International Research Journal of Plant Science (ISSN: 2141-5447) Vol. 4(5) pp. 117-132, May, 2013
Available online http://www.interesjournals.org/IRJPS
Copyright © 2013 International Research Journals
Full Length Research Paper
Comparison between archaeobotany of inland and
coastal sites in the Eastern Desert of Egypt in
300 B.C.-700 A.D.
Mohamed Ahmed Fadl1,2
1
Botany Department, Faculty of Sciences, Beni-Suef University, Beni-Suef, Egypt.
2
Biology Department, Faculty of Science, Taif University, Taif, Saudi Arabia.
E-mail: mafadl2000@yahoo.com; Tel: +966548842609
Abstract
Eastern Desert of Egypt includes many archaeological sites ranging from early Ptolemaic to late
Byzantine some are forts and ports on the Red Sea Coast and others are quarries on the west of the
mountainous ranges of the Red Sea. Analysis and comparison of data obtained by analysis of plant
macro-remains from four sites, a fort (Abu-Sha’ar), a harbor (Berenike), and two quarries (Mons
Porphyrites and Mons Claudianus) revealed the presence of 54776 plant fragments identified to 160
plant species. Remains of 96 wild plant species are identified, they represent 40.5% of the total remains;
Acacia tortilis and Avicennia marina were the most important native trees in the coastal sites, they were
used as timber and firewood resource in Abu-Sha’ar and Berenike, while wood of Acacia nilotica tree
was dominant in Mons Porphyrites and Mons Claudianus. Shrubs as Cleome droserifolia, Pulicaria
crispa, Forsskaolea tenacissima and Zilla spinosa were the dominant in Mons Porphyrites and Mons
Claudianus. Fruit trees (native and introduced) were represented by 22 plant species (4% of the total
remains); seven trees are native to Egyptian flora and the rest were cultivated or introduced from
Mediterranean regions, India or China. Remains of 34 cultivated plant species were identified, they
represent 35.4% of the total remains; Triticum durrum and Hordeum vulgare were the dominant cereal
crops, Lens culinaris was the most important legume. Remains of 13 trees introduced wood, represent
20.1% of total remains, Tectonia grandis wood fragments represent 91.7% of the total introduced wood,
it was recorded only in Berenike, this confirmed the relation between this port and India. Most remains
of mesophytic plants and cultivated cereals were retrieved from Mons Porphyrites and Mons
Claudianus which indicate a strong dependence on the Nile valley.
Keywords: Archaeobotany, Eastern Desert, Ptolemaic-Roman, wood, India, Mediterranean, cereals, Nile
Valley, Egypt.
INTRODUCTION
The Eastern Desert of Egypt (21% of the total area of
Egypt) is divided by high rugged mountains (Red Sea
mountains) running parallel to the Red Sea coast into
two main ecological units: the Red Sea coastal desert
and the inland desert. The coastal desert and inland
plataeu are dissected by numerous wadis drainage
eastward to the Red Sea or westward to the Nile Valley;
these dense network of wadis coalesce into a relatively
small number of great trunk channels (Abu Al-Izz, 1971;
Fadl, 1999; Zahran and Willis, 2009). The wadis originate
from the Red Sea mountains provide the inhabitants
around with some of their demands of water, food,
pasture for their animals, wood and fire resources.
In this study we deal with four archaeological sites
belong to early Ptolemic to late Byzantine times (Figure 1).
Abu-Sha’ar archaeological site (27ºN and 33º 41̀E)
locates 20 Km north of Hurghada on the Red Sea Coast;
it was a late Roman to early Byzantine fort, dates back to
300/400 - 700 A.D (Sidebotham et al., 1987). The
inhabitants were provided with fresh water by two wells,
940 m west at Gebel Abu-Sha’ar El-Qibili, fresh water
was brought to cisterns similar in structure to those of
118 Int. Res. J. Plant Sci.
Figure 1. Map of Egypt Showing archaeological sites in the Eastern Desert.
Roman cisterns in Kharga and Dakhla Oases in the
Western Desert of Egypt (El-Hadidi, 1993b; Thanheiser,
1999). Previous studies on botanical remains retrieved
from Abu-Sha’ar archaeological site in seasons
1990and1991 revealed the presence of 49 plant species
(El-Hadidi and Amer, 1996; El-Hadidi and El-Fayoumi,
1996; El-Hadidi et al., 1997).
Berenike settlement was a Roman harbor located on
the Red Sea coast of Egypt (23° 54' N and 35° 28' E)
near the border with Sudan. Red Sea ports were part of a
maritime commerce route that link China, India and
Central Asia with the Middle East and Mediterranean
basin (Wendrich et al., 2003). Excavations at Berenike
revealed three periods of occupation, the initial one was
during its foundation in about 275 B.C (Wendrich et al.,
2003). Berenike witnessed decline due to economic,
political and social upheavals in Egypt and the Roman
Empire (Sidebotham and Sidebotham, 2002).
Mons Claudianus was a Roman quarry settlement
located in an isolated part of the Eastern Desert of Egypt
120 km eastnorth of the Nile, at an altitude of ca.
700m ASL, in the west of the Red Sea mountains. The
Fadl 119
settlement was inhabited primarily during the late 1st and
2nd centuries A.D. (Van der Veen, 1996). The site
consists of a shielded settlement (fort), animal lines
(stables), granary, well, cemetery, temple, bath house, as
well as substantial midden deposits. The site is
remarkably well preserved due to the extreme aridity at
this area. More than 8000 ostraca, potsherds with writing
on them, providing important information regarding the
management of the settlement, the quarry operations, the
food supply and daily life (van der Veen, 1996).
The Mons Porphyrites complex was a quarry site
located in the hyperarid part of the Eastern Desert of
Egypt, where the average annual precipitation is c. 5 mm
and the vegetation consequently consists of typical
desert species and cultivation of crops is not possible.
The nearest area where agriculture is practiced in Qena
in the Nile valley, is 140 km to the southwest of the Nile
(Van der Veen and Tabinor, 2007).
The goals of our study are to find out the relation
between plant remains and function of the sites, the
source of food for population, the diverse fodders for
animal, the source of woods (native or introduced) and
finally the relations between Egypt and surrounding
countries.
(Avicennia marina) inhabits the muddy substratum, the
northern most locality of A. marina is 22 km north
Hurghada (Zahran, 1977); associated species are
Rhizophora mucronata, Halophilla spp., Cymodocea spp.
The littoral salt marsh is dominated by 10 communities,
Zygophyllum album, Arthrocnemum glaucum, Tamarix
nilotica, Aeluropus lagopoides, Limonium spp., Juncus
rigidus, Sporobolus spicatus, Suaeda monoica,
Halocnemum strobilaceum and Nitraria retusa (El-Hadidi,
2000; Zahran and Willis, 2009). On the Red Sea coastal
desert, six plant communities were recorded
and
dominated by Cleome droserifolia, Panicum turgidum,
Hammada elegans, Acacia tortilis (tree form), Tamarix
aphylla (tree form) and Zygophyllum coccineum (under
shrub form). In the inland desert many additional
communities are recorded as Acacia tortilis, Anabasis
articulata, Citrullus colocynthis, Calligonum comosum,
Pulicaria crispa, Retama raetam, Capparis decidua,
Aerva javanica, Zilla spinosa, Leptadenia pyrotechnica,
Balanites aegyptiaca and Deverra tortuosa (Fadl 1999;
El-Hadidi, 2000; Shaltout et al., 2009; Zahran and Willis,
2009).
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Study Area
A- Climate
The climate of the Red Sea coastal land of Egypt is aridhyperarid, and that of inland desert is hyperarid. The
mean annual rainfall ranges from 25 mm in Suez, 4 mm
in Hurghada to 3.4 mm in Qusseir. The main bulk of rain
occurs in winter, i.e. Mediterranean affinity, and summer
is, in general, rainless. Variability of annual rainfall is
usual. Temperature is high and ranges between 14 and
21.7 °C in winter and 23.1–46.1°C in summer. Relative
humidity ranges from 43% in summer to 65% in winter
(UNESCO, 1977; Zahran and Willis, 2009). Within the
arid and semi-arid countries, high coastal mountains may
cause sufficient orographic rain which is referred ‘as “fog
precipitation” (Moreau, 1938). This orographic rain
creates rich vegetation on slopes of high mountains
(Kassas, 1956).
