrestrial Reference Frame
Euro-Geographics
formerly CERCO
EUVN
European United Vertical Reference Network
EUVN_DA European Vertical GPS Reference Network
Densification Action
EVRF2000 European Vertical Reference Frame of 2000
EVRS
European Vertical Reference System
EVS
European Vertical System
EWFD
European Water Framework Directive
ExGG
Expert Group on Geodesy
FAA
Federal Aviation Administration
FAF
Federal Armed Forces, Neubiberg
FAGN
Fiducial Astro-Geodetic Network
FAGS
Federation of Astronomical and Geophysical
Data Analysis Services
FBN
Federal Base Network
FCC
Federal Communications Commission
FDMA
Frequency Division Multiple Access
FFT
Fast-Fourier-Transformer
FGCC
Federal Geodetic Control Committee
FGI
Finnish Geodetic Institute
FIG
FIG
FIPS
FK4
FK5
FLINN
Fédération Internationale des Géomètres
International Federation of Surveyors
Federal Information Processing Standard
Fundamental Katalog 4
Fundamental Katalog 5
Fiducial Laboratories for an International
Natural science Network
FM
frequency-modulated
FOG
Fibre Optic Gyro
FORTRAN FORmula TRANslation
FoV
Field of View
FRG
Federal Republic of Germany
FRP
Federal Radionavigation Plan
FRUIT
Friendly Replies Uncorrelated In Time
FSAG
Fédération des Services Astronomiques et
Géophysiques d'Analyse de Données
FTC
Force Track Controller
FTP
File Transfer Protocol
FTS
Frequency and Time Support
FYROM Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia
G30S
three Global Observing Systems
GABL
absolute ballistic laser gravimeter
GAOUA Main Astronomical Observatory of the
Ukrainian Acad. of Sciences
GAST
Greenwich apparent sidereal time
GBAS
Ground Based Augmentation System
GBCW
general bathymetric chart of the world
GBD
geographicals to bearing and distances
GBIS
geo-based information system
GBL
ballistic laser gravimeter
GBL-P
transportable absolute ballistic laser gravimeter
GBVP
Geodetic Boundary Value Problem
GCC
Ground Control Centre
GCDB
Geographic Coordinate Data Base
GcDGPS Global Corrected Differential GPS
GcGPS
Global Corrected GPS
GDA
Geocentric Datum of Australia
GDGPS
Global Differential GPS
GDNSS
global differential navigation satellite systems
GDOP
geometric dilution of precision
GEBCO
General Bathymetric Chart of the Oceans
GEO
Geostationary Satellite
geops
geoid and equipotential surfaces
GEOREF World Geographic Reference System
GEOs
Geostationary Earth Orbit satellite
GEOSS
Global Earth Observing System of Systems
GFZ
GeoForschungs Zentrum Potsdam, FRG
GGCN
global geodetic control network
GGOS
Global Geodetic Observing System
GGP
global geodynamics project
GHI
global hydrocarbon industry
GIC
GPS Integrity Channel
GIRAS
Geographic Information Retrieval and Analysis
System
GIS
Geographic Information System
GISIG
Geographical Information Systems
International Group (Section)
GIVE
Grid Ionospheric Vertical Error
GK
Gauss-Krüger (Transverse Mercator)
Related Topics
GLONASS Globalnaya Navigatsionnaya Sputnikovaya
Sistema
GLONASS Global Navigation Satellite System
GLOSS
Global Sea Level Observing System
GM
Geocentric Gravitational Constant
GMA
Geodetic Model of Australia
GMF
global master-facility
GML
Geographic Mark-up Language
GMST
Greenwich Mean Sidereal Time
GMT
Greenwich mean time
GNAAC Global Network Associate Analysis Centre
GNIS
Geographic Names Information System
GNSS
Global Navigation Satellite System
GNSSP
GNSS Panel (of ICAO)
GOCE
Gravity and Ocean Circulation Experiment
GOF
goodness of fit
GOTDOC Gotland and Sweden's Doppler campaign
GPFS
general parallel file system
GPRS
general packet radio services
GPS
Global Positioning System, mainly
NAVSTAR's US DoD program
GPSIC
GPS Information Center
GPST
global positioning system time
GRACE
Gravity Recovery And Climate Experiment
GRARR
Goddard range and range rate
GRASS
geographic resources analysis support
system
GRGS
Groupe de Recherches de Géodésie Spatiale
GRID
Global Resource Information Database
(UN Environment Program)
GRS
Geodetic Reference System
GRS80
Geodetic Reference System of 1980
