THE CUBAN MISSILE CRISIS
Many Americans remember the Cuban Missile Crisis as the most dangerous
moment for the U.S. since World War II. Indeed, it was perhaps the
closest the world has ever come to nuclear war.
On October 14, 1962, U.S. spy planes flying over Cuba photographed the
Soviet-led construction of a ballistic missile site. After secretly
discussing possible responses with his advisers, President John F.
Kennedy imposed a blockade on Cuba and attempted to resolve the crisis
through diplomatic means. After a few tense weeks, the Soviet Premier
Nikita Khrushchev ordered the dismantling and removal of the missiles
from Cuba, and the world breathed a sigh of relief. The recent release
of tapes from recorders JFK had installed in the Oval Office and
Cabinet Room and the declassification of Soviet documents provide
further insight into this crisis - what JFK discussed with his
advisors, and how the final accord between the United States and the
Soviet Union was reached.
By the time the U.S. discovered the missiles in 1962, the USSR had
installed not only anti-aircraft missiles, but other weapons that
Kennedy had specifically warned Khrushchev not to put in Cuba. These
weapons were medium-range rockets that could reach Washington DC,
intermediate range missiles capable of a first strike against U.S.
weapons stored in the Midwest, and fighter bombers with nuclear
warheads. The U.S. government was quite surprised by this discovery. In
fact, as late as September 19, the CIA and other agencies had asserted
that the Soviet buildup in Cuba would probably be limited to defensive
weapons. As the spy planes discovered just over a month later, the
intelligence agencies were gravely mistaken.
Despite the late discovery, United States intelligence was able to
quickly discern the capabilities of the missiles, thanks to information
secretly obtained earlier from Oleg Penkovsky, a senior agent in the
Soviet military intelligence. He had turned double-agent and given
detailed information to the Americans regarding Soviet missiles. As a
result, the U.S. identified the types of missiles, how quickly they
would be ready to fire, and their ranges. Military historians believe
this information was key in the quick American reaction. For his part,
however, Penkovsky was discovered by the Soviets and executed in 1963.
While we can never be sure of his motives, it appears that Khrushchev
was attempting to virtually overcome the Soviet deficit in
intercontinental weapons, thus evening up the strategic balance. At the
time of the crisis, the United States possessed many more weapons than
the Soviet Union, and thus had a military advantage. Khrushchev had
formulated the plan the previous May, when he was searching for a place
to install nuclear warheads that could not be detected by the U.S.
early warning system, which faced only north and west. Cuba, located
south of the United States and an ally of the USSR, seemed to be an
ideal location.
When explaining why he allowed the Soviet Union to install the warheads
in Cuba, Cuban leader Fidel Castro referred to fear of American
invasion. In his public comments, he stated that six months prior to
the missile installment, he received information that the CIA was
preparing a new invasion of Cuba because it was embarrassed as a result
of the botched 1961 invasion at the Bay of Pigs. In addition, JFK had
recently reminded the Soviets that the United States had not intervened
when the Warsaw Pact (led by the USSR) invaded Hungary in 1956.
According to Castro, this reminder indicated that Kennedy was asking
for Russian non-intervention in the event of an American invasion of
Cuba. Pooling their information, Cuba and the USSR concluded that the
U.S. was possibly planning an invasion. Castro then asked Khrushchev to
convince the United States that an attack on Cuba would be equivalent
to attacking the Soviet Union. The USSR, wanting to preserve the honor
of a fellow socialist country, decided that installing missiles was the
best course of action.
Once he knew of the missiles, JFK began secret discussions with his
advisers to decide how the U.S. should react. The possible reactions
ranged from invasion to air strikes to a blockade or diplomacy.
According to Defense Secretary Robert S. McNamara, a majority of the
President's advisers were ready to bomb the missile sites and invade if
Khrushchev did not remove the missiles soon. In fact, some of these
advisers estimated that the odds of a nuclear war were at 35-50
percent. Kennedy, on the other hand, took a less hawkish approach. He
feared that if the Americans bombed Cuba, the Soviets would react and
take Berlin (Berlin was split into the democratic west sector and the
Communist east sector), possibly triggering a nuclear war. JFK tried to
balance the U.S. credibility as the leader of the anti-Communist
alliance with the very real threat of nuclear war. He was willing to
bargain with Khrushchev and eliminate some American weapons, but he
feared that once Europe knew he was willing to eliminate some weapons
to protect U.S. territory, the U.S. commitment to NATO would be
questioned. He had to tread carefully on middle ground -- avoiding war
without appearing to back down.
Finally, on October 22, with the support of the Organization of
American States, Kennedy announced the imposition of a naval blockade
on Cuba. The blockade would prevent more missiles from being shipped to
Cuba. He also demanded that the USSR dismantle and remove the weapons.
He enhanced the U.S. position by establishing a quarantine zone around
Cuba. Within the zone, the U.S. would inspect incoming ships and search
for weapons. For several days Soviet ships did not venture into the
zone, while Kennedy and Khrushchev communicated privately. On October
26, Khrushchev agreed to remove the missiles, and on October 28, he
agreed to not only remove, but also dismantle the missiles, and allow
the United States to inspect the sites so long as it consented not to
invade Cuba. Kennedy accepted this capitulation and stopped the
blockade. While Cuba was angry at the Soviets and did not allow the
inspection, U.S. spy plane photographs showed that the bases were being
dismantled.
What made Khrushchev yield? The presidential recordings suggest that a
deal brokered between Kennedy and Khrushchev may have been key. Several
months before the crisis, the United States had installed Jupiter
rockets in Turkey and Italy. While these rockets were almost obsolete
militarily, they underlined American commitment to NATO. As mentioned
earlier, a main Kennedy concern was that any deals would detract from
the perceived American commitment to NATO and European security.
Through back channels, JFK and his brother, Attorney General Robert
Kennedy, presented the idea that the U.S. might be willing to bargain
around the Jupiters. RFK finally told the Russian ambassador Anatoly
Dobrynin that the President would be willing to dismantle the missiles,
but that the problem would be any public discussion of the issue. The
next day, October 26, was the day Khrushchev partially capitulated, and
in two days, the crisis had ended.
Kennedy later leaked that Adlai Stevenson (Kennedy's past rival for the
Democratic nomination for president) had suggested a negotiation within
the Washington elite. The Stevenson deal was never accepted. Any
subsequent discussion about a deal was disregarded as an idea of those
who were soft on Communism. It was only with the release of the tapes
that more details surrounding the Jupiters became widely known.
The ramifications of the crisis were great. The apparent surrender of
the USSR was key in ending Khrushchev's political career. In 1964, the
Soviet army accused Khrushchev of having taken too great a risk with
the missile sites in Cuba, and he was retired by the Party and replaced
by Leonid Brezhnev. In American collective memory, the 'Missiles of
October' are remembered as a flashpoint in the Cold War, a tense period
when the threat of nuclear war could have become an immediate, and
frightful, reality.
Answer the following on your own paper.
Questions from the Cuban Missile Crisis
1. As you read, underline any parts that are confusing or that you have questions about.
Ask about them in class.
2. What Soviet action precipitated (began) the Cuban Missile Crisis? Why did
Khrushchev do this?
3. How did the failed Bay of Pigs invasion factor into this?
4. What options did President Kennedy consider in response? What response did he end
up taking?
5. Describe the deal that was finally reached between the two countries.
6. How did the Cuban Missile Crisis affect Nikita Khrushchev’s career?