B- Present Vegetation
The flora and vegetation of the Eastern Desert of Egypt is
subjected to broad studies (Kassas and Zahran, 1971;
Zahran, 1977; Zahran and Mashaly, 1991; Fadl 1999; ElHadidi, 2000; Zahran and Willis, 2009). Two large
ecological units are documented; the inland desert and
Red Sea coastal lands; vegetation in the coastal area is
classified to mangrove, salt marsh, coastal desert and
coastal mountains vegetation type. The mangrove tree
The author investigated 258 soil sample from Abu-Sha’ar
archaeological site excavated in seasons 1978, 1990,
1991, 1992 and 1993; 90 sample from locality 7 (Fadl,
2009), 168 sample from localities 13 and 10 (present
study). From Berenike 226 soil sample were investigated
(Vermeeren, 2000; Vermeeren and cappers, 1997-2002;
Wendrich et al., 2003). From Mons Porphyrites 79 soil
sample were studied (Van der Veen and Tabinor, 2007).
From Mons Claudianus 77 soil samples were
investigated (Van der Veen, 1996 and 2001; Van der
Veen and Hamilton-Dyer, 1998).
Identification of the plant remains
Soil samples were sieved through 2mm sieve to separate
pebbles, large pieces of charcoal and wood. The samples
were sorted into components by stereoscopic binocular
(magnification: 6-100X). Desiccated wood and branch
fragments were moistened in glycerol/alcohol (1-1) for 24
hours. Thin free hand or microtome sections were made
for every fragment. Charred wood fragments
were examined under reflected light bright field/dark
field microscope on transverse, tangential and
radial sections. Sections and slides of wood, culms
and rhizome were recognized by comparing them with a
set of modern reference slides kept at Beni-Suef
University herbarium (BNSU). References of plant
anatomy were used in the identification along with
drawings and photographs from archaeobotanical and
anatomical studies (Greiss, 1957; Fahn, 1982; Fahn et
120 Int. Res. J. Plant Sci.
Table 1. Numbers of samples, identified species and date of sites under investigation.
Site
Mons Porphyrites
Abu-Sha’ar
Berenike
Mons Claudianus
Total
Date
1 - 500 A.D
300 - 700 A.D
300 B.C - 600 A.D
1 - 300 A.D
al., 1986; Wheeler et al., 1989; El-Hadidi and Waly, 1991;
Waly, 1996 and 1999; Neumann et al., 2001; Fadl, 2008).
Seeds, fruits, inflorescences and leaves are compared
with modern reference collection at the Herbaria of Cairo
and Beni-Suef University (BNSU). Drawings and
photographs
from
floristic,
taxonomic
and
archaeobotanical publications were used to recognize the
plant remains under study (Naser, 1947; Täckhlom, 1974;
El-Hadidi and Fayed, 1978; Cope and Hosni, 1991; van
Zeist and de Roller, 1993; Fahmy,1995; Fadl, 2008).
Nomenclature, identification and citation of wild species
are according to Boulos (1999, 2000, 2002 and 2005).
RESULTS
Inspection of 640 soil samples from the four studies
archaeological sites produced 54776 plant macroremains belong to 160 plant species. Cultivated crops are
represented by 34 species; remains of fruit trees include
15 cultivated or introduced species and seven native
trees, while remnants of wild plants belong to 96 species.
Remains of introduced wood trees were identified to 13
trees. Mons Porphyrites site has the highest number of
fragments and species with life span 500 year; followed
by Mons Claudianus archaeological site which has
considerable number of fragments and the lowest
number of species with life span 300 year. Abu-Sha’ar
archaeological site has the lowest number of fragments
but with high number of species with life span 400 year;
Berenike has high number of fragments but with low
number of species with life span 900 year (Table 1). So
there is no obvious relation between the number of
samples, the time intervals of inhabitation and the
number of species between coastal and inland sites; but
the big difference in number of species between Mons
Porphyrites and Mons Claudianus archaeological site is
explained by the two long peroids of ocupation in Mons
Porphyrites compared with one short peroid in Mons
Claudianus.
Cultivated plants
Remains of cultivated crops and vegetables represent
35.4% of total plants remains and 21.8% of the total
Number of
samples
79
258
226
77
640
Number of
fragments
23442
3959
16088
11287
54776
Number of
species
87
76
61
58
160
number of species; they are plentiful in Mons Porphyrites
and represent 56.3% of total remains of the site and
68.1% of total cultivated remains (attributed to 25
species), and in Mons Claudianus they represent 43.7%
of total remains of the site and 25.5% of total cultivated
remains (attributed to 12 species). Although cultivated
remains were not widespread in Berenike, represent
5.2% of total remains of the site and 4.3% of total
cultivated remains, the number of species was high and
represented by 22 species. In Abu-Sha’ar cultivated
remains were rare in both number of fragments, 10.3% of
total remains of the site and 2.1% of total cultivated
remains). Fragments of cereals, specially hay fragments
and grains of wheat (Triticum durum) and barley
(Hordeum vulgare) constitute the main bulk of cultivated
remains (86% of total cultivated plant remains). Legume
remains represent 6.2% of total cultivated remains, Lens
culinaris was the most common legume (5.9% of total
cultivated plant remains), it occured in all sites but not in
Abu-Sha’ar. Carthamus tinctorius was common dying and
oil plant (3.4% of total cultivated plant remains) and
occurred in all sites but not in Abu-Sha’ar. Familiar
condiments, vegetable and medicinal plants are
represented by 0.98-o.47% of total cultivated plant
remains, Coriandrum sativum is recorded in all sites,
Trachyspermum copticum and Nigella sativa are
recorded in the quarry sites, Citrullus lanatus and
Foeniculum vulgare occur in all sites but not in AbuSha’ar; Piper nigrum occur in Berenike. Although Triticum
dicocccon remains were rare (0.23% of total cultivated
remains), they are recorded in all sites. Less common
remains which are represented by 0.16-0.02% of total
cultivated remains are those of Linum usitatissimum
(occured in all sites); Cumnium cyminum, Lagenaria
siceraria and Sesamum indicum were recorded in
Berenike and Mons Porphyrites sites; Lupinus albus,
Allium cepa and Allium sativum were recorded in all sites
but not in Mons Claudianus; fruits of Anethum graveolens
were recorded in the two quarry sites; seeds of Cicer
arietinum were retrieved from Abu-Sha’ar and Mons
Porphyrites sites; seeds of Vicia faba were just recorded
in the coastal sites. Rare remains of Lathyrus sativus,
Trigonella foenum-graecum, Oryza sativa, Vigna radiata
and Coix lacryma-jobi occured in Berenike site only;
seeds of Apium graveolens, Cucumis melo/sativus,
Cichorium endivea, Mentha sp., Ocimum basilicum and
Fadl 121
Table 2. Number of fragments and species of cultivated plants (D. desiccated, C. carbonized).
Species \ fragments
Ttiticum durum (G)
Rachilla
Hordeum vulgare (G)
Rachilla
Hordeum/Triticum (culm frag.)
Lens culinaris (Seed)
Hila
Carthamus tinctorius (Fruits)
Coriandrum sativum (Fruits)
Trachyspermum copticum (Fruit)
Citrullus lanatus (Seed)
Foeniculum vulgare (Fruit)
Nigella sativa (Seed)
Triticum dicoccon (G)
Rachilla fragments
Linum usitatissimum (Seed)
Fibre
Cumnium cyminum (Fruit)
Lupinus albus (Seed)
Lagenaria siceraria (Seed)
Allium cepa (scaly leaf)
Allium sativum (stemandroots)
Anethum graveolens (Fruit)
Sesamum indicum (Seed)
Vicia faba (Seed)
Cicer arietinum (Seed)
Piper nigrum (Seed)
Lathyrus sativus (Seed)
Trigonella foenum-graecum (Seed)
Oryza sativa (Grains)
Vigna radiata (Seed)
Coix lacryma-jobi (Grain)
Apium graveolens (Seed)
Cucumis melo/sativus (S)
Cichorium endivea (Seed)
Mentha sp. (Seed)
Ocimum basilicum (Seed)
Lactuca sativa (Seed)
Raphanus sativus (Seed)
Total number fragments
Total number species
Abu-Sha’ar
D
2
23
46
28
239
2
2
5
10
4
11
7
4
3
3
389
C
10
10
20
11
Lactuca sativa just recorded in Mons Porphyrites site;
seeds of Raphanus sativus just occured in Abu-Sha’ar
site (Table 2).
Edible fruit trees
Remains of edible fruits and seeds represent 4% of the
total remains and identified to 22 plant species; seven
Berenike
D
50
50
100
30
100
55
16
12
14
19
5
3
5
20
12
17
5
6
8
4
90
17
15
7
6
6
672
C
50
100
5
5
160
22
Mons
Claudianus
D
C
19
19
2132
572
126
167
488
116
100
86
412
231
101
1
49
5
94
2
61
57
17
62
2
8
5
2
3621
1313
12
Mons
Porphyrites
D
C
38
531
6621
2190
385
434
677
237
819
181
120
50
1
505
42
119
11
38
44
14
31
12
11
1
4
1
3
5
4
1
1
11
1
1
20
12
5
3
1
1
9606
3580
25
Total
719
11588
1358
1576
1258
854
282
665
198
134
119
107
107
22
23
20
10
23
21
21
17
14
13
9
8
4
90
17
15
12
6
6
20
12
5
3
1
1
3
19361
34
species of fruit trees are native to the Egyptian flora
(Phoenix dactylifera, Capparis spinosa, Balanites
aegyptiaca, Hyphaene thebaica, Ziziphus spina-christi,
Moringa peregrina and Pistacia khinjuk), and the rest
were cultivated or introduced from Mediterranean
regions, India or China. Remains of four trees were very
widespread in all sites, various parts of Phoenix
dactylifera were recorded by 24.4% of total fruit remains;
seeds and stalks of Vitis venifera represent 14% of total
122 Int. Res. J. Plant Sci.
Table 3. Numbers of remains and identified species of fruit trees (D. desiccated, C. carbonized).