GRU
Grid Reference Unit
GRUB
Geodetic Institute of the University of Bonn
GS
type Gauss-Schreiber
GSFC
NASA/Goddard Space Flight Centre
GSG
geometrical or static satellite geodesy
GUI
graphical user interface
h
Ellipsoidal height
H
Levelled Height above MSL
HAL
Holland-America-Line company
HARN
High Accuracy Reference Networks
HAT
Highest Astronomical Tide
HC
hydrocarbon
HDOP
Horizontal Dilution Of Precision
HDX
Half-Duple X transmission
HEO
High Elliptical Orbit
HI
Hydro International
HiPAP
high precision acoustic positioning
HIRAN
High-Intensity Range Navigation System
HIS
Hue, Intensity, and Saturation
HJ
The Hydrographic Journal
HLS
Hue, Luminance, and Saturation
HN
Höhen Null, Eastern FRG
HOM
Hotine Oblique Mercator
HOW
Handover word
HPC
high performance interconnection network
HPR
hydro-acoustic position reference
Hz
Hertz
I/O
input/output
IAC
IAG
IAGA
IAGS
IAH
IAHS
IALA
IAMAP
IAPSO
IASPEI
IASPO
IAT
IAU
IAVCEI
IBC
IBM
IC
ICA
ICAM
ICAN
ICAO
ICD
ICEC
ICES
ICES
ICET
ICO
ICRF
ICRS
ICSU
ICT
ICZM
IDMS
IE
IERS
IESSG
IF
IfAG
IFF
IGES
IGGC
IGLD
IGM
IGN
IGOS
IGS
IGSN
IGU
33
Information Analytical Centre (Russia)
International Association of Geodesy
International Association of Geomagnetism
and Aeronomy
Inter-American Geodetic Survey
International Association of Hydrogeologists
International Association of Hydrological
Sciences
International Association of Lighthouse
Authorities
International Association of Meteorology and
Atmospheric Physics
International Association for the Physical
Sciences of the Ocean
International Association of Seismology and
Physics of the Earth's Interior
Association Internationale des Sciences
Physiques de l'Oceán
International Atomique Temps (TAI)
International Astronomical Union
International Association of Volcanology and
Chemistry of the Earth's Interior
International Bathymetric Chart
International Business Corporation
integrated circuit
International Cartographic Association
Integrated Computer Automated Mapping
International Committee of Aeronautical
Navigation
International Civil Aviation Organisation
interface control document
International Cost Engineering Council
Conseil International pour l'Exploration de la
Mer
International Council for the Exploration of the
Sea
International Centre of Earth Tides
intermediate circular orbit
international celestial reference frame
international celestial reference system
International Council of Scientific Unions
Information- and Communication Technology
International Coastal Zone Management
Integrated Database Management System
Internationale Erdmessung
International Earth Rotation Service
Institute of Engineering Surveying and Space
Geodesy - Nottingham University
intermediate frequency
Institut für Angewandte Geodäsie now BKG
Identification, Friend or Foe
International Graphic Exchange Specification
International Gravity and Geoid Commission
International Great Lakes Datum
Istituto Geografico Militare
Institut Géographique National, Paris
Integrated Global Observing Strategy
International GNSS Service
International Gravity Standardisation Network
International Geographical Union
34
IGY
IHB
IHO
ILO
ILS
ILS
IMC
IMO
IMU
IMW
Related Topics
International Geophysical Year
International Hydrographic Bureau, Monaco
International Hydrographic Organisation
International Labour Organisation
Instrument Landing System
International Latitude Service
International Meridian Conference
International Maritime Organisation
inertial measurement unit
International Map of the World on the
millionth scale
INC
inertial navigation computer
INMARSAT - International Maritime Satellite organisation
INS
inertial navigation system
InSAR
inertial synthetic aperture radar
IOC
initial operational capability
IOC
Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission
ION
Institute Of Navigation
IOS
International Organisation Standardisation
IPMS
International Polar Motion Service
IPOD
International Phase of Ocean Drilling
IPX
Internetwork Protocol exchange
IPY
International Polar Year
IR
Infra-Red
IRF
inertial reference frame
IRIS
international radio interferometric surveying
IRM
IERS Reference Meridian
IRP
IERS Reference Pole
IRU
Inertial Reference Units
ISA
Industry Standard Architecture
ISDN
Integrated Services Digital Network
ISG
Integrated Survey Grid
ISO
International Standards Organisation
ISP
Information Provider
ISPRS
International Society for Photogrammetry and
Remote Sensing
ISRM
International Society of Rock Mechanics
ISS
Inertial Surveying Systems
ISSMGE International Society of Soil Mechanics and
Geotechnical Engineering
ITC
International Institute for Aerospace Survey
and Earth Sciences
ITC
International Training Centre for Aerospace
Survey and Earth Sciences (NL)
ITO
International Trade Organisation
ITRF
International Terrestrial Reference Frame
ITRS
International Terrestrial Reference System
ITS
Instantaneous Terrestrial System
ITU
International Telecommunication Union Union Internationale des Télécommunications
IUGG
International Union of Geodesy and
Geophysics
IUHS
International Union of the History of Science
Union Internationale d'Histoire des Sciences
IUSM
International Union for Surveys and Mapping
IUTAM
International Union of Theoretical and Applied
Mechanics
IVHS
Intelligent Vehicle-Highway System
JCI
job control instructions
JD
Julian Date
JDH
JDK
JIT
JMA
JOIDES
Japan Hydrographic Department
Java development kit
just-in-time compiler
Japan Meteorological Agency
Joint Oceanographic Institutions Deep Earth
Sampling
JPL
NASA/Jet Propulsion Laboratory
(California Institute of Technology)
JPO
Joint Program Office
JTIDS
Joint Tactical Information Distribution System
KCPT
Kinematic Carrier Phase Tracking
kHz
kiloHertz
KONMAC German GPS-campaign
L+T
Federal Office of Topography, Berne
LAAS
Local Area Augmentation System
LADGPS Local Area DGPS
LAN
Local Area Network
LANDSAT US Satellite System
LAPI
low-level-application-programming-interface
LAREG
Geodesy Research Laboratory in Marne-LaVallee
LASER
Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of
Radiation
LAT
Lowest Astronomical Tide
LATTEX Laboratory of Tectonophysics and Experimental Tectonics
LBL
long-baseline
LBO
large bottom object
LBS
location based service
LCC
Lambert conformal conic projection
LDAP
lightweight directory access protocol
LDC
Loran data channel
LED
light emitting diode
LEO
low elliptical orbit
LF
low frequency
LHA
local hour angle
LIDAR
light detection and ranging
LIS
Land Information System
LLR
Lunar Laser Ranging
LOD
length of day
LORAN
Long Range Navigation system
LPAC
Astronomical Council of USSR
LPF
Low Pass Filter
LQ
linear quadratic
LS
least squares adjustment
LSI
large-scale integrated
LV
LandesVermessung
m
international metre
MAGR
miniaturised airborne GPS Receiver
MASER
Microwave Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation
MBPS
Million Bits Per Second
MBTO
Mean Time Between Outages
MC&G
Mapping, Charting, and Geodesy
MCC
Russian Mission Control
MCP
Multiplex and Cross-connect Processor
MCS
Master Control Station
MEGRIN Multipurpose European Ground Related Information Network
MEMS
micro-electro-mechanical-systems
Related Topics
MEO
MERIT
Medium Elliptical Orbit
Monitoring Earth Rotation and Intercomparing
Techniques
MERLIN Multi Element Radio Linked Interferometer
MG
Mitteleuropäische Gradmessung
MGPS
Multibase GPS
MH
master-hub facility
MHz
megaHertz
MIPS
millions of instructions per second
MOEMS micro-opto-electro-mechanical-systems
MPP
massively parallel processing
MPT
multi-function positioning transponder
MRE
multiple regression equation
MSAS
multi-functional satellite augmentation
system
MSD
maritime systems department
MSL
mean sea level
MSS
multispectral scanning systems
MST
mean sidereal time
MSTI
mean sidereal time corrected for polar motion
MTA
multi-threaded architecture
MTI
moving target indicator
MTSAT
multi functional transport satellite
MuLBL
multi-user long baseline
MUX
multiplexer
N
Geoid undulations
N.g.d.F.