Species \ Locality
Phoenix dactylifera (S)
Inflorescence fragments
Fruit
Perianth
Vitis venifera (Seed)
Stalks
Olea europaea (Stone)
Cordia myxa (seed)
Ficus carica (seed)
Capparis spinosa (Seeds)
Ziziphus spina-christi (Stone)
Punica granatum (Pericarp or seed)
Ficus sycomorus (Fruit)
Moringa peregrina (Seed)
Prunus dulcis (Stone)
Hyphaene thebaica (Fruit)
Corylus avellava (Stone)
Prunus persica (stones)
Pinus pinna (Seed)
Balanites aegyptiaca (pericarp)
Abrus sp. (Seed)
Malus domestica (Seed)
Cocus nucifera (Stone)
Juglans regia (Stone)
Citrus sp.
*Pistacia khinjuk (pericarp)
Total number fragments
Total number species
AbuSha’ar
D
C
150
22
6
11
11
1
8
2
3
15
10
4
4
7
1
1
255
1
13
fruit remains; stones of Olea europaea represent 7.8% of
total fruit remains; seeds of Cordia myxa represent 5.7%
of total fruit remains. Seeds of Ficus carica (25.1% of
total fruit remains) were the most common, while seeds
of Capparis spinosa (1.7% of total fruit remains) were
rare, the two former trees were represented in all sites
but not in Abu-Sha’ar site. Fruit remains of Ziziphus
spina-christi (2.6% of total fruit remains) and Punica
granatum (0.5% of total fruit remains) were recorded in all
sites but not Mons Claudianus. Fruits of Ficus sycomorus
(3.3% of total fruit remains) were identified from Mons
Porphyrites and Mons Claudianus sites. Seeds of
Moringa peregrina (0.3% of total fruit remains) were
recorded from Mons Porphyrites and Berenike sites.
Stones of four trees were rare (1.5-0.23% of total fruit
remains), they are recorded in the two coastal sites,
Prunus dulcis, Hyphaene thebaica, Corylus avellana and
Prunus persica. Remains of five trees were retrieved only
from Berenike site; seeds of Pinus pinna (5.5% of total
Berenike
D
95
3
2
22
66
55
43
15
44
6
2
18
20
12
1
88
88
18
5
4
607
C
15
44
33
92
18
Mons
Claudianus
D
C
93
10
9
2
108
10
20
23
3
299
20
2
14
568
45
7
Mons
Porphyrites
D
C
127
4
142
7
9
27
4
36
1
175
18
20
11
1
58
5
611
34
10
Total
494
25
8
11
300
9
173
126
555
37
57
10
72
7
33
30
16
5
121
88
18
5
4
7
1
1
2213
22
fruit remains), pericarp of Balanites aegyptiaca (4% of
total fruit remains), the non – edible poisnous seeds of
Abrus sp. (0.81% of total fruit remains), seeds of Malus
domestica (0.23% of total fruit remains) and stones of
Cocus nucifera (0.18% of total fruit remains). Very rare
fruit remains of Juglans regia, Pistacia khinjuk and
Citruss sp. were confined to Abu-Sha’ar site (Table 3).
Wood of introduced trees
Fragments of introduced wood were represened by
20.1% of total remains, they are atribbuted to 13 species.
Although wood of Quercus sp. was not common (0.8% of
total introduced wood remains), it is represented in all
sites. Wood of Pinus halepensis (5.6% of total introduced
wood remains) was recorded in all sites but not in Mons
Claudianus site. Wood of seven trees was restricted
in Berenike site, most of them are Indian or Africa trees,
Fadl 123
Table 4. Number of fragments and species of introduced wood (D. desiccated, C. carbonized).
Species \ Locality
Quercus sp.
Pinus halepensis
Tectonia grandis
Ulmus sp.
Bambusa sp.
Baikiaea/Petrocarpus type
Myrtus/Santalum type
Fagus sp
Vibrnum sp.
Cupressus sempervirens
Cedrus libani
Buxus sempervirens
Platanus sp.
Total number fragments
Total number species
Abu-Sha’ar
D
10
65
121
26
10
8
240
C
3
18
1
22
6
Berenike
D
50
500
10000
5
6
5
3
1
1
10571
9
Tectonia grandis was the most common (91.7% of total
introduced wood remains, 62.9% of the total remains in
the site); wood of Ulmus sp., Bambusa sp. and
Baikiaea/Petrocarpus type were rare; wood of
Myrtus/Santalum type, Fagus sp. and Vibrnum sp. were
very rare. Wood of four Mediterranean trees was
recorded from Abu-Sha’ar site only, wood of Cupressus
sempervirens (1.3% of total introduced wood remains)
was slightly common; wood of Cedrus libani (0.25% of
total introduced wood remains) was not common, wood
of Buxus sempervirens and Platanus sp. was rare.
Charred wood of introduced trees was rare, Tectonia
grandis, Pinus halepensis, Cupressus sempervirens,
Cedrus libani and Ulmus sp. were represented as
desiccated and carbonized wood (Table 4).
Wild plants
Wild plants are represented by 40.5% of total plant
remains attributed to 96 species. The collected remains
of wild species (wood, charcoal, seeds, fruits, leaves and
culms) belong to different habitats (marine, halophytes,
xerophytes and mesophytes).
Marine and halophytic plants
Remains of marine and halophytic plants represent 6.8%
of the total remains, attributed to 15 species; they were
mainly concentrated in the coastal sites; Abu-Sha’ar site
includes 13 species (repesent 50.6% of remains in the
site, 6.8% of the total remains), Berenike site includes 4
C
50
110
5
165
Mons
Claudianus
D
C
1
1
1
Mons
Porphyrites
D
C
29
2
31
2
Total
90
620
10110
10
6
5
3
1
1
139
27
10
8
11030
13
species (represent 10.4% of remains of the site, 3% of
the total remains). Remains of Avicennia marina were the
most common (69.4% of marine and halophyte remains,
4.6% of total remains); desiccated, charred wood,
branches and leaves were retrieved from Abu-Sha’ar and
Berenike archaeological sites, while leaves and their
fragments were just recorded in Abu-Sha’ar site. Wood of
Rhizophora mucronata (2.7% of marine and halophyte
remains) was recorded in Berenike only. Culm, leaves
and leaf fragments of Halophilla stipulaceae and
Cymodocea ciliata were just retrieved from Abu-Sha’ar
site. The inland sites include very low numbers of
halophytes; wood of Suaeda monoica (5.3% of marine
and halophyte remains) was retrieved from all sites
except Mons Porphyrites site, fruits of Cyperus laevigatus
(1.2% of marine and halophyte remains) were restricted
to the inland sites. Wood of Tamarix nilotica (1.2% of
marine and halophyte remains) was identified from the
coastal sites. Remains of six species were restricted to
Abu-Sha’ar archaeological site, wood and charrcoal of
Atriplex halimus and culm fragments of Juncus rigidus
were common and represented by 7.3% and 6.9% of
marine and halophyte remains respectively; remains of
Nitraria retusa (3.55% of marine and halophyte remains)
were slightly common; remains of Zygophyllym album
(0.9% of marine and halophyte remains) were rare, wood
of Tamarix passernoides and Halocnemum strobilaceum
were very rare (Table 5).
Xerophytes
Remains of desert plants represent 23.8% of the total
124 Int. Res. J. Plant Sci.
Table 5. Number of fragments and species of marine and halophytic plants. (D. desiccated, C. carbonized).
Species \ locality
Abu-Sha’ar
Berenike
C
500
50
Mons
Claudianus
D
C
-
Mons
Porphyrites
D
C
-
Marines
Avicennia marina (W)
Leaves
Rhizophora mucronata (W)
Halophilla stipulaceae
(Leaves and culm fragment)
Sargassum sp.
(Thallus fragment)
Turbinaria sp. (Thallus fragment)
Cymodocea ciliate (Leaves and
culm fragment)
Halophytes
Suaeda monoica (W)
Cyperus laevigatus (Fruits)
Tamarix nilotica (W)
Atriplex halimus (W)
Juncus rigidus (C)
Inflorescence fragment
Nitraria retusa (W)
Leaf
Zygophyllym album (W)
Fruit
Tamarix passernoides (W)
Halocnemum strobilaceum (W)
Total number fragments
Total number species
D
591
226
-
C
226
-
D
1000
50
62
-
29
12
7
76
25
174
246
5
96
12
9
5
4
2
1581
13
2317
226
100
-
-
-
-
-
-
62
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
29
12
7
36
9
99
6
25
20
421
5
1055
4
55
5
610
30
21
51
2
-
24
24
1
-
197
45
44
273
252
5
121
12
29
5
4
2
3742
15
remains, they are identified to 41 species (Table 6); these
remains were collected from different parts of the wadis
and plataeu. Remains of few species are represented in
both coastal and inland sites; wood of Acacia tortilis tree
(18.4% of the desert plant remains) and seeds of Citrullus
colocynthis (1.7% of the desert plant remains) were
widespread in all sites; wood of Capparis sinaica and
remains of Panicum turgidum were identified with low
frequency in all sites but not in Berenike; wood of
Ziziphus spina-christi and Salvadora persica were poorly
represented in Abu-Sha’ar and Mons Porphyrites
archaeological sites. In Mons Porphyrites and Mons
Claudianus inland sites, seeds of the undershrubs
Cleome droserifolia and Pulicaria crispa were the most
common and represented by 29.9% and 19.4% of the
desert plant remains respectively; seeds of Forsskaolea
sp. and Zilla spinosa were common and occurred by
10.9% and 8.6% of xerophyte remains respectively; also
seeds of eight associated plants were recorded by 1.80.4% of xerophyte remains, Aerva javanica, Citrullus
colocynthis, Cornulaca monacantha, Reseda pruinosa,
Heliotropium sp., Crypsis sp., Arnebia hispidissma and
Total
Solanum/Withania;
wood
remains
of
Leptadina
pyrotechnica (0.9% of xerophyte remains), Moringa
peregrina (0.41% of xerophyte remains) and Calligonum
comosum (0.03% of xerophyte remains) were restricted
to the inland sites; remains of Reseda pruinosa.
Anthemis
pseudocotula,
Trichodesma
africanum,
Ochradenus baccatus and Hyoscymus sp. were
restricted to Mons Porphyrites site and represented by
1.1% or less of xerophyte remains respectively. In AbuSha’ar and Berenike archaeological sites, wood of Acacia
tortilis tree was the most common (18.4% of the desert
plant remains); wood of Senna alexandrina and
Juniperus phoenicea trees were not often in the two
coastal sites. Remains of Anabasis articulata, Tamarix
aphylla, Fagonia mollis, F. glutinosa, Hyphaene thebaica,
Hammada sp., Abutilon fruticosum, Euphorbia retusa,
Ceratonia siliqua, Balanites aegyptiaca, Ficus palmata
and Calotropis procera were restricted to Abu-Sha’ar
archaeological site with frequency 0.3%-0.03 of desert
plant remains. Remains of Cocculus pendulus,
Commiphora sp. and Cordia sp. were rare and restricted
to Berenike archaeological site (Table 6).
Fadl 125
Table 6. Number of fragments and species of xerophytes (D. desiccated, C. carbonized).
Species \ locality
Abu-Sha’ar
Berenike
Acacia tortilis (S)
Wood
Citrullus colocynthis (seed)
Capparis sinaica (W)
Panicum turgidum (G)
Culm fragment
Ziziphus spina-christi (W)
Salvadora persica (W)
Cleome droserifolia (S)
Pulicaria crispa (S)
Forsskaolea sp. (S).
Zilla spinosa (S)
Aerva javanica (S)
Cornulaca monacantha (S)
Heliotropium sp. (S)
Leptadina pyrotechnica (W)
Crypsis sp. (S)
Arnebia hispidissima (S)
Moringa peregrina (W)
Solanum/Withania (S)
Calligonum comosum (W)
Reseda pruinosa (S)
Anthemis pseudocotula (F)
Trichodesma africanum (Seed)
Occhradenus baccatus (Seed)
Hyoscymus sp. (Seed)
Senna alexandrina (S)
Juniperus phoenicea (S)
Wood
Anabasis articulata (W)
Fagonia mollis (W)
Tamarix aphylla (W)
Hyphaene thebaica (W)
Leaf-fragments
Hammada sp. (W)
Abutilon fruticosum (W)
Fagonia glutinosa (W)
Euphorbia retusa (R)
Ceratonia siliqua (S)
Wood
Balanites aegyptiaca (W)
Ficus palmata (W)
Calotropis procera (W)
Cocculus pendulus (F)
Commiphora sp. (SandF)
Cordia sp. (S)
Total number fragments
Total number species
D
1
135
2
13
2
3
4
7
3
11
37
35
32
7
8
20
19
15
14
5
9
4
5
4
395
20
D
1
1000
16
16
2
20
4
4
1063
7
C
148
11
9
3
171
C
1000
1000
Mons
Claudianus
D
C
30
7
1
16
1
2121
39
643
8
68
7
191
257
42
9
55
114
74
8
20
37
3
23
1
14
9
2
3
3271
532
17
Mons
Porphyrites
D
C
81
34
155
3
1
2
2
1702
37
1854
31
1346
3
280
398
186
2
39
91
64
4
32
1
39
38
1
1
141
30
19
7
3
5777
849
22
Total
2
2394
215
32
4
3
17
9
3899
2536
1424
1126
237
171
121
111
108
57
53
50
4
141
30
19
7
3
19
2
11
37
35
32
16
8
20
19
15
14
5
9
7
5
4
20
4
4
13058
41
126 Int. Res. J. Plant Sci.
Mesophytic plants
Remains of mesophytic plants occurred by 9.8% of the
total remains, they were attributed to 40 species, most of
these are weeds in cultivations, canal banks or road
sides (Table 7). Mons Porphyrites archaeological site
includes 54.5% of remains of mesic plants (28 species);
Mons Claudianus archaeological site includes 35.1% of
remains of mesic plants (19 species). The coastal sites
include much less, Abu-Sha’ar archaeological site
includes 8.8% of mesic plants remains (16 species);
Berenike archaeological sites includes 1.7% of Nile
Valley plants remains (4 species). Remains of five weeds
were mainly concentrated in the quarry sites and weakly
extended to the coastal sites; the most important was
seeds of the field weed Brassica nigra (21.5% of mesic
remains), the most important remains of canal bank
plants were that of Imperata cylindrica (12.5% of mesic
remains), seed of Beta vulgaris were not common (1.6%
of mesic remains) and recorded in all sites but not AbuSha’ar, while grains of Phalaris minor and Avena sp.
were rare and retrieved from all sites but not Berenike. In
the two quarry sites remains of 23 mesic species are
recorded; seeds of Coronopus niloticus (19.6% of mesic
remains) were very widespread. Grain of Saccharum
spontaneum (6.5% of mesic remains), seeds of
Chenopodium murale (4.8% of mesic remains) and
Portulaca oleracea (4.4% of mesic remains) were
widespread; wood of Acacia nilotica tree (5.5% of mesic
remains) was common while that of Faidherbia albida
(1.58% of mesic remains) tree was not common; remains
of Brassica spp., Lepidium sativum, Phalaris sp., Beta
vulgaris, Raphanus raphinastrum, Chenopodium sp.,
Sorghum sp. and Malva sp. were common and occurred
by 2.5%-0.6% of mesic remains; seeds of Rumex sp.,
and fruits of Cyperus sp. and Eleocharis sp., were rare.
Remains of Phalaris paradoxa, Avena sterilis, Scripus
sp., Aizoon canarensis, Fumaria sp., Sonchus oleraceus
and Alisma sp. were rare (0.6% or less of mesic remains)
and confined to Mons Porphyrites archaeological site. In
the coastal sites remains of Phoenix dactylifera (7.9% of
mesic remains) was the most common while wood of
Salix tetraspermae was rare; remains of Ficus
sycomorous, Phragmites australis, Poypogon sp.,
Cynodon dactylon, Lolium sp., Desmostachya bipinnata,
Cyperus papyrus, Morus sp. and Typha domingensis
were rare (0.5% or less of mesic remains) and restricted
to Abu-Sha’ar archaeological site. Seeds of Vicia ervillia
were very rare and confined to Berenike archaeological
site (Table 7).
DISSCUSION
The assemblage of plant remains in the four sites
elaborates many activities and relations of the inhabitants
with their surroundings. The high number of fragments
and species in Mons Porphyrites was produced by the
rich supply of fragments of cultivated crops and their
associated weeds brought from the Nile valley, also
remains of desert plants around the site. The high
number of fragments in Berenike was enriched by the
large numbers of wood fragments of introduved wood
from India and Mediterranean countries, followed by
remains of desert and marine remains obtained from its
surroundings; although fruit remains were attributed to
high number of species, they constitute low percent of the
assemblage of the site, this is explained as the port was
a transtional site for commerce. The assemblage of AbuSha’ar site was dominated by marines and halophytes,
although the site has large number of fruit tres, Nile valley
weeds, the number of remains of thse plants contribute
weakly to the context, this indicates a weak relation with
the Nile valley and small scale of agriculture (Figure 2).