Nivellement general de France
N.g.d.M. Nivellement general de Madagascar
NAD27
North American Datum of 1927
NAD83
North American Datum of 1983
NAL
National Aerospace Laboratory, Japan
NANU
Notice advisory to NAVSTAR users
NAOMZ National Astronomical Observatory, Mizusawa
branch
NAP
Normaal Amsterdams Peil
NASA
National Aeronautics and Space
Administration
NATO
North Atlantic Treaty Organisation
NAVD88 North American Vertical Datum of 1988
NAVNET Navy VLBI Network
NAVOCEANO Naval Oceanographic Office
NAVSTAR NAVigation System with Timing And Ranging
NBS
National Bureau of Standards
NCDCDS National Committee for Digital Cartographic
Data Standards
NCO
numerically controlled oscillator
NDB
non-directional beacon
NDFW
Nearly Diurnal Free Wobble
NDM
Navstar Data Monitor
NDP
numerical data processor
NEDOC
Netherlands' Doppler campaign
NELS
Northwest European Loran-C System
NEOS
National Earth Orientation Service
NEP
North Ecliptic Pole
NEREF
Netherlands Terrestrial Reference Frame
NFCE
Navigation Field Control Equipment
NGA
National Geospatial Intelligence Agency,
formerly NIMA, and DMA
NGA/AC NGA/Aerospace Center
NGA/TC
NGC
NGC
NGF
NGI
NGRS
NGS
NGSP
NGVD29
NH
NHO
NHSs
NHTSA
35
NGA/Topographic Center
Nederlandse Commissie voor Geodesie
Netherlands Geodetic Commission
French normal height reference frame
National Geografisch Instituut, Brussels
National Geodetic Reference System
National Geodetic Survey, Silver Springs
National Geodetic Satellite Program
National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929
Normal Höhen Punkt, Eastern FRG
National Hydrographic Office
National Hydrographic Societies
National Highway Traffic Safety
Administration
NIMA
National Imagery and Mapping Agency,
formerly DMA, see NGA
NIST
National Institute of Standards and Technology
nmi
nautical mile
NM
normal Mercator projection
NMA
National Mapping Agency
NMC
National Mapping Council
NMCA
National Mapping and Cadastre Agencies
NN
Normal Null, Western FRG
NNR-NUVEL-lA
No-net rotation model of current plate
velocities of plate motion model
NNSS
US Navy Navigation Satellite System
(Transit or simply Doppler)
NOAA
US National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration
NorFA
Nordic Academy For Advanced Studies
NOS
US Dept of Commerce/National Ocean Survey
NPL
National Physical Laboratory, Teddington
NRC
National Research Council
NRCan
Natural Resources Canada, formerly EMR
NRL
Naval Research Laboratories
NRS
national reference system
NSE
navigation sensor error
NSHC
North Sea Hydrographic Commission
NSU
navigation sensor unit
NSWC
US Naval Surface Warfare Centre
NSWL
US Naval Surface Weapons Centre/Dahlgren
Laboratory)
NUMA
non-uniform-memory-access
NZMG
New Zealand Grid System
OACI
Organisation de l'Aviation Civile
Internationale
OCA
Observatoire de la Côte d'Azur
OCS
GPS operational control system
ODGPS
Ordinary Differential GPS
OEEPE
Organisation Européenne d'Etudes
Photogrammétriques Expérimentales
OEM
Original Equipment Manufacturer
OICRF
Office International du Cadastre et du Regime
Foncier
OM
Oblique Mercator
OMM
Organisation Météorologique Mondiale
World Meteorological Organisation
ONERS
Office National d' Etudes et de Recherches
Spatiales
36
Related Topics
ONU
OP
OS
OS
OSC
OSGB
OSGB(SN)
OSI
OSI
OSNI
OSTN
OSU
OTF
OTS
P. du N.
PAGEOS
PAIGH
PC
PCI
PCMCIA
P-code
PCV
PDN
PDOP
PE
PE
PFE
PGN
PIN
PIOSA
PL
PLGR
PLL
PM
PM
PM
PMR
POE
POWER
PPP
PPS
PRARE
PRC
PRME
PRN
PRN
psad
PSK
PSMSL
PSSP
PULSAR
PW
PZ90
QA
QC
QOS
QPSK
Organisation des Nations Unies
Observatoire de Paris
Operating System
Ordnance Survey
oblique stereographic conformal projection
Ordnance Survey of Great Britain
Ordnance Survey of Great Britain Scientific
Network
open system interconnection
Ordnance Survey of Ireland
Ordnance Survey of Northern Ireland
Ordnance Survey Terrestrial Network
Ohio State University
on the fly
organised track structure
Pierre du Niton (Switzerland)
Passive Geodetic Earth Orbiting Satellite
Pan American Institute of Geography and
History
Personal Computer
Pulse Code Intervals
Personal Computer Memory Card International
Association
Precision code (10.23 MHz)
phase centre variations
Packet Data Network
Position Dilution Of Precision
parallel-environment
Precise Ephemeris
Path Following Error
Precise Geodetic Network
Parcel/Personal Identification Number
Pan Indian Ocean Science Association
PseudoLite or Pseudo-Satellite
Precision Lightweight GPS Receiver
Phase lock loop
polar motion
polycylindric Mercator
Prime Meridian
US Navy Pacific Missile Range
parallel-operating-environment
performance-optimisation-with-enhanced-RISC
Point-to-Point Protocol
Precise Positioning Service
Precise Range and Range Rate Equipment
pseudo range corrections
pseudo range monitoring error
pseudo random noise
pseudo random number system
provisional South American Datum
Phase-Shift Keying
Permanent Service for Mean Sea Level
parallel system support program
pulsating radio stars
personal workstation
Parametry Zemli of 1990
Quality Assurance
Quality Control
Quantum-Optical Stations
Quadri-phase-shift keying
QUASAR
R&D
RA
RADAR
RAF98
RAIM
RAL
RAM
RAMS
quasi-stellar radio source
Research and Development
Right Ascension
Radio Detecting And Ranging
French height reference surface model
Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring
routes, areas and limits
random-access-memory
Reliability, Availability, Maintainability,
and Safety
RBF
French Base Geodetic Network
RBV
Return Beam Vidicon
RC
Radio Control
RD
Rijks Driehoeksmeting
RDB
Relational Database
RDL
automatic robotic data library
RDMS
Relational Database Management System
RDOP
Relative Dilution Of Precision
RENC
Regional Electronic Nautical Chart Coordination Centre
RETDOC Doppler campaign for RETrig
RETrig
Réseau Europeén de Triangulation
RF
Radio Frequency
RF
Russian Federation
RGB
Red-Green-Blue
RGF
French Gravity Network
RGP
French GPS Permanent Network
RGPS
Relative Global Positioning System
RIMS
Ranging and Integrity Monitoring Station
RINEX
Receiver Independent Exchange (format)
RIRT
Russian Institute of Radionavigation and Time
RISC
reduced instruction set computing
RLG
ring-laser gyro
RM
Reference Mark
RM
Reference Meridian
RMS
Root Mean Square error
RNAAC
Regional Network Analysis Centre
RNP
Required Navigation Performance
ROM
Rosenmund’s oblique Mercator
ROV
remote operated vehicle
RPG
Report Program Generator language
RPM
revolutions per minute
RPN
reverse polish notation
RS
remote sensing
RSC
radio source coordinates
RSO
Rectified Skew Orthomorphic
RSS
remote sensing systems