Food plants
Inhabitants of our studied sites consumed both local and
introduced crops, vegetables and fruits. Food plants in
different sites (especially staple food) were mostly
brought from the Nile valley as the environmental
conditions of these sites were not appropriate for growing
cultivated crops on large scale. Remains of the main
consumed staple food (Triticum durum, Hordeum vulgare
and Lens culinaris) are distributed in all sites and
concentrated mainly in Mons Porphyrites and Mons
Claudianus because the sites are quarries with many
workers who consumed large quantities of cereals and
legumes, also their working animals consumed large
quantities of wild weeds, remains of cereals and legumes
as fodder, also cereal chaff is used as mud temper (van
der Veen, 2007). Remains of Hordeum vulgare and Lens
culinaris were recorded from different archaeological
sites of Egypt from Prehistoric onwards (Täckholm et al.,
1941; Germer, 1985; van Zeist and de Roller, 1993;
Fahmy, 2005; Newton, 2004; Fadl, 2008 and 2009); T.
durum was introduced to Egypt by Romans, various
charred remains of macaroni/bread wheat were recorded
from Kellis, 300 A.D. (Thanheiser, 1999). Lens culinaris is
missed in Abu-Sha’ar site, legume supply may be
conpensated by Vicia faba and Cicer arietinum. The
presence of Triticum dicoccon in the coastal sites in high
proportion than the inland sites indicat that T. durum was
cultivated in the Nile valley, in the same time T. dicoccon
was cultivated in a small scales in the coastal sites as the
later is more tolerant to drought and salinity (National
Research Council, 1996). Remains of cultivated food
plants were plentifull in Mons Porphyrites, while in Mons
Claudianus cultivated plant remains were much less; this
variation may be explained as the occupation period in
Mons Claudianus was for a single period (from the midfirst to the early third century), while that at Mons
Porphyrites consisted of two distinct phases, the first from
Fadl 127
Table 7. Number of fragments and species of mesophytes (D. desiccated, C. carbonized).
Species \ locality
Brassica nigra (S)
Imperata cylinderica (Grain)
Rhizome
Beta vulgaris (S)
Phalaris minor (Grain)
Avena sp. (Grain)
Coronopus niloticus (Seed)
Saccharum spontaneum (Grain)
Acacia nilotica (W)
Chenopodium murale (S)
Portulaca oleracea (S)
Brassica spp. (S)
Lepidium sativum (S)
Phalaris sp. (S)
Faidherbia albida (W)
Raphanus raphanistrum (S)
Sorghum sp. (Grain)
Chenopodium sp. (S).
Malva sp. (S)
Rumex sp. (S)
Cyperus sp. (Nutlet)
Eleocharis sp. (Nutlet)
Phalaris paradoxa (Spikelet)
Scripus sp. (Nutlet)
Aizoon canariensis (Seed)
Avena sterilis (Grain)
Fumaria sp. (Seed)
Sonchus oleraceus (Achene)
Alisma sp. (Seed)
Phoenix dactylifera (W)
Leaf-fragments
Rope of fibres
*Salix tetrasperma (W)
Ficus sycomorus (W)
Phragmites australis (C)
Rhizome
Typha domingensis (C)
Rhizome fragment
Cyperus papyrus (C)
*Morus sp. (W)
Polypogon sp. (C)
Grain
(R)
*Cynodon dactylon
*Lolium sp.(Grain)
Desmostachya bipinnata
(Rhizome)
Vicia ervillia (Seed)
Total number of fragments
Total number of species
Abu-Sha’ar
Berenike
D
3
7
6
1
16
298
9
6
21
25
1
5
2
4
4
2
1
1
1
1
C
40
3
7
-
D
22
50
5
3
5
-
C
5
-
414
16
50
3
88
4
5
Mons
Claudianus
D
C
654
75
27
33
226
11
208
92
46
1
113
61
19
65
34
61
5
81
17
2
21
6
1
1
12
2
6
5
-
Mons
Porphyrites
D
C
398
26
616
19
28
2
14
11
4
4
771
42
140
2
205
199
14
123
53
34
14
11
1
39
1
30
38
6
16
16
4
1
12
4
1
19
6
2
1
1
1
1
-
1156
643
26
85
31
9
1050
350
297
260
236
133
133
91
82
59
51
51
33
19
18
10
19
6
2
1
1
1
1
111
303
12
14
28
25
1
5
2
4
4
2
1
1
1
1
1562
19
2587
28
3
5372
40
323
343
Total
128 Int. Res. J. Plant Sci.
Figure 2. Histogram showing the studies sites and number of remains of different
categories.
Table 8. Numbers of common charred and desiccated wood fragments (D. desiccated, C. carbonized).
Species \ Locality
Abu-Sha’ar
Tectonia grandis
Acacia tortilis
Avicennia marina
Pinus halepensis
Acacia nilotica
Faidherbia albida
Atriplex halimus
Suaeda monoica
Cupressus sempervirens
Phoenix dactylifera
Rhizophora mucronata
Quercus sp.
Nitraria retusa
Moringa peregrina
Tamarix nilotica
Zygophyllym album
Ficus sycomorus
Cedrus libani
Ziziphus spina-christi
Hyphaene thebaica
Salix tetrasperma
Total number of fragments
D
135
591
65
174
76
121
16
10
54
25
9
21
26
5
8
9
1345
C
148
226
3
99
36
18
40
25
9
20
7
1
11
9
3
655
Berenike
%C
22.6
34.5
0.5
15.1
5.5
2.8
6.1
0
3.8
1.4
3.1
1.1
0.2
1.8
1.4
0.5
32.8
the early first to late second/early third century A.D., the
second from the fourth to early fifth century A.D.; Mons
Claudianus represents a nucleated settlement, while that
at Mons Porphyrites was dispersed, with occupation split
between the fort in the Wadi Abu Ma’amel and a varying
number of outlying quarry villages (Van der Veen and
Tabinor, 2007). The presence of large number of spices
and condiments (Carthamus tinctorius, Coriandrum
sativum, Trachyspermum copticum, Foeniculum vulgare
D
10000
1000
1000
500
50
50
50
5
5
12660
C
110
1000
500
50
55
5
50
5
1775
%C
6.2
56.3
28.2
2.8
3.1
0.3
2.8
0
0.3
0
12.3
Mons
Claudianus
D
C
%C
30
13.8
92
42.2
81
37.2
30 0
1
0.5
14
6.4
30 218 87.9
Mons
Porphyrites
D C
%C
- - 81
22
- - 2
0.5
- 205 55.7
- 1
0.3
- - - - - - 29
7.9
- - 39
10.6
- - - - - 2
0.5
- - - 368 100
and Nigella sativa) in the quarry sites refers to the much
care and good quality of foods for the inhabitants of the
sites. In Berenike most of foodstaff were introduced from
India, Oryza sativa, Sesamum indicum, Piper nigrum,
Coix lacryma-jobi and Vigna radiata (Vermeeren and
Cappers 1997/2002; Wendrich et al., 2003), these
cultivated species are not recorded in any other Egyptian
archaeological site, so it is very propable they were
transported from India to other regions outside Egypt, but
Fadl 129
the presence of carbonized remains of rice indicates a
local use in the site (Van der Veen, 2007). Species
restricted to Mons Porphyrites as Apium graveolens,
Cucumis melo/sativus were used as vegetables or
complementary food; the few number of seeds of
Cichorium endivea, Mentha sp., Ocimum basilicum and
Lactuca sativa may be brought to the site as
contamination with the staple food.
Native or locally cultivated fruit trees were the most
used by inhabitants of inland sites, fruits and other
remains of the local tree Phoenix dactylifera (date palm)
were very common, they are identified in many
archaeological sites from Predynastic onwords all over
Egypt (De Vartavan, 1999; Fadl, 2008 and 2009); date
palm has a wide ecolgical scope, so it is very widespread
in various habitats (Abd El Rahman et al., 1965; Boulos,
2005). Stones of the native holy tree Ziziphus spinachristi were recorded recorded from Predynastic
Hierakonpolis, 3500 B.C. (Fadl, 2008) and from Dynastic
grave of Tutankhamun, 1323 B.C. (De Vartavan, 1999),
sidder grows in the Nile valley and in wadis and plains of
various deserts in Egypt (Boulos, 2000); seeds of the
native Capparis spinosa were recorded in Roman time
onword (Vermeeren and Cappers, 1997/2002; Wendrich
et al., 2003), fruits of this plant were collected from the
cliffs and on rocky slopes of the desert wadis, where it
grows (Boulos, 1999; Zahran and Willis, 2009); Fruits of
Hyphaene thebaica were collected from wadis
downstreams of the Red Sea mountains where it grows
(Boulos, 2005; Zahran and Willis, 2009); baskets and its
remains of leaflets and midrib of leaves of doum palm
were recorded in Predynastic Hierakonpolis (El-Hadidi,
1982; Fadl, 2008), from the Pharaonic Dier-El-Medina
(Schiemann, 1941). Pericarps of Balanites aegyptiaca
are identified only from Berenike site, the natural habitat
of this tree is the wadis in the South of Egypt (Shaltout et
al., 2009), so it may be collected and perpared to export
outside Egypt; seeds and fruits of Balanites aegyptiaca
were recorded in Predynastic Hierakonpolis (Fadl, 2008),
from Potlemic-Roman El Gebelen (Täckholm et al.,
1941), and one seed was identified from Dynastic Kharga
Oasis (Barakat and Baum, 1992). Seeds of Moringa
peregrina were collected from their natural habitat is the
elavated mountains of the Red sea around the sites
(Zahran and Willis, 2009). Ficus sycomorus (sycamore
fig) was cultivated in Egypt since predynastic time, it is of
southern Arabian and east tropical African origin (ElHadidi and Boulos, 1988), wood of sycamore fig was of
common use in ancient Egypt and recorded from
Predynastic Hierakonpolis (Fadl, 2008), and from
Dynastic Tutankhamun tomb, 1323 B.C. (De Vartavan,
1999). Many Mediterranean and Syrian fruit trees are
introduced and cultivated in various regions of Egypt;
Ficus carica was the most common, its remains are
recorded from Romanic times onword (Cappers, 1999;
Van der Veen, 1999; Vermeeren, 1999); Seeds of Vitis
venifera and stones of Olea europaea were introduced
and cultivated in Egypt from late Pharonic times, the
oldest recorded of olive (charred stones) in Egypt were
from Memphis at 1802-1640 B.C (Murray, 2000),
desiccated stones were recorded from predynastic
Hierakonpolis but considered as contamination (Fadl,
2008), olive was cultivated in Egypt about 500 B.C
(Newton et al., 2006). Also seeds of the cultivated tree
Cordia myxa were common in all sites; it wa srecorded
since Roman times (Cappers, 1999). Fruits of Punica
granatum were recorded in Egypt since Roman time
onword (Cappers, 1999; Van der Veen, 1999) both trees
are grown in the Nile Valley. Olea europaea, Vitis
venifera Corylus avellana, Prunus persica, P. dulcis,
Citrus sp., Juglans regia and Punica granatum are fruit
trees of Mediterranean origin, they were recorded in the
Roman Forts (Berenike) in the south and (Abu-Sha’ar) in
the north of Egypt (Vermeeren and Cappers, 1997/2002;
Fadl, 2009); all the above mentioned Mediterranean and
Indian fruit trees were introduced and cultivated in the
Roman times onwords (Kroll, 2001; Wendrich et al.,
2003; Fadl, 2009). Introduced fruits were mainly
consumed by coastal sites inhabitants; seeds of Pinus
pinna and Malus domestica are recorded only in Berenike
site so it may be introduced to the site for local use or to
re-export outside Egypt; stones of Cocus nucifera were
imported from India and China (Cappers, 1999); seeds
the non – edible poisnous tropical tree Abrus sp. are
used as antimalari in Zambia (Fowler, 2006).
Wild plants
Remains of wild plants retrieved from different sites gived
us an elaborated picture about the vegetation and flora of
the eastern desert, also about weeds grow in the Nile
valley, in the time of occupation of the sites; in the coastal
sites remains belong to various surrounding habitats (sea
coast, wadis, plains or plataeu) while that of inland sites
are native to the surrounding habitats or brought from the
Nile Valley. Marine remains are restricted to and
dominant in Berenike and Abu-Sha’ar coastal sites;
halophytic remains are mainly concentrated in the coastal
sites; but seeds of Cyperus laevigatus were recorded
from Claudianus and Mons Porphyrites, this small sedge
grows in the salinized areas formed around small water
bodies (wells and springs) in the deserts (Zahran and
Willis, 2009); wood of Suaeda monoica were brought to
Mons Claudianus from the coastal areas, where its
natural habitats (Zahran and Willis, 2009). Rhizophora
sp. was restricted to Berenike site, as it grows in the
southern parts of the Red Sea coast (Zahran and
Mashaly, 1991). Abu-Sha’ar is very close to Red Sea so
the assembage of marines and halophytes were the most
dominant.
The desert vegetation in Berenike and Abu-Sha’ar
sites was dominated by Acacia tortilis which constitutes
the top layer, it grows in the deep beds of the surrounding
130 Int. Res. J. Plant Sci.
wadis (Fadl, 1999), in Berenike wood of this tree was the
most common, it grows in the elevated areas in the south
which has humid climate enhanced by orographic rains
(Kassas, 1953). Reconstruction of vegetation of AbuSha’ar site shows that species composition was rich and
elaborated, Tamarix aphylla, Senna alexandrina,
Hyphaene thebaica and Balanites aegyptiaca contribute
to tree layer in the deep soil areas, the species are
recorded in the south of the eastern desert of Egypt
(Sheded, 2002; Zahran and Willis, 2009); shrubs and
undershrub layer was represented by Anabasis articulata,
Hammada sp, Panicum turgidum and Abutilon
fruticosum; ground layer was contributed by Citrullus
colocynthis, Fagonia mollis, Fagonia glutinosa and
Euphorbia retusa, similar species were recorded from
wadi Araba in the north of Eastern desert (Fadl, 1999;
Zahran and Willis, 2009). Fruits and seeds of
Commiphora sp., Cordia sp., and Cocculus pendulus
were just recorded in Berenike, they grow in the elevated
mountains in the south which has humid climate
(Sheded, 2002); the structure of desert vegetation is
more illustrated and elaborated than halophtic or
hydrophytic vegetation (Kassas and Zahran, 1971;
Woldewahid et al., 2007). Reconstruction of vegetation in
Mons Claudianus and Mons Porphyrites revealed that the
desert shrubs and undershrubs that grow in small wadis
form the general features of that vegetation (dry desert
vegetation) dominated by small shrubs (30-150cm high)
like Cleome droserifolia, Pulicaria crispa, Forsskaolea
sp., Zilla spinosa, Aerva javanica, Cornulaca
monacantha, Heliotropium sp. and Arnebia hispidissima
(Fossati et al., 1998; Sheded, 2002); the ground layer (<
30cm high) was dominated by Citrullus colocynthis,
Reseda
pruinosa,
Crypsis
sp.
and
Anthemis
pseudocotula; belong highlands of wadis upstream,
remains of few small trees were collected as Leptadina
pyrotechnica, Moringa peregrina, Capparis sinaica and
Salvadora persica (Sheded, 2002).
Distribution of plant remains from the mesic Nile
valley can explain the mode of life of the inhabitants in
the four sites and their relations to the Nile valley; large
numbers of seeds and fruits of many water loving plants
species were retrieved from Mons Porphyrites, also from
Mons Claudianus; the most common weeds recorded in
the two sites are Brassica nigra, Coronopus niloticus,
Imperata
cylinderica,
Saccharum
spontaneum,
Chenopodium murale, Portulaca oleracea, Brassica spp.,
Lepidium sativum, Phalaris sp. Beta vulgaris, Raphanus
raphanistrum, Sorghum sp., Chenopodium sp., Malva sp.
and Phalaris minor. The above species are weeds either
in cultivations or in canal banks (El-Hadidi, 1993a), they
could not grows in such very dry localities; they are
brought from the Nile Valley (El-Hadidi and Kosinova,
1971) as contamination with food plants or as a fodder for
animals. The large number of charred wood of Acacia
nilotica, and Faidherbia albida indicates that these trees
were brought from their natural habitats in the Nile Valley
(El-Desouky, 1982) as a fire source.
In Abu-Sha’ar site although there are large number
mesic species, the number of remains were few, the
climate, the wells and cistern constructed there, all these
indicate that agriculture was practiced on small scale in
this area (El-Hadidi, 1993b; Sidebotham et al., 1987).
Phoenix dactylifera, Phragmites australis, Salix
tetrasperma, Typha domingensis, Imperata cylinderica,
Desmostachya bipinnata and Morus sp. may grow
around the wells and cisterns in this semiarid region.