RTCA
Radio Technical Commission for Aeronautics
RTCM
Radio Technical Commission for Maritime
Services
RT-DGPS Real Time-DGPS
RTE
run-time environment
RTK
Real Time Kinematic
RTRF
Regional Terrestrial Reference Frame
RVSD
recoverable-virtual-shared-disk
RW
Ridge Way base
S/N
Signal-to-Noise ratio
SA
Selective Availability of GPS
SAASM
Selective Availability Anti-Spoofing Module
SAD
South American Datum
Related Topics
SAM
SAO
SAR
SAS
SBAS
SBL
SC
SCAR
SCG
System Area Monitor
Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory
Synthetic Aperture Radar
Synthetic Aperture Sonar
Satellite Based Augmentation System
sub-seabed logging
Spacecraft
Special Committee on Antarctic Research
Special Committee for Inter-Union Cooperation in Geophysics
SCOR
Scientific Committee on Oceanic Research
SCSI
Small Computer Systems Interface
SC-xxx
Special Committee xxx
SD
standard deviation
SDE
Single Difference Equation
SDPRC
Single Differencing Pseudo Range Carrier
technique
SDTS
Spatial Data Transfer Standard, Federal
Geographic Data Committee
SECOR
SEquential Collation Of Range
SENC
system electronic navigation chart
SEP
spherical error probable
SGR
Sky wave to Ground wave Ratio
SGRS95
Russian State Geodetic Reference System of
1995
SGS
Soviet Geocentric System
SH
slave-hub facility
SHA
Shanghai Observatory
SHOM
Service Hydrographique et Oceanographique
de la Marine
SHORAN Short Range Navigation System
SI
Système International
SIF
Standard Interchange Format
SIFET
Società Italiana di Fotogrammetria e
Topografia
SIGEM
Società Italiana di Geofisica e Meteorologia
SINEX
Solution Independent Exchange format
SIO
Scripps Institution of Oceanography
SLR
satellite laser ranging
SMP
symmetric multi-processing
SNR
signal-to-noise-ratio
SOI
Silicon-On-Insulator
SOLAS
safety of life at sea convention
SP
scaleable parallel-processors
SPCS27
US State Plane Coordinate System 1927
SPCS83
US State Plane Coordinate System 1983
SPS
Standard Positioning Service
SPOT
Système Pour l'Observation de la Terre
SPT
single-function positioning transponder
SQL
sequential query language
SSB
Solar system barycentre
SSBL
super short-baseline
ST
Sidereal time
STADAN Satellite Tracking and Data Acquisition Network (GSFC)
STANAG Standardisation Agreements of NATO member
states
STN
Staatliches Trigonometrisches Netz
STS
satellite tracking systems
SV
Space Vehicle
SVN
SWEREF
t
T
TAI
TAI
TASS
TB/s
TCG
TCB
TCP/IP
37
Space Vehicle launch Number
SWEdish REFerence Network
Grid azimuth
Projected geodetic azimuth
International Atomic Time (IAT)
Temps Atomique International (IAT)
towed array Sonar systems
terabit-per-second
geocentric coordinate time
Barycentric coordinate time
Transmission Control Protocol / Internet
Protocol
TD
Tokyo Datum
TDB
Barycentric Dynamical Time
TDB
Temps Dynamique Barycentrique
TDMA
Time Division Multiple Access
TDN
Topografische Dienst Nederland
TDOP
Time Dilution Of Precision
TDT
Terrestrial Dynamical Time
TDT
Terrestrial Time Dynamique
TEC
US Army Topographical Centre
TELEX
TELeprinter EXchange service
TFE
time and frequency control equipment
TGBM
Tide Gauge Bench Marks
TIFF
Tagged Image File Format
TIGER file Topological Integrated Geographic Encoding
and Reference files
TIMS
Thermal Infrared Multispectral Scanner
TIN
Triangulated Irregular Network
TLM