Brassica nigra, Phalaris minor, Avena sp., Polypogon sp.,
Cynodon dactylon and Lolium sp. are weeds grow inside
the limited cultivated areas (Fadl, 1999). Wood of Ficus
sycomorus and culm of Cyperus papyrus are transported
from Abu-Sha’ar to the Nile valley as the habitat is not
suitable for their growth. In Berenike, remains of just 4
species were recorded, Phoenix dactylifera can grow
near wells or in the wadis downstream, Beta vulgaris,
Salix tetrasperma and Vicia ervillia may be grow in the
site or brought from outside but the absence of most field
weed remains indicate that agriculture was not practiced
in this area.
Comparing flora and vegetation of the Eastern desert
of Egypt in time of study with the present vegetation show
that no drastic changes in climate and flora in the last
1300 year. While in the Nile valley there are strong
changes in vegetation occurred as the extinction of some
wild plants as Cyperus papyrus.
Timber and firewood resources
Introduced wood represents 20.1% of the total plant
remains, it represented the main timber resource in the
coastal sites. Berenike archaeological site included
97.3% of introduced wood identified to 9 species. Four
species constitute the main bulk of these fragments,
Tectonia grandis, Pinus halepensis, Cupressus
sempervirens and Quercus sp.; although wood of
Tectonia grandis (teak) was the most widespread wood
(91.7% of introduced wood, 18.5% of total remains), it is
restricted to Berenike archaeological site, it occurred as
worked wood, remains of barriels and ships (Vermeeren,
2000), teak wood was used as fuel by 6.2% of charred
wood in Berenike, this tree is native and introduced from
India (Ko Ko Gyi, 1972) to Europe as this wood is not
recorded in the other Egyptian archaeological sites. The
introduced wood of Pinus halepensis occurred in
Berenike and Abu-Sha’ar archaeological sites, wood of
Cupressus sempervirens occurred in Abu-Sha’ar
archaeological site, these woods are rarely used as fire
wood (Table 8), they are known in Egypt since
Predynastic, in Roman time it became very widespread in
Egypt (De Vartavan, 1999; Fadl, 2008). Quercus sp. is
a Mediterranean tree native to west Europe, west Africa
Fadl 131
and Iran (Davis, 1965–1988), its wood is recorded in our
studied sites but in low frequency. Pinus halepensis,
Buxus sempervirens, Ulmus sp. and Platanus sp. are
Mediterranean trees (Barbero et al., 1998; Browicz and
Zielinski, 1984; Davis, 1965–1988), the relation between
the Red Sea coastal ports, Syrian and other
Mediterranean countries is clear. Bambusa sp. is an
Indian and African tree (Saldanha, 1984 and 1996);
Baikiaea/Petrocarpus type, Myrtus/Santalum type, are
tropical African trees (Cowling et al., 1997).
Wood of Avicennia marina was the main source of
fuel in Abu-Sha’ar followed by Acacia tortilis and Atriplex
halimus; in Berenike wood of Acacia tortilis was the main
source of fuel followed by Avicennia marina. In Mons
Claudianus Acacia nilotica was the main source of fuel
followed by Faidherbia albida and Acacia tortilis trees;
while in Mons Porphyrites wood of Faidherbia albida was
the main fire resource followed by Acacia tortilis and
Moringa peregrina (native to Red Sea mountains). In the
inland sites the inhabitants used dehusked remaind of
barley and wheat as fire enhancer, this was a common
practice in the dry habitats (Van der Veen, 2007). Using
of charred remains to reconstruct past vegetation may
be not accurate as some wood as that of Salix is
converted completely to ash (Asouti et. al., 1999).
REFERENCES
Abd El Rahman AA, Shalaby AF, Balegh MS, El Monayari M (1965).
Hydroecology of Date palm under desert conditions. Bull. Fac. Sci.
Cairo Univ. 40: 55-71
Abu Al-Izz MS (1971). Landforms of Egypt. Translated by Dr.Yusuf, A.
Fayed. The American Univ. in Cairo Press, Cairo, Egypt, 281 pp.
Asouti E, Fairbairn A, Hastorf C, Kennedy A, Near J, Rosen A (1999).
Archaeobotany and related studies. In: Hodder, J.andCatalhöyük
Research Trust (eds.). Catalhöyük 1999 Archive Report.
http://catal.arch.com.ac.uk/Archive_rep99.
Barakat H, Baum N (1992). La vegetation Antiquue de Douch. Une
approchemacrobotanique (Douch II), IFAO, le Caire.
Barbero M, Loisel R, Quezel P (1998). Pines of the Mediterranean
Basin. In: Richardson, D.M. (ed.). Ecology and biogeography of
Pinus. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. p. 153–170.
Boulos L (1999). Flora of Egypt, vol.1. Al-Hadara Publ., Cairo, Egypt.
Boulos L (2000). Flora of Egypt, vol.2. Al-Hadara Publ., Cairo, Egypt.
Boulos L (2002). Flora of Egypt, vol.3. Al-Hadara Publ., Cairo, Egypt.
Boulos L (2005). Flora of Egypt, vol.4. Al-Hadara Publ., Cairo, Egypt.
Browicz K, Zielinski J (1984). Chorology of trees and shrubs in
southwest Asia and adjacent regions. Polish Scientific
Publishers,Warsaw
Cappers RTJ (1999). Trade and subsistence at the Roman port
Berenike, Red Sea coast, Egypt. In: van der Veen, M. (ed.). The
exploitation of plant resources in ancient Africa. Kluwer/Plenum, New
York, pp. 185-197.
Chapman, V. J. (ed.): Wet Coastal Ecosystems, Elsevier, Amesterdam.
Cope TA, Hosni HA (1991). A key to the Egyptian Grasses. Royal
Botanic Gardens, KewandCairo Univ. Herb.
Cowling RM, Richardson DM, Pierce SM (1997). Vegetation of southern
Africa. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
Davis PH (1965–1988). Flora of Turkey and the East Aegean Islands.
Vol. 1 (1965); Vol. 2 (1967); Vol. 3 (1970); Vol. 4
(1972);
Vol. 5 (1975); Vol. 6 (1978); Vol. 7 (1982); Vol. 8 (1984); Vol. 9
(1988). Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh
De Varatavan C (1999). Hidden fields of Tutankhamun. From identification
to interpretation of newly discovered plant materials from the Pharo’s
grave. London. Egyptian Eastern Desert, including excavations at Wadi
Kalalat. Leiden, Research School . pp. 311-342.
El-Desouky FA (1982). Studies on the Acacia species in Aswan region.
Unpublished M. Sc. Thesis, Fac. Sci. (Aswan); Assiut Univ.
El-Hadidi MN (1982). The Predynastic Flora of Heirakonpolis region. In:
Hoffman, M.A. (ed.). The Predynastic of Heirakonpolis-an interium
Report, Egypt Stud. Assoc.1. Cairo Univ. Herb. and Depart. of
Sociology and Anthropology, Illionios-USA. PP 102-115.
El-Hadidi MN (1993a). Natural vegetation. In: Graig, G.M. (ed.). The
Agriculture of Egypt: 39-63. Oxford Univ. Press.
El-Hadidi MN (1993b). A historical flora of Egypt: a preliminary survey. In:
Davis,
El-Hadidi MN (2000). Flora Aegyptiaca, vol.1. The Palm Press, Cairo,
Egypt.
El-Hadidi MN, Amer WA (1996). The Palaeoethonbotany of Abu-Sha’ar
site (400-700 A.D.), Red Sea; Egypt. I. Food plants and related
industries. Taeckholmia 16: 31-44.
El-Hadidi MN, Amer WA, Waly NM (1997). Catalogue of the
Archaeobotanical Specimens in Cairo University Herbarium.I. AbuSha’ar site, Red Sea coast- Egypt; season 1991. Taeckholmia 17: 4760.
El-Hadidi MN, Boulos L (1988). The Street Trees of Egypt. The American
Univ. in Cairo Press.
El-Hadidi MN, El-Fayoumi HH (1996). Catalogue of the Archaeobotanical
Specimens in Cairo University Herbarium. I. Abu-Sha’ar site, Red Sea
coast-Egypt; season 1990. Taeckholmia 16: 11-30.
El-Hadidi MN, Fayed AA (1978). Studies on the genus Euphorbia in Egypt.
II.Systematic treatment. Taeckholmia 9: 9-57.
El-Hadidi MN, Kosinova J (1971). Studies on the weed flora of cultivated
lands of Egypt. I. Preliminary survey. Mitt. Bot. Staatssamml. 10: 354367.
El-Hadidi MN, Waly NM (1991). Wood anatomy of some Egyptian woody
perennials and its adaptation to environmental conditions. Taeckholmia
13: 43-52.
Fadl M (1999). Plant life in Wadi Araba area, Eastern Desert. Unpublished
M. Sc. Thesis, Fac. Sci. at Beni-Suef , Cairo University, Egypt.
Fadl M (2008). Analysis of Plant macro-remains from Al Kom Al Ahmar in
upper Egypt. Ph.D. Thesis (unpublished), Fac. Sci. Beni-Suef Univ.,
Egypt.