Telemetry Word
TM
Registered Trademark
TM
Thematic Mapper (on LANDSAT satellite)
TM
Transverse Mercator (Gauss-Krüger in
Europe)
TOPEX
Ocean Topographical Experiment
TOPOCOM US Army Topographic Command (now NGA)
TOT
Time Of Transmission
TOW
Time of week
TPC
Telecommunications Process Controller
TR
Technical Report
TRANET Doppler tracking station network
TRANSIT Time Ranging and Sequential System
TRF
terrestrial reference frame
TRS
terrestrial reference system
TT
Terrestrial Time
TWG
Technical Working Group of EUREF
TYRGEONET Tyrrhenian Geodetic Network
UAI
Union Astronomique Internationale
UCLA
University of California, Los Angeles
UDL
Unified Data Language
UDN
User Densification Network
UDRE
User Differential Range Error
UELN
Unified European Levelling Network
UERE
User Equivalent Range Error
UGGI
Union Géodésique et Géophysique
Internationale
UGI
Union Géographique Internationale
UHF
Ultra High Frequency
UIC
User Identification Code
38
UICPA
Related Topics
Union Internationale de Chimie Pure et
Appliquée
UIMTA
Union Internationale de Mécanique Théorique
et Appliquée
UIVE
User Ionospheric Vertical Error
UKMO
U.K. Meteorological Office
UKOOA United Kingdom Operators' Association
UM
universal Mercator
UNCHS
UN Centre for Human Settlements
UNCLOS United Nations convention on the law of the
sea
UNFAO
UN Food and Agriculture Organisation
UNOoC
UN Office of Cartography
UPLN
Unified (East) European Precise Levelling
Network
UPS
universal polar stereographic grid system
USAF
US Air Force
USBL
ultra-short-baseline
USC&GS United States Coast and Geodetic Survey
USCG
US Coast Guard
USGS
United States Geological Survey
USNO
United States Naval Observatory
UT
universal time
UT1
Universal time corrected for polar motion
UTC
Universal Coordinated Time
UTM
Universal Transverse Mercator grid
UTXMO Dept. of Astronomy. The University of Texas
at Austin.
VCO
Voltage Controlled Oscillator
VDOP
Vertical Dilution of Precision
VHF
very high frequency
VLA
very large array
VLBI
very long baseline interferometry
VLSI
very-large-scale integrated
VOR
VIP Omni-Directional Radio Range
VRS
virtual reality system
VSAT
very small aperture terminal
VSD
virtual shared disk
VT
visualisation tools
WAADGPS Wide Area Augmented Differential GPS
WAAS
Wide Area Augmentation System
WADGPS Wide Area Differential GPS
WAN
Wide Area Network
WECDIS Warfare Electronic Chart Display and Information System
WFC
NASA/Wallops Flight Centre
WGO
Working Group of Oceanography (of CSAGI)
WGS
US DoD World Geodetic Reference System
WGS84
World Geodetic System 1984
WGS84- G730 WGS84 referring to GPS week 730
WGS84- G873 WGS84 referring to GPS week 873
WGS84-G1150 WGS84 referring to GPS week 1150
WGSC
World Geodetic System Committee
WHO
World Health Organisation
WMO
World Meteorological Organisation
WPLA
Working Party on Land administration
WRC
World Radio Conferences
WSMR
White Sands Missile Range (New Mexico)
WSRT
Westerbork Synthesis Radio Telescope
WTO
World Trade Organisation
WTUSM
WVR
WWW
XNS/ITP
Y-code
YMCK
ZEN
ZIPE
ZOC
Wuhan Technical University of Surveying and
Mapping
Water Vapour Radiometer
internet
Xerox Network Systems / Internet Transport
Protocol
Encrypted P-code
Yellow-Magenta-Cyan-Black
Zentral Europaïsches Netz
Zentralinstitut für Physik der Erde
Zones Of Confidence