Fadl M (2009). Ethnobotany of Abu-Sha’ar archaeological site (Red Sea
Coast at 300-700 A.D.). A contribtion to archaeobotany in Egypt. Assuit
Univ. Jour. of Botany 38(1): 205-222.
Fahmy AG (1995). A historical flora of Egypt, preliminary survey.
Ph.D.Thesis (unpublished), Fac. Sci. Cairo Univ., Egypt.
Fahmy AG (2005). Missing plant macro remains as indicator of plant
exploitation in Predynastic Egypt. Veget. Hist. and Archaeobot. 14:287294.
Fahn A (1982). Plant Anatomy, third edition, Pergamon Press.
Fahn A, Werker E, Baas P (1986). Wood Anatomy and Identification of
Trees and Shrubs of Israel and Adjacent Regions. Israel Academy of
Sciences and Humanities-Jerusalem.
Fossati J, Pautou G, Peltier JP (1998). Wadi vegetation of the NorthEastern desert of Egypt. Feddes Repertorium 109 (3 -4): 313- 327
Fowler DG (2006). Traditional Fever remedies: a list of Zambian plants.
Monographs from the International African Institute, 8. (Hamburg: LitVerlag)
Germer R (1985). Flora des pharaonisches Ägypten. Verlag Philip von
Zabren, Mainz.
Greiss EI (1957). Anatomical Identification of some ancient Egyptian
materials. Mem. Inst. Egypt: 55.
Kassas M (1956). The mist oasis of Erkwit, Sudan. J. Ecology 44: 180194.
Kassas M, Zahran MA (1971). Plant life on the coastal mountains of the
Red Sea, Egypt. J. Ind. Bot. Soc. Golden Jubilee Volume 50A, 571-589.
Keimer L (1984). Die Gartenpflanzen im alten Ägypten Band II.
Herausgegeben von R. Germer. Verlag Philipp Von Zabern. Mainz.
Ko Ko Gyi (1972). An investigation of factors rele.ant to development of
teak plantations in South-East Asia with particular reference to Burma.
M.Sc. Thesis, ANU, Canberra.
Kroll H (2001). Literature on archaeological remains of cultivated plants
(1999/2000). Veget. Hist. and Archaeobot. 10: 33-60.
Moreau RE (1938). Climatic classification from the standpoint of East
132 Int. Res. J. Plant Sci.
African biology. J. Ecol. 26: 467–496.
morphological analysis of olive stones. Antiquity 80: 1-10.
Murray MA (2000). Fruits, vegetables, pulses and condiments. In:
Nicholson, P. andShaw, I. (eds.). Ancient Egyptian Materials and
Technology. Pp. 609-650. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
Naser AH (1947). Synopsis of the marine algae of the Egyptian Red
Sea Coast. Bull. Fac. Sci. Cairo Univ. No. 26: 1-156.
National Research Council (1996). Lost Crops of Africa. Vol. 1: Grains.
National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.
Neumann K, Schoch W, Détienne P, Schweingruber FH, Richter HG
(2001). Woods of the Sahara and the Sahel, Haupt, Berlin.
Newton C (2004). Plant tempering of Predynastic pise at Adamїa in
Upper Egypt: Bulding material and taphonomy. Veget. Hist. and
Archaeobot. 13: 5-64.
Newton C, Terral J-F, Ivorra S (2006). The Egyptian olive (Olea
europaea subsp. europaea) in the later first millennium B.C.: origin
and history using the
Saldanha CJ (1984). Flora of Karnataka, Vol I. Oxford and IBH, New
Delhi
Saldanha CJ (1996). Flora of Karnataka, Vol II. Oxford and IBH, New
Delhi
Schiemann E (1941). Pflanzenfunde aus Der el-Medina. Mitt. Deutsch.
Instit. Ägyptischen Alt Kunde. 2, Berlin.
Shaltout K H, Sheded M G, Salem AH (2009). Population structure of
common shrubs and trees in Wadi Allaqi Biosphere Reserve, SouthEast Egypt. Feddes Repertorium 120 (5–6): 343–354.
Sheded M (2002). Vegetation Analysis in the South Eastern Part in the
Southern Eastern Desert of Egypt. OnLine Journal of Biological
Sciences 2(9): 573-581.
Sidebotham SE, Riley JA, Hamroush HA, Barakat H (1987). Fieldwork
on the Red Sea Coast : The 1987 Season. JARCE 26: 127-132.
Sidebotham SE, Sidebotham S (2002). Late Roman Berenike. Journal
of the American Research Center in Egypt 39: 217-240.
Täckholm G, Täckholm V, Drar M (1941). Flora of Egypt, volume 1. Bull.
Fac. Sci. Fouad I University 17.
Täckholm V (1974). Student Flora of Egypt. 2nd .ed., Cairo Univ. Press.
Thanheiser U (1999). Plant remains from Kellis: first results. In: Hope,
C.andMills, A. (eds.) Dakhleh Oasis Project: preliminary reports on
the 1992-1993 and 1993-1994 field seasons. Oxbow, Oxford, pp 8993.
UNESCO (1977). Map of the world distribution of arid regions. Map
Technical Notes, 7.
Van der Veen M (1996). The plant remains from Mons Claudianus, a
Roman in the Eastern Desert of Egypt - an interim report. Veget. Hist.
and Archaeobot. 5: 137-141.
Van der Veen M (1999). The food and fodder supply to Roman quarry
settlements in the Eastern Desert of Egypt. In: van der Veen, M.
(ed.). The exploitation of plant resources in ancient Africa.
Kluwer/Plenum, New York, pp. 171-183.
Van der Veen M (2001). The botanical evidence. In: Maxfield,
V.A.andPeacock, D.P.S.(eds.). Survey and Excavations at Mons
Claudianus 1987-1993. The Excavations: Part 1, Documents de
Fouilles 43, vol. 2. Institut Francais d’Arche´ologie Orientale du Caire,
Cairo, pp. 174-247.
Van der Veen M (2007). Formation processes of desiccated and
carbonized plant remains – the identification of routine practice.
Journal of Archaeological Science 34: 968-990.
Van der Veen M, Hamilton-Dyer S (1998). A life of luxury in the desert?
The food and fodder supply to Mons Claudianus. Journal of Roman
Archaeology 11, 101-116.
Van der Veen M, Tabinor H (2007). Food, fodder and fuel at Mons
Porphyrites. In: Peacock, D.andMaxfield, V. (eds.). The botanical
evidence in the Roman imperial quarries survey and excavation at
Mons Porphyrites 1994-1998.
Van Zeist W, De Roller GJ (1993). Plant remains from Maadi, a
Predynastic site in Lower Egypt. Veget. Hist. and Archaeobot. 2:1-14.
Vermeeren CE (1999). The use of imported and local wood species at
the Roman port of Berenike, Red Sea coast, Egypt. In: van der Veen,
M. (ed.). The exploitation of plant resources in ancient Africa.
Kluwer/Plenum, New York, pp. 199-204
Vermeeren CE (2000). Wood and charcoal. In: Sidebotham,
S.andWendrich, W.Z. (eds.). Berenike 98. Report of 1998
excavations at Berenike and the survey of the
Vermeeren CE, Cappers RTJ (1997/2002). Ethnographic and
archaeobotanic evidence of local cultivation of plants in Roman
Berenike and Shenshef (Red Sea coast, Egypt). BIA Xiaal 140: 1-14.
Waly NM (1996). Identified Wood Specimens from Tut Ankh Amon
Furnerary Furniture.Taeckholmia 16: 61-74.
Waly NM (1999). Wood anatomical characters of the Egyptian Tamarix
L. species and its taxonomic significance. Taeckholmia 19(2):115126.
Wendrich WZ, Tomber RS, Sidebotham SE, Harrell JA, Cappers RTJ,
Bangall RS (2003). Berenike Crossroads: The Integration of
Information. Excavating the Relations between Archaeology and
History in the Study of PreModern Asia [Part 2]. Journal of the
Economic and Social History of the Orient 46 (1): 46-87.
Wheeler EA, Baas P, Gasson PE (1989). IAWA list of microscopic
features for hard wood identification. IAWA Bull. 10(3): 219-332.
Woldewahida G, Van der Werfb 1W, Sykorac K, Abated T, Mostofae B,
Van Huisa A (2007). Description of plant communities on the Red
Sea coastal plain of Sudan. Journal of Arid Environments 68: 113–
131.
Zahran M (1977). Africa. A. Wet formations of the African Red Sea
coast. In:
Zahran M, Mashaly IA (1991). Ecological notes on the flora of the Red
Sea coastal land of Egypt. Bull. Fac. Sci. Mansoura Univ., 18 (2):
251-292.
Zahran MA, Willis AJ (2009). The Vegetation of Egypt. Chapman and
Hall. Publ. London.